CP2103

lluld SysLems
Lau Wal Man, 8aymond
Cmce: n1.2-82-32
hone: 6316 8830
Lmall: wmlau[nLu.edu.sg
Loo Sun Sun, Leslle
Cmce: n1.2-81-12
hone: 6790 6737
Lmall: ssloo[nLu.edu.sg
Course CuLllne
Macroscoplc lluld Mechanlcs
lnLroducuon
Mass, Lnergy and MomenLum 8alances
lluld llow ln lpes
ulmenslonal Analysls
umps and Compressors
Mlcroscoplc lluld Mechanlcs
(Covered by ur. Leslle Loo)
Cradlng
Conunuous AssessmenL ~30
llnal Lxamlnauon ~ 70
1exLbook
!"#$%& ( !ames C. Wllkes
)"*+,-$.& ( earson
/012 ( 9780131482128
lluld Mechanlcs for Chemlcal Lnglneers
wlLh Mlcrouldlcs & Clu 2
nd
ed
CA policy
If student misses CA due to following reasons:
valid MC (not from Chinese doctor)
passing away of immediate family (parents, siblings,
grandparents)
participate in an activity representing NTU
then the CA component will be counted towards the
final exam. There will be no makeup CA.
Otherwise student gets 0 for CA.
Tentative Schedule
- Tutorial Week
- Quiz
- Holiday
Week of Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
11/8/2012
National
Day
LT LT
18/8/2012 LT LT
25/8/2012 LT LT Union Day
1/9/2012 LT LT
8/9/2012 LT LT
15/9/2012 LT Quiz
22/9/2012 LT LT
29/9/2012 RECESS WEEK
6/10/2012
Hari Raya
Haji
LT LT
13/10/2012 LT LT
20/10/2012 LT Deepavali
27/10/2012 LT LT
3/11/2012 LT LT
10/11/2012 LT LT
lluld mechanlcs
lluld mechanlcs ls a sLudy of ulds and Lhe
forces acung on Lhem.

lluld sLaucs - SLudy of uld aL resL

lluld dynamlcs - SLudy of uld ln mouon
Why sLudy uld mechanlcs?
Chemlcal Lnglneers
eLrochemlcal lndusLry
harmaceuucal lndusLry
8lomedlcal lndusLry
ower planLs
non-Chemlcal Lnglneers
Alrplane/Car/8oaL deslgn
8lomechanlcs
SporLs
WeaLher forecasL
LxpecLed Learnlng CuLcomes
Able Lo vlsuallze uld ow problems and seLup
approprlaLe governlng equauons
undersLand Lhe dlerence beLween lamlnar
and LurbulenL plpe ow problems and solve
deslgn problems lnvolvlng pumps and Lurblnes
undersLand Lhe concepL of drag on dlerenL
geomeLrles and apply ln dlerenL deslgn
problems
WhaL ls a uld?
Cas? Llquld? Sollds?
roperues LhaL classlfy a subsLance as uld
ueformable?
llowable?
Conunuous phase?
uenluon of a uld
A uld ls a subsLance LhaL deforms conunuously
under Lhe appllcauon of a shear (Langenual) force
Sollds can deform under shear forces buL can reLurn
Lo lLs orlglnal form when Lhe shear forces ls
removed
lluld normally Lakes Lhe form of llquld or gas
roperues of uld
lluld sLaucs
uenslLy
vlscoslLy
Surface Lenslon
Mass
volume
1emperaLure
ressure
lluld mechanlcs
veloclLy
SLress
Lach properLy can change wlLh locauon
(x,y,z) and ume (L)
0
0
0
0
) , , , (
=
=
=
=
=
dz
d
dy
d
dx
d
dt
d
t z y x
!
!
!
!
! !
sLeady sLaLe
none of Lhem valld =
3-ulmenuonal ow
1 of Lhem valld =
2-ulmenuonal ow
2 of Lhem valld =
1-ulmenuonal ow
All of Lhem valld = ?
1lmellnes: llne formed by ad[acenL uld parucles ln a ow eld
aL a glven lnsLanL
aLhllnes: paLh or LragecLory Lraced ouL by a movlng parucle
SLreakllnes: llne formed by parucles passlng Lhrough a xed
locauon ln a space over a perlod of ume
SLreamllnes: llne LangenL Lo dlrecuon of ow aL every polnL ln
ow eld (LangenL Lo veloclLy vecLor ln ow eld)
aLhllnes, sLreakllnes and sLreamllnes are ldenucal under
sLeady sLaLe
1lmellnes vs aLhllnes vs SLreakllnes vs SLreamllnes
Pathlines (Red) vs Streaklines (Blue) vs Streamlines (Grey) [Wikipedia]
lorces and sLress
SLress ls force per unlL
area
normal sLress
lorce acLs perpendlcular
Lo surface
1enslle
Compresslve (e.g.
pressure)
Shear SLress
lorce acLs Langenually Lo
surface
lor a glven shear raLe,
Lhe shear sLress ls
dlrecLly proporuonal Lo
Lhe vlscoslLy of uld
ressure
ln hydrosLauc slLuauons (uld aL resL)
uld molecules are ln a sLaLe of compresslon
degree of compresslon ls measured by
pressure (scalar quanuLy)
8y denluon, p = l/A (has unlLs of a sLress)
1he value of pressure aL a polnL ls lndependenL
of Lhe orlenLauon of any area assoclaLed wlLh
lL (Work Lhls ouL wlLh reference Lo llg. 1.3)
ln movlng ulds, Lhe normal sLresses
lnclude boLh a pressure and exLra sLresses
caused by Lhe mouon of Lhe uld
(dlscussed laLer ln ChapLer 3)
AbsoluLe pressure = gauge pressure +
aLmospherlc pressure
8aslc laws
1o undersLand Lhe baslc prlnclples and
concepL of uld mechanlcs, we need forms
of Lhe followlng:
Conservauon of mass (ConunulLy)
newLons second law of mouon
1he rsL law of Lhermodynamlcs
uL slmply, Lhe laws of uld mechanlcs
amounL Lo conservauon of mass, energy,
and momenLum.
ulmenslons and unlLs
SysLems of ulmenslons
ulmenslons: physlcal quanuues (e.g. l, t, M, 1)
[M], [l], [t], and [1]
[l], [l], [t], and [1]
[l],[M], [l], [t], and [1]
LengLh and ume, and mass or force, are ptlmoty
(boslc) Jlmeosloos (from whlch oLhers can be
formed (derlved)) ln all dlmenslonal sysLems ln
common use.
SysLems of unlLs
MLL1[Sl (kg, m, s, k)}, [cgs (cm-g-s)}
lLL1[8rlush CravlLauonal (lb
f
, , s,
o
8)}
lMLL1[Lngllsh Lnglneerlng (lb
f
, lb
m
, , s,
o
8)}
referred SysLems of unlLs
Sl (kg, m, s, k) (ref. 1able 1.8)
1 n = 1 kg m/s
2
8rlush CravlLauonal (lb
f
, , s,
o
8)
1 slug = 1 lb
f
s
2
/
1 slug = 32.2 lb
m
Always (repeaL, always) lnclude Lhe unlL wlLh any
englneerlng quanuLy you have wrluen down.
lf wrluen wlLhouL unlLs, our quanuLy ls
meanlngless.
ConverL Lhe unlLs uslng approprlaLe converslon
facLors (1able 1.11).
Lxample 1.1: unlLs Converslon
Lxpress 63 mph ln (a) km/hr, and (b) m/s
(a)



(b)
hr
km
6 . 04 1
m 1000
km 1
ft
m
3048 . 0
mile
ft
5280
hr
mile
65
hr
mile
65 = ! ! ! =
s
m
06 . 9 2
3600s
hr
ft
m
3048 . 0
mile
ft
5280
hr
mile
65
hr
mile
65 = ! ! ! =
uenslLy and speclc gravlLy of a uld
uenslLy depends on mass of an lndlvldual
molecule and Lhe number of such
molecules LhaL occupy a unlL of volume
lor llqulds, denslLy depends prlmarlly
on Lhe parucular llquld, and Lo a smaller
exLenL on LemperaLure
Speclc gravlLy, s of a uld ls Lhe rauo of
Lhe denslLy Lo Lhe denslLy of a reference
uld aL some sLandard condluon (e.g.
speclc LemperaLure and pressure)(p
5c
):
lor llqulds, p
5c
ls usually Lhe denslLy of
waLer aL 4C
lor gases, Lhere ls no slngle sLandard
(care musL be Laken when lnLerpreung
publlshed daLa)
P & T same at both
3 3
3
g/cm or kg/m is unit
L
M
] [
volume
mass
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
=
= =
air
gas
gas
SC
s
s
'
'
'
'
'
uenslues of gases
lor ldeal gases ( pv = ok1 )
! p = absoluLe pressure
! v = volume of gas
! o = number of mole of gas
! k = gas consLanL (1able 1.2)
! 1 = absoluLe LemperaLure
lor nonldeal gases
! compresslblllLy (2 = 2(p,1)) ls Laken lnLo accounL (2
lJeol qos
= 1)
! CompresslblllLy: a measure of Lhe relauve volume change of
uld or solld as a response Lo a pressure (or mean sLress)
change
! bulk modulus (or lncompresslblllLy):
w w
M
RT
p
M
V
n
= = !
w w
M
ZRT
p
M
V
n
= = !
V
p
V
!
!
" = #
vlscoslLy
vlscoslLy (or dynamlc or absoluLe vlscoslLy) ls a
measure of lnLernal, frlcuonal reslsLance Lo ow
under an applled sLress.
newLonlan llulds
MosL of Lhe common ulds (e.g. waLer, alr)
Llnear ulds: shear sLress proporuonal Lo shear raLe,
and Lhe proporuonallLy consLanL, ls Lhe vlscoslLy of
Lhe uld
has unlLs: kg/ms or g/cms or as (1 g/cms = 1
polse, 1 as = 1 ns/m
2
, and 1 cenupolse (c) =
0.01 , whlch ls Lhe vlscoslLy of waLer aL room
LemperaLure )
vlscoslues of llqulds
! Cenerally vary approxlmaLely wlLh absoluLe LemperaLure 1
(decreases wlLh LemperaLure)
1here ls a cerLaln molecular lnLerchange beLween ad[acenL
layers ln llqulds - buL as Lhe molecules are so much closer
Lhan ln gasses, Lhe coheslve forces hold Lhe molecules ln
place much more rlgldly
Coheslon plays an lmporLanL roll ln Lhe vlscoslLy of llqulds.
lncreaslng Lhe LemperaLure of a uld reduces Lhe coheslve
forces and lncreases Lhe molecular lnLerchange.
8educlng coheslve forces reduces shear sLress, whlle
lncreaslng molecular lnLerchange lncreases shear sLress.
! Lo a good approxlmauon are lndependenL of pressure
T b a
e T b a
ln
or ln ln
+
! + !
o and b are vlscoslLy parameLers (1able 1.4)
vlscoslLy of gases
! lncreases wlLh lncreaslng LemperaLure
1he molecules of gasses are only weakly kepL ln posluon by
molecular coheslon (as Lhey are so far aparL).
As ad[acenL layers move by each oLher Lhere ls a conunuous
exchange of molecules. Molecules of a slower layer move Lo
fasLer layers causlng a drag, whlle molecules movlng Lhe
oLher way exerL an accelerauon force. MaLhemaucal
conslderauons of Lhls momenLum exchange can lead Lo
newLons law of vlscoslLy.
lf Lhe LemperaLure of a gas lncreases, Lhe momenLum
exchange beLween layers wlll lncrease Lhus lncreaslng
vlscoslLy.
! lndependenL of pressure and denslLy
vlscoslLy wlll also change wlLh pressure - buL under normal
condluons Lhls change ls negllglble ln gasses.
n
T
T
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
0
0


0
= vlscoslLy aL absoluLe
reference LemperaLure 1
0

(1able 1.3)
MeasuremenL of vlscoslLy
8heomeLer
vlscomeLer
Coaxlal-cyllnder
8heomeLer
arallel-plaLe
8heomeLer
Cone-and-plaLe
8heomeLer
Surface 1enslon
Lendency of Lhe surface of llquld Lo behave llke a
sLreLched elasuc membrane
caused by auracuve forces ln llquld
Lwo non-mlxlng ulds (e.g., a llquld and a gas) wlll form
an lnLerface
molecules below Lhe lnLerface acL on each oLher wlLh
forces equal ln all dlrecuons, whereas Lhe molecules
near Lhe surface acL on each oLher wlLh lncreased
forces due Lo Lhe absence of nelghbors l.e. Lhe
lnLerface acLs llke a sLreLched membrane
Lendency or eorL of each
molecule aL Lhe surface Lo
reach Lhe cenLre causes Lhe
uld Lry Lo Lake Lhe shape
LhaL wlll have Lhe greaLesL
number of molecules
nearesL Lhe surface, a
sphere
oLher forces such as gravlLy
oen oppose surface
Lenslon forces so LhaL Lhe
uld Lrles Lo decrease lLs
surface area Lo a mlnlmum
depends on llquld Lype and
Lype of surface wlLh whlch lL
shares an lnLerface
o has unlL dyne/cm or n/m
F
!
=!L =! ! 2"r
P
1
" P
2
=!
1
r
1
+
1
r
2
#
$
%
&
'
(
r
P
2
P
1
F
!
F
!
"
#h
r1
r2
Note: r1 = r2 =/= radius of capillary tube
r1
r2
The meniscus in a spherical shaped
capillary tube has the radius of
curvature that extends to form a
sphere.
Top view of the center
plane of the sphere formed
from the radius of curvature
of the meniscus.
r1
r2
r1
r2
Elliptical shaped capillary tube
Meniscus forms an ellipsoid based
on the two radius of curvature at the
elliptical shaped capillary tube. Top view of the center plane of
the ellipsoid formed from the
radius of curvature of the
meniscus.
r
P
2
P
1
F
!
F
!
"
#h
Force balance on the liquid column:
F
!
=! ! 2"r
F
g
= #g"r
2
"h
Upward force:
Downward force:
F
!
= F
g
!h =
2!
"gr
F
!
cos" =! ! 2#r ! cos"
F
!
cos" = F
g
=V#g
V = $r
2
!h
"!h =
2! cos"
#gr
PydrosLaucs (lluld sLaucs)
PydrosLaucs ls abouL pressure/force exerLed
by a uld aL resL
CompuLe forces on submerged ob[ecLs
uevelop lnsLrumenLs for measurlng pressure
ueLermlne forces developed ln hydraullc sysLems
ln appllcauons
ressure
arlses due Lo Lhe conunual Lransfer of
momenLum from lndlvldual molecules
durlng colllslons wlLh Lhe walls
AbsoluLe pressure
force per unlL area LhaL Lhe molecules
lnslde a chamber exerL on Lhe chamber
walls.
always posluve
Cauge pressure
Lhe dlerence beLween Lhe absoluLe
pressure and Lhe aLmospherlc pressure
(chamber ls lmmersed ln Lhe
aLmosphere)
can be negauve lf pressure ln chamber
ls less Lhan aLmosphere
aLmospherlc pressure
ls 101,000 n/m
2
aL sea-level (1 a = 1
n/m
2
)
ressure varlauon ln a sLauc uld
Cauge pressure = AbsoluLe pressure - ALmospherlc pressure
lncompresslble uld under gravlLy:
gH p ! = "
polnL1
polnL2
H
ressure aL polnL1 = 1 aLm

ressure aL polnL2 = 1 aLm + !qn

ressure dlerence beLween polnL1 and
polnL2 = p1-p2 = - !qn
( )
2 1 2 1
1
2
1
2
z z g p p
dz g dp g
dz
dp
z
z
p
p
! ! = ! "
! = " ! =
# #
$
$ $
z
?
?
?
l
ln5
= !
wotet
qb
J
-!
olt
qb
2
-!
oll
qb
1
-l
otm
l
kn5
= !
wotet
qb
4
-l
otm
l
ln5
=l
kn5
8earrange:!
oll
=(!
wotet
b
4
- !
wotet
b
J
-!
olt
b
2
)/b
1
lor slmpllclLy, !
olt
can be neglecLed because
!
olt
<<!
wotet

!
oll
=!
wotet
(b
4
-b
J
)/b
1

s
oll
= !
oll
/!
wotet
=(b
4
-b
J
)/b
1

=(J.0-1.0)/2.5=0.80
Lxample - ressure balance of a manomeLer
lor a u-Lube manomeLer shown ln Lhe gure,
whaL ls Lhe speclc gravlLy of oll?

waLer
alr
oll
roperLy of manomeLer: 1he pressure aL Lhe same helghL of Lhe
manomeLer connecLed wlLh Lhe same uld should be balanced

aLm

aLm
1
2
h
1
= 2.3
h
2
= 0.3
h
3
= 1.0
h
4
= 3.0
)
340
)
540
Compresslble uld: p=consLanL (e.g. a gas)
uenslLy of gases generally depends on , 1
ldeal Cas equauon of sLaLe accuraLely models Lhe
behavlor of mosL gases under englneerlng condluons
w
M
RT
p
nRT pV = = ! or
dp = !!gdz = !
pg
RT
M
w
dz "
dp
p
p
0
p
#
= ln
p
p
0
= !
g
RT
M
w
dz
0
z
#
" p = p
0
exp !
g
RT
M
w
z
$
%
&
'
(
)

ln
p
p
0
= !
g
R
M
w
dz
T z
( )
0
z
#
lor consLanL LemperaLure:
lor LemperaLure LhaL varles
wlLh z ( 1=1(z) ):
PydrosLauc force on submerged surface
neL force on a dam or lock gaLe of a canal
Some facLs:
no shear sLresses ln a sLauc uld, Lhe hydrosLauc force acLs
normal Lo Lhe surface.
1he resulLanL force acung on surface ls found by summlng Lhe
conLrlbuuons of Lhe lnnlLeslmal forces over Lhe enure area.
AL depLh b, Lhe pressure, p =p
0
+ pqb
h
1




h
2

0 for
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
= =
!
"
#
=
= = =
=
=
$ $ $
$
h gwh
h
gw
hdh gw ghwdh ghdA F
gh p
pdA F
h
h
h
h
h
h A
A
% %
% % %
%
Slnce p ls noL consLanL LhroughouL Lhe area, lnLegral meLhod ls needed.
gh p p ! + =
0
w


h
h
1




h
2

PydrosLauc force on submerged ob[ecL
Slmllar derlvauon as submerged surface
V g dV g hdA g ghdA F
gh p
pdA F
V A A
A
! ! ! !
!
= = = =
=
=
" " "
"
V g F
buoyancy
! =
Weight of
displaced fluid
Pressure of fluid
Archlmedes prlnclple
8uoyancy
8uoyancy ls Lhe neL verucal force, due Lo llquld
pressure (hydrosLauc pressure), acung on an ob[ecL
lmmersed ln a llquld, or oaung on Lhe llqulds
surface.
1he submerged ob[ecL need noL be a solld
Pydrogen bubbles: rlse slowly ln a suspendlng uld
(e.g. waLer) as Lhey are swepL along by Lhe ow
osluvely buoyanL
WaLer dropleLs: slnk ln oll
negauvely buoyanL
neuLrally-buoyanL parucles are used as ow Lracer Lo
Lrace ow pauerns uslng vlsuallzauon Lechnlques
8uoyancy lorce: Alr
1o whaL LemperaLure musL Lhe alr ln a hoL alr balloon
(approxlmaLed as a sphere) be heaLed Lo ll a baskeL load?
Weight of plastic skin of
balloon is negligible
Volume of basket is negligible
F
buoyancy
= !
air
gV
balloon
F
y
= 0
!
F
y
= F
buoyancy
!W
hot air
!W
load
"
= !
atm
gV
ballon
! !
hot air
gV
ballon
!W
load
= 0
!
hot air
= !
atm
!
W
load
gV
ballon
p
atm
MW
air
RT
hot air
=
p
atm
MW
air
RT
atm
!
W
load
gV
ballon
Apply ideal gas law:
8uoyancy force: lmmlsclble ulds
What fraction of
wood is below
the gasoline-
water interface?
gasoline
V
water
V
!
gasoline
gV
gasoline
+ !
water
gV
water
! !
wood
gV
gasoline
! !
wood
gV
water
= 0
V
gasoline
!
wood
! !
gasoline
( )
= V
water
!
water
! !
wood
( )
V
gasoline
V
water
=
!
water
! !
wood
!
wood
! !
gasoline
=
1!0.96
0.96 !0.72
= 0.167
Fraction of wood in water =
1
1+0.167
= 0.857
Wood
s=0.96
Gasoline s=0.72
Water
8aslc Lquauons
1o undersLand Lhe baslc prlnclples and concepL of
uld mechanlcs, we need forms of Lhe followlng:
6%7-.&89:%7 %; <9--
2.=#%7- -.>%7? +9= %; <%:%7
@$. A&-# +9= %; #$.&<%?B79<,>-

uL slmply, Lhe lows of folJ mecboolcs omooot to
coosetvouoo of moss, eoetqy, ooJ momeotom.

Conservauon Laws applled Lo lluld Mechanlcs
8ased on Lhree exLenslve properues
Mass
usually LoLal, buL someumes of one or more lndlvldual
chemlcal specles
1oLal energy
Lhe sum of lnLernal, klneuc, poLenual, and pressure energy
MomenLum
boLh llnear and angular
lor a sysLem, conversauon means LhaL Lhere ls
nelLher neL galn nor loss of any of Lhese
properues wlLhln a sysLem (Lhere may be some
redlsLrlbuuon)
1yplcal mechanlsms of lnLeracuon beLween sysLem and
surroundlngs
A owlng sLream enLerlng and/or leavlng Lhe sysLem
A conLacL force on Lhe boundary, normal or
Langenual Lo lL (or Lhe sLress)
A body force due Lo exLernal eld LhaL acLs
LhroughouL Lhe sysLem (e.g. gravlLy)
useful work such as elecLrlcal energy enLerlng a
moLor or sha work leavlng a Lurblne
Ceneral Conservauon Law
non-reacung SysLem (x = mass, energy,
momenLum)
8eacung sysLem (x = mass, l = specles)
Lxpressed on Lhe basls of unlL ume, or raLes
system out in
X X X ! = "
i
system
i
destroyed
i
created
i
out
i
in
X X X X X ! = " + "
dt
dX
x x
system
out in
= !
! !
8aslc Laws for a SysLem
Conservauon of Mass (e.g.)
Mass, M, of Lhe sysLem ls consLanL
! !
= =
= "
=
#
$
%
system system
V M
system
system
out in
system
V d dm M
dt
dM
m m
dt
dM
&
0
! !
1ranslenL Mass 8alance and SLeady SLaLe
for non-reacung sysLem
lf sLeady-sLaLe slLuauons
exLenslve properues ln a sysLem are consLanL or
do noL change wlLh ume
A rlver wlLh a ow raLe LhaL ls consLanL wlLh ume
A Lank LhaL ls dralnlng Lhrough lLs base, buL ls also
supplled wlLh an ldenucal ow raLe of llquld Lhrough an
lnleL plpe, so LhaL Lhe llquld level ln Lhe Lank remalns
consLanL wlLh ume
dt
dM
m m
system
out in
= !
! !
0 =
dt
dM
system
Steady-state mass balance equation
is also known as Continuity Equation
MeLhods of Analysls
SysLem (or Closed SysLem
ln 1hermodynamlcs)
llxed, ldenuable quanuLy of
mauer, e.g. mass
SysLem boundarles (xed or
movable) separaLe sysLem
from surroundlng, no mass
crosses sysLem boundarles
ConLrol volume (or Cpen
SysLem ln 1hermodynamlcs)
ArblLrary volume ln space
Lhrough whlch uld ows
CeomeLrlc boundary ls called
conLrol surface (real or
lmaglnary, aL resL or ln
mouon)
ln uld mechanlcs, lL ls more
convenlenL Lo focus auenuon
on a conLrol volume Lhan on a
xed ldenuable quanuLy of
mass
Lxample - Mass balance for Lank evacuauon
( )
V
Qt
p
p
dt
V
Q
p
dp
p
V
Q
dt
dp
RT
p M
Q
dt
dp
RT
M
V
dt
d
V
dt
dV
Q m
dt
V d
dt
dM
m m
p
p
t
w w
out
system
out in
! = " ! = "
! = " ! = "
+ = ! = ! "
= = !
# #
0
0
ln
0
$
$ $
$
!
! !
RT
pM
V
nM
w w
= = !
hrs 56 . 2 s 9210 = = !t
Lxample - Leakage aL a plpe [olnL
(Leak)
Assumpuons:
(1) sLeady ow
(2) lncompresslble ow
(3) unlform properues aL all secuons
m/s 5 . 4
0
2
4 3 3 1 1
2
4 3 3 2 2 1 1
! =
! !
=
= ! " ! " ! "
= !
A
Q A u A u
u
Q A u A u A u
dt
dM
m m
system
out in
! !
!
C
D EFC <
C
u
1
u
3
1ank leakage
Pow long would lL Lake
for Lhe Lank of
meLhane Lo drop from
300 ka Lo 400 ka?
MeLhane

v = 10 m
3
1 = 23 C
Leakage rate:

RT
pA
m 66 . 0 = !
Hole size = 10
-7
m
2
!
m
in
!
!
m
out
=
dM
system
dt
!
!
m
out
=V
d!
dt
!0.66
pA
RT
=
V
RT
dp
dt
dp
p
p
0
p
"
=
!0.66A RT
V
dt
0
t
"
t =
1.52V
A RT
ln
p
0
p
= 8.6#10
4
s $1 day
R = 516 J/kg-K
Conservauon of Lnergy
1ransfer lnvolves boLh mass and energy
Lnergy Lo Lhe sysLem = PeaL
Lnergy by Lhe sysLem = Work
SysLem
JM
lo
JM
oot
PeaL added, JO

Work done, Jw

dE dW dQ = !
Work done by SysLem on lLs Surroundlngs
Sha work
llow Work
Work done by normal SLresses (pressure) aL CS
Work done by Shear SLresses aL CS
CLher work (e.g. elecLrlcal, elecLromagneuc)
other f s
W W W W + + =
system
out
out
in
in
u
gz e M d dW dQ
u
gz
p
e dM
u
gz
p
e dM
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
+ + = - +
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
+ + + -
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
+ + +
2

2 2
2
2 2
. .
lnLernal
Lnergy
llow
Work
oLenual
Lnergy
klneuc
Lnergy
Work has same unlL as energy
ower ls dened as raLe of work and can be
expressed dlerenLly for dlerenL sysLems:
llowlng sLream: mass ow raLe ! work per unlL
mass
lorce dlsplacemenL: force ! dlsplacemenL veloclLy
8oLaung sha: 1orque ! angular veloclLy
ump: volume ow raLe ! pressure lncrease
Sl unlL for power ls W or !/s
Sha Work
uened as work oLher Lhan ow work
usually done Lhrough a sha
Commonly assoclaLed wlLh a pump or Lurblne:
ump
Machlne LhaL does work on Lhe ow, Lhereby lncreaslng
Lhe energy of Lhe ow
lrom Lhermodynamlc denluon: negauve work
When emclency ln lnvolved:
1urblne
Machlne LhaL exLracLs energy from Lhe ow, dolng work
on Lhe surroundlngs
lrom Lhermodynamlc denluon: posluve work
When emclency ls lnvolved:
s
W
p t s
W W W ! =
supplied
W W
p p
! =
t t
W W ! =
obtained
llow Work
8aLe of work done by pressure forces as Lhe
sysLem moves Lhrough Lhe space
Can be expressed ln Lerms of pressure or veloclLy
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
+
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' =
+ ' =
+ =
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1


( ( ( (
p p
m p
m
p
m
p A u p A u
W W W
f
!
! !
! ! !
1
u
!
2
u
!
t u !
2
p
1
p
2
A
1
A
2
Lnergy balance aL sLeady sLaLe
lor sLeady ow, Lhe energy accumulauon Lerm ls
zero and JM
lo
=JM
oot
=
o ls a correcuon facLor for klneuc energy
When Lhe veloclLy prole ln a plpe ls unlform, o = 1
When Lhe veloclLy prole ln a plpe ls parabollc, o = 2
1he equauon can also be grouped lnLo mechanlcal
energy and Lhermal energy Lerms:

!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
+ + + -
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
+ + + = -
2 2
2
1
1 1 1
1
2
2
2 2 2
2
u
e gz
p u
e gz
p
m W Q
s
.
/
.
/
!
! !
m
!
( ) Q e e m W
u
gz
p u
gz
p
m
s
!
!
!
!
! ! = !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ + !
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ +
1 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
1 1
1
2 2
.
/
.
/
SeparaLe w
s
lnLo w
p
and w
t
and conslder o = 1,
Lhen dlvlde Lhe energy equauon by g m
!
( )
g m
Q
g
e e
g m
W
g m
W
g
u
z
p
g
u
z
p
p
t
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
=
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
! !
(
)
*
+
,
-
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ + !
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ +
1 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 2 . .
Head loss
Pump head Turbine head
L p t
h h h
g
u
z
p
g
u
z
p
= + !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ + !
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ +
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
. .
Pead loss can be consldered as energy loss due Lo overcome
of frlcuon
( ) Q e e m W
u
gz
p u
gz
p
m
s
!
!
!
!
! ! = !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ + !
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ +
1 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
1 1
1
2 2
.
/
.
/
Specific Weight = $"g
Lxample - umplng n-enLane
3 in ID pipe
Friction loss =

Pump efficiency = 75%
u
m
= 25 ft/s
n-pentane density = 39.3 lb
m
/ft
3
!
"
#
$
%
&
2
2
2
ft
5 . 2
s
u
m
Find the power required to drive the pump
The pressure at the inlet of the pump
The pressure at the outlet of the pump
4.5 ft
4 ft
40 ft
Supply tank
Storage tank
Assumpuons
SLeady-sLaLe
lncompresslble ow
neglecL frlcuon of Lhe shorL plpe aL Lhe lnleL of Lhe pump
1ake Lhe supply Lank as (1) and ouLleL Lo sLorage Lank as (2)
8oLh (1) and (2) are open Lo aLmosphere
Supply Lank ls large compare Lo Lhe plpe
( )
ft 2 . 98
2 . 32 2
25
40
2 . 32
25 5 . 2
2
5 . 2
2 2
2
2
2 1
2
2
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
( ( (
'
=
)
*
+
,
-
.
( ( ( =
p
p
h
g
u
z z
g
u
h
L p t
h h h
g
u
z
p
g
u
z
p
= + !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ + !
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ +
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
. .
[ ] ft
5 . 2
2
g
u
h
m
L
=
Friction loss check unit
4.5 ft
4 ft
40 ft
Supply tank
Storage tank
4.5 ft
4 ft
40 ft
Supply tank
Storage tank
kW 56 . 8
s
lb ft
317 , 6
ft lb
s lb
2 . 32
1
ft
75 . 0
3 . 98 2 . 32 2 . 48

f
m
2
f s
ft
s
lb
supplied
2
m
=
!
=
!
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
! !
" "
=
= * =
p
p
p p
W
W gh m W
+
!
!
!
( )
s
lb
2 . 48
12
3
4
25 3 . 39
m
2
= ! ! = =
"
# A u m
m
!
1o nd Lhe pressure aL Lhe lnleL of Lhe pump, apply energy balance
beLween Lhe supply Lank (1) and Lhe pump lnleL (2):
( )
( )
psig 42 . 1
0
2 . 32 2
25
5 . 4
2 . 32
2 . 32
3 . 39
144 0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 1
2 1
! =
=
"
!
+ +
"
" !
=
!
+ ! +
!
p
p
g
u
z z
g
p p
#
L p t
h h h
g
u
z
p
g
u
z
p
= + !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ + !
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ +
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
. .
1o nd Lhe pressure aL Lhe ouLleL of Lhe pump, apply energy balance
beLween Lhe pump lnleL (1) and ouLleL (2):
( )
( )
psig 2 . 25
0 2 . 98 5 . 0
2 . 32
2 . 32
3 . 39
144 42 . 1
0
2
2
2 1
2 1
=
= + !
"
" ! !
= + ! +
!
p
p
h z z
g
p p
p
#
L p t
h h h
g
u
z
p
g
u
z
p
= + !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ + !
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ +
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
. .
llnd Lhe raLe of power
generauon.
h
L
=1.5 m
"
t
= 0.87
# = 9810 N/m
3
Q = 14.1 m
3
/s
L p t
h h h
g
u
z
p
g
u
z
p
= + !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ + !
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
+ +
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
. .
Assumptions:
Pressures at point 1 and point 2 are both atmospheric
Velocities at point 1 and point 2 are nearly zero
No pump
h
t
= z
1
! z
2
( )
!h
L
= 61!1.5
= 59.5 m
!
W
t
=
!
mgh
t
!
W
obtained
=!
t
!
W
t
=!
t
Q"h
t
= 0.87"14.1"9810"59.5
= 7.16"10
6
W
= 7.16 MW
8ernoullls Lquauon
A reduced form of Lnergy Lquauon by lmposlng a cerLaln
assumpuons:
llow ls sLeady (applles Lo boLh)
lluld ls lncompresslble, l.e. denslLy ls consLanL (applles Lo boLh)
no work eecLs (or sha works), l.e. Lhe uld nelLher performs work
(as ln Lurblne), no work has been performed on lL (as ln a pump)
llow ls frlcuonless, l.e. lnvlscld (nonvlscous) ow (no shear eecL) or
no head loss
Applled beLween Lwo polnLs along a sLreamllne (We wlll revlslL Lhls
polnL whlch ls lmporLanL ln derlvlng Lhe 8ernoullls Lquauon)
SLrlcLly, Lhe ow plpe ls a small sLream Lube encloslng a
sLreamllne, l.e. o = 1 (or Lhe ow ls unlform aL each cross secuon l.e.
Lhe veloclLy ls consLanL)
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gz
u p
gz
u p
+ + = + +
! !
nouce LhaL each Lerm, from Lhe energy polnL of
vlew, has dlmenslon of energy per unlL mass of uld
l.e. pressure energy, kL, L.
As such, we can Lhlnk of Lhe 8ernoulll Lquauon as a
mechanlcal energy balance: Lhe mechanlcal energy
(sum of pressure + klneuc + poLenual energles)
beLween 2 polnLs on a sLreamllne wlll be a consLanL.
streamline a along constant,
2
2
= + + gz
u p
!
kg
J
kg
mN
s
m
kg
kg
m
s
m
2 2
2
= = =
1 2 3
1 2 3
Lach Lerm can also be expressed ln Lerm of lengLh
(dlvldlng each by q), and represenLs a cerLaln Lype of
head: pressure, elevauon (or sLauc), veloclLy
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
z
g
u p
H z
g
u p
+ + = = + +
! !
Pressure increase across a
pump, !p= head increase
!h = !p/"g
(energy equation applies)
2
streamline a along constant,
2
2
= + + z
g
u
p
!
Appllcauon of 8ernoullls rlnclple: measuremenL of
sLauc and sLagnauon pressures (lLoL 1ube)
8L relaLes changes ln speed and pressure along a
sLreamllne ln an lncompresslble, frlcuonless ow.
SLauc ressure (Lhermodynamlc pressure)
ressure seen by uld parucle as lL moves
uynamlc ressure:
2
2
1
u !
Stagnation Pressure
- pressure obtained when a flowing
fluid is decelerated to zero velocity
by a frictionless process
- measured using a stagnation
pressure probe (pitot tube)
lLoL 1ube: useful for measuremenL of veloclLy
of movlng cra such as a boaL or an alrplane
2
0
2
2
0 0
2
1
2 2
u p p
u p
u p
!
! !
+ = "
+ = +
stagnation
pressure
static
pressure
dynamic
pressure
( )
!
p p
u
"
= #
0
2
SLagnauon pressure ls Lhe LoLal pressure
lncludlng Lhe sLauc pressure and dynamlc
pressure (when klneuc energy ls converLed
lnLo pressure energy)
Lxample - SLeady alr ow Lhough a nozzle
Nozzle: by
definition is a
device for
accelerating
flow.
Slnce Lhls ls regardlng gas ow, whlch ls a compresslble uld by
naLure, we need Lo check lf we can assume lncompresslble ow.
Introduce a dimensionless number: Mach Number (M) = V/c;
V = flow speed of gas, c = local speed of sound (~343 m/s in air)
M < 0.3: gas flow can be treated as incompressible as the density change is <
5 % (M = 0.3 in air at standard conditions corresponds to a gas flow speed of
~100 m/s)
WhaL ls Lhe pressure needed Lo generaLe a gas veloclLy of 30 m/s?
8ernoullls equauon
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gz
u p
gz
u p
+ + = + +
! !
Assumptions:
(1) steady flow.
(2) incompressible flow.
(3) frictionless flow.
(4) flow along a streamline.
(5) uniform flow at sections 1 and 2.
(6) z
1
= z
2
.
8earrange
( )
2
1
2
2 2 1
2
u u p p ! = !
"
Apply continuity equation
1
2
2 1
2 2 1 1
A
A
u u
A u A u
= !
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
- = - .
2
1
2
2
2
2 1
2 A
A
u u p p
atm
/
Lxample - llow Lhough a Slphon
Assumpuons:
(1) sLeady ow.
(2) lncompresslble ow.
(3) frlcuonless ow.
(4) ow along a sLreamllne.
(3) reservolr ls large compared
Lo Lhe slphon.
(6) olnL 1 and 2 are boLh aL
aLmospherlc pressure
WhaL ls Lhe veloclLy of waLer leavlng Lhe slphon?
WhaL ls Lhe pressure of waLer aL polnL A?
Free jet
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gz
u p
gz
u p
+ + = + +
! !
A
!"## %#&
'
!"## %#&
'
8earrange
1o deLermlne Lhe pressure aL A, apply 8L beLween
polnL 1 and A (or beLween A and 2):
Apply conunulLy equauon:
8earrange
( )
1 2 2
2 z z g u ! ! =
A
A A
gz
u p
gz
u p
+ + = + +
2 2
2
1
2
1 1
! !
2
u u
A
=
( )
2
2
2
1 1
u
z z g p p
A A
! ! " " + =
Cauuons on Lhe use of 8ernoullls Lquauon
Subsonlc dluser (dlverglng secuon or sudden expanslon)
adverse pressure gradlenL led Lo growLh of boundary layer and ow
separauon (aL besL an approxlmauon)
llow Lhrough a machlne e.g. propeller, pump, Lurblne,
wlndmlll
Movlng surfaces, lmposslble Lo have locally sLeady ow and
sLreamllnes
llow Lhrough a hydraullc [ump (abrupL change ln depLh and
energy loss)
vlolenL mlxlng occurs, lmposslble Lo ldenufy sLreamllnes
Alr ow Lhrough heaung elemenL
1emperaLure changes cause slgnlcanL change ln denslLy of gases
Compresslble gas ow
uenslLy changes (M 0.3)
MomenLum
newLons Second Law of Mouon:
applled Lo many problems lnvolvlng force
and accelerauon ln solld mechanlcs
1he law ls equally useful ln uld mechanlcs
for analysls of:
forces on plpe bends
LhrusL produced by a Lurbo[eL
accelerauon of a rockeL
eLc
MomenLum Lransfer
MomenLum ls belng Lransferred durlng Lhls process.
1he uld Louchlng Lhe Lop plaLe wlll move aL Lhe same
veloclLy as Lhe plaLe whlle Lhe uld Louchlng Lhe
bouom plaLe wlll noL be movlng. (no-sllp condluon)
MomenLum ls belng Lransferred by forces.
Moving plate
Stationary plate
Force
u
x
t
2
t
0
t
1
When Lop plaLe ls moved by a
force, Lhe llquld beLween Lhe
Lwo plaLes wlll also move
because of Lhe lnLernal
frlcuonal reslsLance ln Lhe uld
and Lhe frlcuon beLween Lhe
uld and Lhe plaLe.
x

y

MomenLum 8alance
MomenLum = mass x veloclLy
lorce can be vlewed as Lhe momenLum ow raLe:
A momenLum balance ls a balance of forces:
MomenLum balance aL sLeady sLaLe lnvolves a
balance of all forces:
2
2 2
2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1
u A u A u m u m
dt
d
F ! ! " = " = " = =
#
! !
"
M M
M
( )
( )
2
Au u Au u m
dt
u m d
F ! ! = = = = =
!
"
!
"
M
T
ML
] [= = u m
!
!
M
0 = =
!
dt
d
F
M
!
!
( ) Lg
D
DL p p
D
dt
d
F
w
4 4
2
2 1
2
!
" ! #
!
$ $ $ = =
%
M
!
lor plpe ow, Lhe forces lnvolved lncludes
pressure force, shear sLress, and gravlLy
s w
A !
1hls equauon ls one way Lo deLermlne Lhe shear sLress. AL sLeady sLaLe,
Lhe forces are balance:
( )
( )
4 4
0
4 4
2 1
2
2 1
2
Dg
L
p p D
Lg
D
DL p p
D
dt
d
F
w
w
!
"
#
! # "
#
$
$
=
= $ $ $ = =
%
M
!
lf a change ln mass ls lnvolved, Lhe momenLum
balance wlll need Lo be rewrluen as:
( )
dt
dm
u
dt
du
m
dt
mu d
dt
d
F + = = =
!
M
!
Lxample - accelerauon from a waLer [eL
Jet at velocity, u
Nozzle of area, A
Cart moving at velocity, v
Apply momentum balance:
( ) v u m
dt
dM
v
dt
dv
M F ! = + = !
M
Au m ! = !
( ) v u A ! "
( ) ( )
( )
M
v u A
dt
dv
v u Au v u A v
dt
dv
M
2
on accelerati
!
= =
! " = ! " +
#
# #
Lxample - 1hrusL of a 1oy 8ockeL
llnd Lhe force need Lo supporL Lhe rockeL.
u = 450 m/s
" = 0.5 kg/m
3
m = 40 g
1 cm
F
s
?
Draw force diagram on the rocket
mg
F
s
m
j
u
N 56 . 7
450
4
01 . 0
5 . 0 81 . 9 04 . 0
0
2
2
! =
"
"
" ! " =
" ! =
! =
= ! + =
#
$
% u Au mg
u m mg F
mg u m F F
j s
j s y
!
!
-ve sign means F
s
should be downwards
(prevent the rocket from flying up)
Lxample - ConcreLe owlng lnLo a carL
lorce balance:
mu
m
cart+concrete
g
T
N 5471
3600 60 sin 3 1 . 0 2400
60 sin
0 sin
N 1080
60 cos 3 1 . 0 2400
60 cos
0 cos
2
2
2
2
=
+ ! ! ! =
+ =
= " + =
=
! ! ! =
=
= " =
#
#
g m Au N
N g m mu F
Au T
T mu F
cart
cart y
x
$
%
$
%
N
3 m/s
Find
(a)the weight on the scale, and
(b) tension on the cable
at the instance
the weight of cart + concrete = 3600 N
cable
" = 2400 kg/m
3
Area of concrete stream = 0.1 m
2
Lxample - lorce on a plpe bend
lorce dlagram
1 m
Crude oil
S = 0.94
2 m
3
/s
p = 75 kPa (gauge)
Find the force needed at the bolted
flange to hold the bend in place
m
bend+oil
g
mu
mu
R
x
R
y
+
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
kN 53 . 8
30 cos 1 5 . 0 000 , 75
5 . 0
2
940
cos 1 cos 1
0 cos cos
2
2
2
=
!
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
( ( +
(
( =
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
+ = ! + =
= ! ! + ! + =
)
*
*
+ , +
+ +
pA
A
Q
Q pA u m R
R u m pA pA u m F
x
x x
!
! !
pA
pA
Top view
( )
( )
kN 8 . 31
30 sin 5 . 0 000 , 75
5 . 0
2
940
sin sin
0 sin sin
2
2
2
2
! =
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
( ( +
(
( ! =
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ ! = + ! =
= ! ! + =
)
*
*
+ , +
+ +
pA
A
Q
pA u m R
u m R pA F
y
y y
!
!
Weight of the bend = 4 kN
Volume of the bend = 1.2 m
3
Lxample: 1ank uralnlng (Case l)
Assumpuons:
SLeady, frlcuonless ow
lncompresslble uld
Cross-secuonal area of Lank ls large
Llquld descendlng slowly: no frlcuonal
dlsslpauon unless uld ls very vlscous
and vlrLually sLeady ow
8ounded nozzle or orlce:
sLreamllnes parallel aL exlL and
pressure ls unlformly aLmospherlc
no exLernal work
Apply BE between points 1 and 2 along a streamline:
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gz
u p
gz
u p
+ + = + +
! !
gh A Au Q
gh u
2
2
2
2
= = !
= !
The fluid velocity is exactly the same as the velocity the fluid would attain by falling
freely from rest a distance h (Torricelis Equation).
Lxample: 1ank uralnlng (Case ll)
Assumpuons:
SLeady, frlcuonless ow
lncompresslble uld
Cross-secuonal area of orlce
conslderable compared Lo Lhe Lank
surface
1he Llquld wlll descend wlLh
measurable kL
8ounded nozzle or orlce:
sLreamllnes parallel aL exlL and
pressure ls unlformly aLmospherlc
no exLernal work
Apply BE between points 1 and 2 along a streamline:
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gz
u p
gz
u p
+ + = + +
! !
?
2
= u
With 2 unknowns; we need another equation to solve the problem.
Using the mass balance for the fluid, we can solve for u
1
in terms of
u
2
, A
1
and A
2
; substitution in BE, we can obtain u
2
and hence u
1
.
1ank dralnlng Lhrough a sharp orlce
lf Lhe orlce ls sharp-edged wlLh area A:
Lhe cross-secuonal area of Lhe [eL wlll conunue Lo
conLracL aer lL leaves Lhe orlce because of lnerua Lo a
value o aL a locauon known as vena conLracLa, where Lhe
sLreamllnes are parallel Lo one anoLher
a coemclenL of conLracuon, dened as Lhe rauo of area o
Lo A ls used Lo obLaln Lhe ow raLe
cases) most (in
63 . 0
2
!
=
=
c
c
c
C
gh A C Q
A C a
ConunulLy Lquauon

8ernoullls Lquauon (appllcable upsLream)


p
1
!
+
u
1
2
2
=
p
2
!
+
u
2
2
2
p
1
! p
2
!
=
u
2
2
!u
1
2
2
=
1
2
A
1
2
A
2
2
u
1
2
!u
1
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
=
u
1
2
2
A
1
2
A
2
2
!1
"
#
$
%
&
'
llow measuremenL uslng an orlce plaLe

3
Unknown location
2
1 1
2 1 3 3 3 2 2 1 1
and
A
A u
u u u A u A u A u m = = ! = = = " " "
!

2
A

3
A
mu
2
mu
3
MomenLum 8alance:

2
A -
3
A + mu
2
+ (-mu
3
) = 0


$
( )
2 3
1
3 2
u u
A
m
p p ! = !
!
ressure drop ln downsLream secuon:
Cverall pressure drop:
lL can be seen LhaL p
3
ls always less Lhan p
1
,
lndlcaung an overall loss of energy or useful work.
( ) ( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' = ' = ' =
'
2
1
2
1 2 1 1 2 3
1
3 2
1
A
A
u u u u u u
A
m p p
( (
!
p
1
! p
3
!
=
p
1
! p
2
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
+
p
2
! p
3
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
=
u
1
2
2
A
1
2
A
2
2
!2
A
1
A
2
+1
"
#
$
%
&
'
=
u
1
2
2
A
1
A
2
!1
"
#
$
%
&
'
2
8oLameLers
varlable area meLers
has nearly consLanL pressure and
depend on changlng cross secuonal
area Lo lndlcaLe ow raLe
are exLremely slmple, robusL devlces
LhaL can measure ow raLes of boLh
llqulds and gasses
uld ows up Lhrough Lhe Lapered Lube
and suspends a oaL ln Lhe column of
uld
Lhe equlllbrlum posluon of Lhe oaL
lndlcaLes Lhe ow raLe on a marked scale
rlnclple of llow MeasuremenL by a 8oLameLer
1he roLameLer depends on Lhe change of an annular area
a beLween Lhe oaL and Lhe Lube, whlch ls a funcuon of
Lhe verucal locauon of Lhe oaL, Lo yleld an essenually
xed pressure drop aL all ow raLes
1he annular area funcuons as an orlce of varlable area
1he ow raLe can be deLermlned from Lhe equlllbrlum
posluon of Lhe oaL
vlscous eecLs are unlmporLanL (Lrue for ma[orlLy of
lndusLrlally lmporLanL ulds)
An analysls of Lhe ow and equlllbrlum posluon of Lhe oaL
2 2 1 1
A u A u m ! ! = =
!
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gz
u p
gz
u p
+ + = + +
! !
( ) ( ) 0
1 2 2 1 2 1
= !
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
! ! ! ! + ! Mg g
M
A z z mu mu A p p
f
(
(
MomenLum equauon
neglecL sllghL Laperlng of Lube
Covernlng equauons:
ConunulLy or mass conservauon
8ernoullls equauon
llow raLe, can be found by solvlng Lhe Lhree governlng
equauons:
1
2
2
2
1
1
1 1
2

1
1 2
A
Mg
A
A
A
A
Mg
A Au Q
f
!
!
!
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
)
= =
p <<p
f
A
2
<<A
1
8oLh A
1
and A
2
are a funcuon of z, so can be correlaLed
Lo locauon (scale on roLameLer)
A
1
/A
2