1

MATADOR SPECIAL ISSUE

Effect of Orientation, Thickness and Composition on Properties of
Ductile Iron Castings
Vasudev D. Shinde
1, +,
B. Ravi
2
and K. Narasimhan
3
1) PhD Research Scholar, Department of Metallurgical Engineering & Materials Science, Indian
Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai-400076 (India) shinde@iitb.ac.in ,
vasu.metal@gmail.com
+ Corresponding author. Tel.:+912225764399; Fax: +912225726875;
2) Professor, Department of Mechanical engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Mumbai-400076 (India) b.ravi@iitb.ac.in
3) Professor, Department of Metallurgical Engineering & Materials Science, Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay, Mumbai-400076 (India) nara@iitb.ac.in
Abstract
In this work, the effects of casting orientation (horizontal, side and vertical), section thickness
(4-16 mm) and composition (Cu, Mn) were investigated on the cooling rate, microstructure and
mechanical properties (tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, hardness) of hypereutectic
ductile iron castings. Overall, horizontal castings were found to cool faster than side and
vertical oriented castings. Thermal analysis (using cooling curves) showed a wide difference
among the four sections. Thinner sections exhibited significant undercooling and thereby
carbide formation, leading to poor ductility. The combined effect of Cu and Mn showed an
increase in amount of pearlite to 82% and nodularity to 94% along with a reduction in nodule
count to 323 and amount of ferrite. Also, increased tensile strength (659 MPa) and hardness
(264 BHN) were observed along with a drop in ductility to 2.5% in 4 mm thin section, which
helps offset carbide formation. Thermal analysis was found to be a useful tool in understanding
the combined effect of orientation, thickness variations and processing parameters.
Keywords: Thin wall, ductile iron, solidification, inoculation, microstructure
1. Introduction:
Ductile iron provides a range of mechanical properties, often comparable to steels,
while having good castability [1]. It is therefore gradually replacing forged and welded
components in automobiles [2]. Since castings now constitute a significant proportion
of vehicle weight, manufacturers are increasingly redesigning the parts with thinner
2

walls to reduce the total weight [3]. The challenge is to obtain the desired combination
and values of mechanical properties [4].

The properties of as-cast ductile iron are largely controlled by chemical composition,
melt treatment and cooling rate [5]. Melt treatment includes the addition of magnesium
alloy followed by inoculation to increase the nodule count and to suppress carbide
formation [6]. The magnesium treatment eliminates oxide bifilms and produces multiple
nuclei in the melt. Post inoculation treatment too is beneficial, especially in thin wall
ductile iron castings, since it further increases the active number of nucleation sites.
Graphite nucleates on these particles, and their further growth is controlled by austenite
dendrites [7]. Austenite formed during solidification undergoes solid state
transformation at eutectoid temperature, which modifies the solidified structure and
leads to other complexities in solidification morphology [8]. Since early nucleation of
graphite nodules helps prevent carbides in thin sections, ductile irons with hypereutectic
composition are preferred for such castings [9]. However, due to higher cooling rates in
thin wall ductile iron castings, sufficient pre-eutectic graphite nucleation is required
[10].

Thin wall ductile iron castings require an optimal combination of composition and melt
processing to be free of carbides that occur due to chilling. Hypereutectic ductile iron,
with CE ranging from 4.45 to 4.9 %, is usually recommended for plates of thickness
below 5 mm [11]. To avoid primary carbides in ductile iron, the eutectic temperature
should be greater than 1140
o
C [12]. Further, more homogenous microstructures are
obtained by using multiple gates instead of risers [13].


The alloying elements such as Cu, Mn, Sn, Sb and Cr are known to increase tensile
strength and hardness with subsequent decrease in ductility and impact energy. This is
due to an increase in the amount of pearlite with subsequent decrease in ferrite. Even
small changes in the amount of the above elements show significant increase or
decrease in mechanical properties of ductile iron. Silicon is a strong solid solution
strengthener; it reduces undercooling and avoids carbide formation by nucleating
graphite. It increases volume fraction of ferrite and nodule count. Copper is a strong
3

pearlite promoter; its addition up to 1% converts ferritic structure into pearlitic [14].
Manganese increases hardness and strength by stabilizing pearlite but promotes carbides
in heavy sections. It segregates at grain boundaries and thus increases hardenability
[15]. Arsenic, tin and antimony promote pearlite and carbides, and are hence kept to
lower limits; their effect can be counteracted by cerium additions [16].

The ratio of ferrite to pearlite in the matrix and the morphology of graphite decide the
mechanical properties of ductile iron castings [17]. This depends upon the cooling rate
during eutectoid transformation, nodule count and alloying elements [18]. The ferrite
being softer gives higher ductility but lower tensile strength than pearlite. Also, the
graphite morphology plays an important role; deviation from spheroidal shape reduces
the ductility and impact properties [19]. The time span between spheroidal treatment
and pouring has a significant effect on elongation, but less effect on the tensile strength
and hardness of castings [20].

The cooling curve generated by inserting suitable thermocouples in the casting cavity
reflects the effect of solidification variables such as chemical composition, inoculation
and its effectiveness [21]. There is a high temperature drop in liquid metal due to heat
transfer between flowing metal stream and mould walls [22]. The casting orientation
affects the solidification behaviour, and thereby leads to variations in graphite nodules
as well as deviation from nodularity. The top portions of the castings were observed to
have a higher nodule count but lower values of nodularity compared to bottom portions
[23]. Further, as solidification proceeds more rapidly in thin wall ductile iron castings,
the feeding pattern in these section influences the final microstructure and thereby
mechanical properties [24].

Previous work shows that for improving the strength of a casting, copper is an important
constituent. Manganese is also used in the present work for strengthening the casting by
promoting pearlitic matrix, but in limited amounts, since it can alter the structure by
promoting carbides in different section thicknesses. An attempt is made to balance the
strength and ductility of ductile iron by varying the amount of manganese and copper.
Further, the effects of different section thickness and casting orientation on the
4

microstructure and properties of ductile iron castings, which have not been reported
earlier, have been included in the present investigation.
2. Experimental work
Experiments were designed and conducted to study the solidification behaviour in
varying thickness ductile iron castings, as shown in Table 1. A step casting was
designed with four sections having thickness 4, 8, 12 and 16 mm, respectively. Each
step is 50 mm long, making the total length of casting 200 mm. The width of the casting
is 100 mm, so as to avoid end freezing effects in all sections. Four gates were provided
for rapid and uniform filling. Total four melt compositions with code A-D were used to
pour a total of 12 castings. Initially, four castings with melt composition A were
produced in vertical and side orientation (two AV and two AS). Another eight were
produced in horizontal orientation, with melt composition A to D (two castings of each
composition).
The moulds were prepared in green sand using a wooden pattern of the step casting. The
casting is moulded in drag box whereas runner and sprue were in cope. The gating
systems for the vertical and horizontal orientation of the casting are shown Fig.1. The
total mould height of vertical casting was 250 mm whereas in horizontal castings it was
200 mm. K-type thermocouples were inserted in the middle of each step to record the
thermal history of casting solidification. A DAQ-3005 (MCC-USA) data logger for data
acquisition synchronised with Desylab 12.0 software was used.
The melt charge consisted of 50 kg pig iron, 150 kg cold rolled steel scrap and balance
foundry returns with suitable chemical composition. The charge mix was melted in 300
kg capacity coreless medium frequency induction furnace in a production foundry. The
molten metal was tapped into a preheated ladle containing Ferro-silicon- magnesium
(FeSiMg) alloy granules of size 10-15 mm at the bottom covered with steel scrap
(sandwich process). The tapping temperature was 1450
o
C.





5

Table 1: Experimental castings and study parameters
Casting code Casting orientation Composition Study parameters
AV
1,
AV
2
Vertical Trace Cu, 0.2% Mn
Under-cooling and
delay in solidification
AS
1,
AS
2
Side Trace Cu, 0.2% Mn
AH
1,
AH
2
Horizontal Trace Cu, 0.2% Mn
BH
1,
BH
2
Horizontal 0.2% Cu, 0.3% Mn
Phase and variation
in properties
CH
1,
CH
2
Horizontal 0.4% Cu, 0.4% Mn
DH
1,
DH
2
Horizontal 0.5% Cu, 0.5% Mn

Fig. 1: Castings with gating system in (a) horizontal, (b) side and (c) vertical orientation

The inoculant was added in the melt stream while transferring metal into pouring ladle
of 50 kg capacity for proper mixing. Inoculant particles were of 6 to 10 mm in size so as
to dissolve easily and dust free to avoid oxidation losses. The spectroscopic melt
samples was taken just before pouring into the mould, and analysis was carried out
using a spectrometer (BRUKER, model Q-4 Tasman). The treated iron was poured into
mould cavity at a temperature of 1380
o
C for all castings. Six experiments (two vertical,
two side, and two horizontal castings) were conducted for studying the effect of casting
orientation with the same chemical composition (A). The thermocouples were inserted
in one casting of each orientation (AH2, AS2 and AV2).

a
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Another six castings were poured to study the effect of chemical composition for a
given orientation (horizontal). In all the melts (labelled A, B, C, and D), 3.6% carbon
and 2.5-2.78% silicon gave a carbon equivalent of 4.44-4.57, which is in hyper-eutectic
range. Cu varied from 0.035 to 0.512% and Mn varied from 0.216 to 0.518% as shown
in Table 2. Other elements present in the melt were Pb<0.01, Al=0.006, Cr=0.015,
Mo<0.002, Ni<0.002 and Ti=0.02.
Table 2: Chemical analysis of the melts A, B, C and D
Melt code C Si Cu Mn P S Mg
A 3.62 2.51 0.035 0.216 0.005 0.011 0.035
B 3.63 2.69 0.214 0.310 0.004 0.009 0.034
C 3.68 2.68 0.401 0.392 0.004 0.010 0.032
D 3.61 2.78 0.512 0.518 0.006 0.010 0.039

3. Results
The solidification temperature history recorded using thermocouples and stored in the
data logger was used to plot the cooling curves. The cooling curves in the four sections
(different thicknesses) of castings AV and AH are shown in Fig. 2.
7


Fig. 2: Cooling curve at the middle section (different thicknesses) of horizontal, side
and vertical castings.
8


Fig. 2: Cooling curve at the middle section (different thicknesses) of horizontal, side
and vertical castings. (new)

Fig. 3: Cooling curve and its first derivative (cooling rate) in 8 mm side oriented casting
The first derivative of the cooling rate indicates the evolution of cooling rate during
solidification. Its interpretation can reveal microstructural information that can not be
easily obtained from standard metallographic techniques. The typical cooling curve and
cooling rate in 8 mm side oriented ductile iron casting are shown in Fig.3. The graphite
nucleation starts at liquidus temperature (TL), followed by horizontal eutectic portion.
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The cooling rate curve passes through zero indicating end of eutectic solidification
(TEend), but due to presence of trace elements end of freezing (EOF) extends further.

Key parameters of the cooling curves are shown in Table 3. The solidification
temperature range is approximately 1170
o
C to 1120
o
C. It has been observed that the
cooling rates during solidification in different sections range from 6.4 to 0.4
o
C/s in
horizontally oriented castings, 3.6 to 0.7
o
C/s in side orientation and 2.6 to 1.1
o
C/s in
vertically oriented castings. In other words, horizontal castings have nearly twice the
cooling rates of side oriented castings, owing to increased rate of heat transfer from the
larger surfaces in horizontal orientation. A wide range of under-cooling was observed in
horizontal (1-4
o
C) and side (2-8
o
C) castings due the presence of both thick and thin
sections. The comparatively slower cooling rates in side oriented castings gave wider
total solidification times. The difference in solidification times of horizontal, side and
vertical orientated castings is found to increase with increasing casting wall thickness.

Table 3: Thermal analysis of cooling curves in different sections of casting (Melt A)
Thickness
(mm)
Cooling rate (
o
C/s) Undercooling (
o
C) Solidification time (sec)
Hori Side Vert Hori Side Vert Hori Side Vert
4 1.8 1.0 5.00 18 16 0 40 57 20
8 0.8 0.4 1.42 11 7 10 70 95 50
12 0.7 0.3 0.83 6 9 0 120 150 60
16 0.5 0.2 1.43 5 7 0 145 180 70

Thickness
(mm)
Cooling rate (
o
C/s) Undercooling (
o
C) Solidification time (sec)
Hori Side Vert Hori Side Vert Hori Side Vert
4 6.4 3.63 2.63 2 2 1 25 33 38
8 1.11 0.97 1.03 1 2 4 63 72 77
12 0.64 0.61 0.51 4 4 6 125 110 118
16 0.41 0.68 1.1 4 8 6 170 100 160

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Fig. 4: Microphotographs of 12 mm section castings with composition A-D

The samples for microstructure studies were taken from the middle portion of the
casting and polished. These were etched with 2% Nital (2% concentric Nitric acid and
98 ml Methanol solution). Optical micrographs were taken using a camera attached to a
Leintz microscope (Fig. 4).

The polished samples were studied using an Image Analyzer (Pro-metal-11) for
microstructural studies to compare fraction of pearlite content and nodule count in each
casting sections; these images are shown in Fig.5. Tensile test specimens were prepared
from each casting as per ASTM standard E8M-04. The Brinell hardness is measured on
the samples taken from the middle portion of each casting. The average values (derived
from two samples of each composition) of tensile and hardness are shown in Fig. 6.
More undercooling that is observed in thin sections, indicates the possibility of carbides
in these sections. This also indicates the failure of inoculation in generating a sufficient
number of nucleating sites for graphite, resulting in 5-6% carbides observed in 4 mm
thin sections.
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Fig. 5: Values of (a) percentage pearlite and (b) nodule count in the castings


Fig. 6: Values of (a) tensile strength and (b) hardness of the castings
4. Discussion
The factors influencing the solidification process, such as metal composition (including
trace elements), melt modification, nodularization treatment and inoculation influence
the shape of the cooling curve too. The part of the cooling curve from the liquidus
temperature to the end of eutectic solidification represents the solidification range. Two
separate cooling curves can be compared in terms of their shape and temperature values.
The thermal analysis of the four sections within the horizontal castings indicates faster
cooling rate compared to corresponding sections in side oriented castings. Solidification
time in horizontal castings ranged between 25-170 seconds for various thicknesses,
compared to 33-110 seconds for side orientation. The longer solidification time of side
oriented castings can be attribed to hot metal continuously feeding from the the top. The
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amount of undercooling observed in 4 and 8 mm sections of horizontal castings was
more than in side orientated castings.

The nucleation potential depends on the number of potential heterogeneous nuclei,
which can be indirectly assessed by carbide content (chill depth). A high nucleation
potential will result in low formation of carbides. The nodule count is a direct measure
of the nucleation potential of ductile iron but it can be measured only after completion
of melt processing. The amount of Mg residual needs to be maintained above a critical
value of 0.03% to achieve the desired nodule count [1]. Nodule count can be maximized
by oxide-free base iron melting along with good inoculation practice. Nodule count and
nodularity, both are affected by cooling rate. Thin sections (due to rapid cooling) result
in better nodule shape than slower cooled sections for the same magnesium residuals.
High nodule count associated with the increased cooling rates of thin wall castings is a
major factor in matrix evolution. It was found that because of high nodule count
produced by rapid cooling rate, the pearlite content was higher in the thinner plates.
In 4 mm section approximately 4-5% primary carbides are found in casting where
eutectic undercooling temperature is below 1140
o
C. The cooling curve shown in Fig. 3
indicates undercooling (minimal) temperature of 1143
o
C, which is above the critical
limit (1140
o
C) [12] and therefore gives carbide free casting. The castings BH-DH were
found to be free of carbides even after increased manganese up to 0.5 %. The overall
nodule count observed in side oriented castings was found to be higher compared to
horizontal and vertical castings produced in the same composition indicating continual
graphite nucleation throughout solidification.

The simultaneous increase of both Cu and Mn enhances both tensile and yield strengths
without a significant decrease in ductility (as compared to that observed by an increase
in Cu alone). The microstructure study indicates no traces of carbides in 16, 12 and 8
mm sections and only 4 to 5% carbides in 4 mm thick sections. The nodule size
distribution affects shrinkage tendency, since it reflects graphite formation and
expansion throughout the entire solidification sequence. Small nodules and uniform
distribution indicate early graphite nucleation and wider range of graphite nodule sizes,
indicating continuous nucleation of graphite during solidification. In side and vertical
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oriented castings, the metal is more turbulent, which delays solidification and results in
less carbide formation, which is reflected in the cooling curves of the respective
castings. The tensile strength and hardness variations due to thickness variations are less
in vertical orientation compared to horizontal and side orientation, with the same
chemical composition.
5. Conclusions
The properties of ductile iron as indicated by their grades are largely determined by
their microstructure, which in turn is affected by section thickness of the casting and
chemical composition of the melt. It is found that the casting orientation also alters the
nodule count and final microstructure in the casting. The difference in solidification
times of horizontal and vertical orientated castings is found to increase with increasing
casting wall thickness. Thin wall (4 mm) sections are more prone to deep undercooling
and carbide formation, especially in horizontal orientation. The microstructure and
thereby mechanical properties (especially tensile strength and hardness) can be
improved in thin wall ductile iron castings by simultaneously increasing the amount of
copper and manganese. The combined addition of Cu and Mn varying from 0.1 to 0.5%
increased the amount of pearlite from 10 to 82% in the ductile iron castings, which in
turn increased the strength from 467 to 659 MPa. The corresponding fall in ductility (%
elongation) was 15 to 3 in 4 mm thick castings. Thus, ductile iron castings with Cu and
Mn upto 0.5 % with produce carbide free structures in side oriented 4 mm wall castings.
Acknowledgement
This work is partially supported by the E-Foundry project, funded by the National
Knowledge Network Mission of the Ministry of Communications and Information
Technology, New Delhi. The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Ganesh
Foundry and S.S. Industries, Ichalkaranji for arranging melting trials. The first author
acknowledges the support of his parent organization, Textile and Engineering Institute,
Ichalkaranji for carrying out the present research work.


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