Nervous system:

The nervous system is a network of

specialized cells that communicate
information about an organism's surroundings
and itself. It processes this information and
causes reactions in other parts of the body. It
is composed of neurons and other specialized
cells called glial cells (plural form glia) that
aid in the function of the neurons. The nervous
system is responsible for the perception of
external and internal conditions and the body's
response to them.

The human nervous system can be described both by gross anatomy, (which describes the parts
that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye,) and by microanatomy, (which describes the
system at a cellular level.) In gross anatomy, the nervous system can be divided into two
systems:

• The Central Nervous System (CNS)

• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS

The nervous system is, on a small scale, primarily made up of

• Neurons
• Glial cells

Neurons:
Neurons are electrically
excitable cells in the nervous
system that process and
transmit information. Neurons
are the core components of the
brain, the vertebrate spinal
cord, the invertebrate ventral
nerve cord, and the peripheral
nerves.

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A number of different types of neurons exist which are :

• Sensory neurons
• Motor neurons
• Interneurons

Sensory Neurons

Sensory neurons are neurons that are activated by sensory input (vision, touch, hearing, etc.),
and send projections into the central nervous system that convey sensory information to the brain
or spinal cord. Unlike neurons of the central nervous system, whose inputs come from other
neurons, sensory neurons are activated by physical modalities such as light, sound, temperature,

chemical stimulation, etc.

In complex organisms, sensory neurons relay their information to the central nervous system or
in less complex organisms, such as the hydra, directly to motor neurons and sensory neurons also
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transmit information (electrical impulses) to the brain, where it can be further processed and
acted upon. For example, olfactory sensory neurons make synapses with neurons of the olfactory
bulb, where the sense of olfaction (smell) is processed.

They respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli effecting sensory organs and
send signals to the spinal cord and brain

Motor Neurons

In vertebrates, the term motor neuron (or motoneuron) classically applies to neurons located in
the central nervous system (or CNS) that project their axons outside the CNS and directly or
indirectly control muscles. The motor neuron is often associated with efferent neuron, primary
neuron, or alpha motor neurons.

They receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions and affect
glands.

Interneurons

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An interneuron (also called relay neuron, association neuron or local circuit neuron) is a
multipolar neuron which connects afferent neurons and efferent neurons in neural pathways.
Like motor neurons, interneuron cell bodies are always located in the central nervous system

(CNS).

It connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Examples of interneurons
include the sensory neurin and motor neuron also connecting to the brain through the association
neurons.

Glial Cells:

Glial cells, commonly called neuroglia or simply glia (Greek for "glue"), are non-neuronal cells
that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal
transmission in the nervous system. In the human brain, there is roughly one glia for every
neuron with a ratio of about two neurons for every three glia in the cerebral gray matter.[1]

Glial cells provide support and protection for

neurons, the other main type of cell in the nervous
system. As the Greek name implies glia are
commonly known as the glue of the nervous
system, although this is grossly inaccurate; rather,
it is more of a partner to neurons. The four main
functions of glial cells are to surround neurons
and hold them in place, to supply nutrients and
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oxygen to neurons, to insulate one neuron from another, and to destroy and remove dead
neurons. They also modulate neurotransmission

Central Nervous system:

The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system that
functions to coordinate the activity of all parts of the bodies of multicellular
organisms. In vertebrates , the central nervous system is enclosed in the
meninges.

It contains the majority of the nervous system and consists of

The brain and

The spinal cord

Together with the peripheral nervous system it has a fundamental role in the control of
behavior. The CNS is contained within the dorsal cavity, with the brain in the cranial cavity
and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity. The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal
cord is protected by the vertebrae

Brain:
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals.
Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system
without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located
in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing,
balance, taste, and smell.

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Brains can be extremely complex. The cerebral cortex of the human brain contains roughly 15-
33 billion neurons depending on gender and age, linked with up to 10,000 synaptic connections
each. Each cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly one billion synapses. These
neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons,
which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body
and target them to specific recipient cells.

Biological functions of brain:

The most important biological function of the brain is to generate behaviors that promote the
welfare of an animal. Brains control behavior either by activating muscles, or by causing
secretion of chemicals such as hormones. Even single-celled organisms may be capable of
extracting information from the environment and acting in response to it. Sponges, which lack a
central nervous system, are capable of coordinated body contractions and even locomotion. In
vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself contains neural circuitry capable of generating reflex
responses as well as simple motor patterns such as swimming or walking. However,
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sophisticated control of behavior on the basis of complex sensory input requires the information-
integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.

Divisions of Brain
The brain is traditionally divided into three parts, the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
This drawing is roughly what it would look like if you sliced your brain straight down the
middle, like a part in your hair. The front of the brain is on the left, the back on the right:

The hindbrain or brain stem consists of three parts. The first is the medulla, which is actually
an extension of the spinal cord into the skull. Besides containing tracts up and down to and from
the higher portions of the brain, the medulla also contains some of the essential nuclei that
govern respiration and heart rate. The upper part of the medulla contains a pinky-sized complex
of nuclei called the reticular formation. It is the regulatory system for sleep, waking, and
alertness.

The second part is the pons, which means bridge in Latin. The pons sits in front of the medulla,
and wraps around it to the back. It is primarily the pathways connecting the two halves of the
next part, which is called the cerebellum.

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The cerebellum, which means "little brain" in Latin, is in fact shaped like a small brain, and it is
primarily responsible for coordinating involuntary movement. It is believed that, when you learn
complex motor tasks, the details are recorded in the cerebellum.

The midbrain is, in human beings, the smallest part of the brain. It connects the hindbrain to the
forebrain, and contains several pathways important to hearing and vision. It is much larger in
lower animals and in the human fetus.

The largest and, for psychologists, most interesting part of the brain is the forebrain. It starts
with the thalamus, which is practically in the center of your head. The thalamus is like a
switching station, conducting signals from the body up to the relevant parts of the higher brain,
and down from the brain to the lower brain and spinal cord.

The brain is divided into two symmetrical hemispheres:

Left (language, the ‘rational’ half of the brain, associated with analytical thinking and logical
abilities)

Right (more involved with musical and artistic abilities).

The brain is also divided into four lobes:

o Frontal – (motor cortex) motor behavior, expressive language, higher level cognitive
processes, and orientation to person, place, time, and situation

o Parietal – (somatosensory Cortex) involved in the processing of touch, pressure, temperature,

and pain

o Occipital – (visual cortex) interpretation of visual information

o Temporal – (auditory cortex) receptive language (understanding language), as well as memory

and emotion

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle

of nervous tissue and support cells that extends
from the brain. The brain and spinal cord

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together make up the central nervous system. Enclosed within, and protected by, the bony
vertebral column, the spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals
between the brain and the rest of the body, but also contains neural circuits that can
independently control numerous reflexes and central pattern generators

Spinal cord segments

The human spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments. At every segment, right and left
pairs of spinal nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form. 6–8 motor nerve rootlets branch out of
right and left ventro lateral sulci in a very orderly manner. Nerve rootlets combine to form nerve
roots. Likewise sensory nerve rootlets form off right and left dorsal lateral sulci and form sensory
nerve roots. The ventral (motor) and dorsal (sensory) roots combine to form spinal nerves
(mixed; motor and sensory), one on each side of the spinal cord. Spinal nerves, with the
exception of C1 and C2 form inside intervertebral foramen (IVF). Note that at each spinal
segment the border between the central and peripheral nervous system can be observed. Rootlets
are a part of the peripheral nervous system.

There are 31 (Some EMS text say 26, counting the sacral as one solid piece) spinal cord nerve
segments in a human spinal cord:

• 8 cervical segments forming 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 spinal nerves exit spinal
column between occiput and C1 vertebra; C2 nerves exit between posterior arch of C1
vertebra and lamina of C2 vertebra; C3-C8 spinal nerves through IVF above corresponding

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 cervica vertebra, with the exception of C8 pair which exit via IVF between C7 and T1

vertebra)
• 12 thoracic segments forming 12 pairs of thoracic nerves (exit spinal column through IVF
below corresponding vertebra T1-T12)
• 5 lumbar segments forming 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (exit spinal column through IVF,
below corresponding vertebra L1-L5)
• 5 (or 1) sacral segments forming 5 pairs of sacral nerves (exit spinal column through IVF,
below corresponding vertebra S1-S5)
• 1 coccygeal segment forming 1 pair of coccygeal nerves (exit spinal column through the
sacral hiatus)

The vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord segments do not correspond
to vertebral segments in adults, especially in the lower spinal cord. In the fetus, vertebral
segments do correspond with spinal cord segments. In the adult, however, the spinal cord ends
around the L1/L2 vertebral level, forming a structure known as the conus medullaris. For
example, lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments are found between vertebral levels T9 and L2.

Although the spinal cord cell bodies end around the L1/L2 vertebral level, the spinal nerves for
each segment exit at the level of the corresponding vertebra. For the nerves of the lower spinal
cord, this means that they exit the vertebral column much lower (more caudally) than their roots.

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As these nerves travel from their respective roots to their point of exit from the vertebral column,
the nerves of the lower spinal segments form a bundle called the cauda equina.

There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:

• Cervical enlargement - corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which

innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The
vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).

• Lumbosacral enlargement - corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which

innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3, and is
found about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.

Functions and control system of central nervous system(brain and

spinal cord):
Typically the brain and spinal cord act together, but there are some actions, such as those
associated with pain, where the spinal cord acts even before the information enters the brain for
processing. The spinal cord consists of the Brainstem which is involved in life sustaining
functions. Damage to the brainstem is very often fatal. Other parts of the brainstem include the
Medulla Oblongata, which controls heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, digestion; Reticular
Activating System (Reticular Formation), involved in arousal and attention, sleep and
wakefulness, and control of reflexes; Pons – regulates states of arousal, including sleep and
dreaming.

 Cerebellum – balance, smooth movement, and

posture
 Thalamus – "central switching station" – relays
incoming sensory information (except olfactory)
to the brain
 Hypothalamus – controls the autonomic nervous
system, and therefore maintains the body’s
homeostasis, which we will discuss later
(controls body temperature, metabolism, and
appetite. Translates extreme emotions into
physical responses.
 Limbic System – emotional expression,
particularly the emotional component of
behavior, memory, and motivation

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  Amygdala – attaches emotional significance to information and mediates both defensive
and aggressive behavior
 Hippocampus – involved more in memory, and the transfer of information from short-
term to long-term memory

Peripheral nervous system:

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) resides or extends outside the central nervous system
(CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect
the CNS to the limbs and organs. Unlike the central nervous system, the PNS is not protected by
bone or by the blood-brain barrier, leaving it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The
peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous
system, and the sensory system

Division of Peripheral Nervous system:

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The peripheral nerves include the 12 cranial nerves, the spinal nerves and roots, and what are
called the autonomic nerves. The autonomic nerves are concerned with automatic functions of
the body. Specifically, autonomic nerves are involved with the regulation of the heart muscle, the
tiny muscles lining the walls of blood vessels, and glands.

The divison of peripheral nerves are as follows:

Sural nerve
Branch of the tibial nerve ensuring nerve sensation especially to the outer part of the calf,
the ankle and the heel.

 Tibial nerve

Branch of the sciatic nerve extending through the posterior tibial nerve and providing
nerve sensation to certain muscles of the leg and the sole of the foot.

Posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh

Branch of the sacral plexus ensuring movement in part of the buttock (greatest gluteal
muscle) and sensation in the posterior part of the thigh.

Gluteal nerve
The lower gluteal nerve (originating in the posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh) and the
upper gluteal nerve (branch of the sacral plexus) provide nerve sensation to the greatest,
medium and small gluteal muscles.

Digital nerve
Nerve originating in the brachial plexus ensuring nerve sensation in the fingers of the
hand.

Sacral plexus
Network formed of several nerves whose branches ensure movement and sensation in the
buttock and part of the thigh.

Lumbar plexus
Network formed of the first four lumbar nerves whose six branches ensure movement and
sensation in the lower limb.

Intercostal nerve
Nerve ensuring motor function and sensation in the muscles between the ribs, as well as
in a portion of the diaphragm and the abdominal wall.

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Radial nerve
Branch of the brachial plexus providing nerve sensation especially in the extensor muscles of
the upper limb and fingers.

Axillary nerve
Branch of the brachial plexus providing nerve sensation especially in the deltoid and small
round muscles; it also ensures sensitivity in the shoulder joint.

Cranial nerves
Each of 12 pairs of nerves connected to the brain providing nerve sensation to the head and
neck; they serve a motor or sensory function.

Deep peroneal nerve

Branch of the common peroneal nerve ensuring nerve sensation mainly in the muscles of the
anterior part of the leg and the back of the foot.

Superficial peroneal nerve

Branch of the common peroneal nerve ensuring nerve sensation mainly in the lateral peroneal
muscles of the outer leg and the back of the foot.

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Common peroneal nerve
Branch of the sciatic nerve ensuring nerve sensation especially in the muscles of the anterior
and external parts of the leg.

Saphenous nerve
Branch of the femoral nerve ensuring nerve sensation in the inner leg and knee.

Sciatic nerve
The organism’s largest nerve, originating in the sacral plexus, ensuring nerve and motor
sensation in a large portion of the lower limb.

Femoral nerve
Large branch of the lumbar plexus ensuring nerve sensation especially in the flexor muscles
of the thigh and the extensor muscles of the leg.

Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh

Branch of the lumbar plexus ensuring nerve sensation mainly to the buttock and the outer
thigh.

Ilioinguinal nerve
Branch of the lumbar plexus that, along with the iliohypogastric nerve and the lateral
cutaneous nerve of the thigh, provides nerve sensation to a portion of the abdomen, the
genital organs and the thigh.

Iliohypogastric nerve
Branch of the lumbar plexus ensuring nerve sensation in one section of the abdominal wall
and in the genital organs.

Obturator nerve
Branch of the lumbar plexus providing nerve sensation especially to the abductor muscles of
the inner thigh.

Ulnar nerve
Branch of the brachial plexus providing nerve sensation, with the median nerve, especially to
the flexor muscles of the hand and toes.

Median nerve
Branch of the brachial plexus providing nerve sensation to various muscles in the lower part
of the forearm and part of the hand, where it divides into five branches.

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Brachial plexus
Network formed of the last four cervical nerves and the first dorsal nerve whose branches
ensure motion and feeling in the upper limb.

Functions of peripheral nervous system:

By function, the peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system,
autonomic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. The somatic nervous system is
responsible for coordinating the body movements, and also for receiving external stimuli. It is
the system that regulates activities that are under conscious control. The autonomic nervous
system is then split into the sympathetic division, parasympathetic division, and enteric division.
The sympathetic nervous system responds to impending danger or stress, and is responsible for
the increase of one's heartbeat and blood pressure, among other physiological changes, along
with the sense of excitement one feels due to the increase of adrenaline in the system. The
parasympathetic nervous system, on the other hand, is evident when a person is resting and feels
relaxed, and is responsible for such things as the constriction of the pupil, the slowing of the
heart, the dilation of the blood vessels, and the stimulation of the digestive and genitourinary
systems. The role of the enteric nervous system is to manage every aspect of digestion, from the
esophagus to the 1stomach, small intestine and colon.2

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