AAPG Bulletin, v. 86, no. 10 (October 2002), pp.

17531771 1753
Acoustic impedance
interpretation for sand
distribution adjacent to a rift
boundary fault, Suphan Buri
basin, Thailand
S. Ronghe and K. Surarat
ABSTRACT
A seismic-derived acoustic impedance volume was used to image
the locations and shapes of water-saturated sands deposited within
the producing interval of a continental half graben. Wire-line log
crossplots showed that high values of impedance relate to sand li-
thology. Constrained sparse spike inversion resulted in good com-
parisons between the derived impedance traces and band-ltered
wire-line impedances. Maximum impedance extractions in map
view and three-dimensional (3-D) displays revealed two styles of
sand distribution: axial deposits comprising delta lobes and bound-
ary faultinduced deposits comprising fan deltas and sand-lled
feeder canyons. Coarse-grained sedimentation was dictated by the
structural conguration of the basin. Axial sedimentationprograded
from south to north, plunging into the basin. Boundary-fault inu-
ence on sedimentation was controlled by a transfer zone and relay
ramp geometry between en echelon fault segments and showed two
component pathways: fan deltas were transported perpendicular to
the fault, whereas feeder canyons transported sediment downslope
to internger with the rift-oor deposits. These styles of structure
and sedimentation support previously published models of struc-
tural-sedimentation interactions in rifts.
I NTRODUCTI ON
Seismic inverse modeling, the decomposition of seismic data into
acoustic impedance traces (Lavergne and Willm, 1977; Lindseth,
1979), aims to bridge the gap between subsurface geology and its
digital expression as seismic amplitudes. Duboz et al. (1998) and
Latimer et al. (2000) explained the advantages of interpretation
on an acoustic impedance volume over conventional seismic
Copyright 2002. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received August 28, 2000; revised manuscript received March 18, 2002; nal acceptance
May 16, 2002.
AUTHORS
S. Ronghe Department of Petroleum
Geoscience, University Brunei Darussalam,
Jalan Tungku Link, Brunei Darussalam, BE
1410; sagar@fos.ubd.edu.bn
Sagar Ronghe received his B.Sc. degree in
geological oceanography from the University
College of North Wales, Bangor, United
Kingdom, in 1991. He obtained an M.Sc.
degree (distinction) in petroleum geoscience
in 1992 and a Ph.D. in 1996, both from the
University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom.
Sagar is a geophysicist, employed as a
lecturer with the Department of Petroleum
Geoscience, University Brunei Darussalam. His
interests are in integrating seismic and wire-
line data for predicting lithology, reservoir
properties, and uid distributions through
seismic inverse modeling and geostatistics.
K. Surarat Department of Petroleum
Geoscience, University Brunei Darussalam,
Jalan Tungku Link, Brunei Darussalam, BE
1410; current address: PTT Exploration and
Production Public Co. Ltd., 555 Vibhavadi-
Rangsit Road, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand;
korakots@ptt-ep.com
Korakot Surarat received her B.Sc. degree in
geology from Chulalongkorn University,
Thailand, in 1993 and her M.Sc. degree in
petroleum geoscience from University Brunei
Darussalam in 1999. She worked as a data
processor for Unocal Thailand between 1993
and 1996. Korakot joined PTT Exploration and
Production Public Co. Ltd. in 1996 as a
geophysicist, and she is currently with the
Arthit Asset Team. Her interests are in
reservoir characterization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank PTT Exploration and
Production Public Co. Ltd. for provision of
data and for permission to publish the results.
Jason Geosystems and Landmark Graphic Cor-
poration are thanked for donation of software
to the Department of Petroleum Geoscience,
University Brunei Darussalam (UBD). This arti-
cle beneted considerably from reviews by J.
Lambiase and C. Morley (UBD), M. Sams (Ja-
son Geosystems), and J. E. Blott, B. Hart, and
L. Liro (AAPG nominated reviewers).
1754 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 1. Major structural elements and Tertiary basin distri-
butions, southern Central Plain, Thailand (modied from
OLeary and Hill, 1989). Striped box in inset shows area location.
Dashed lines represent the likely trends of preexisting basement
fabrics that have inuenced Tertiary fault-plane orientations (see
Discussion).
interpretation. Impedance data image layers, in con-
trast with seismic data, which image interfaces. There-
fore, interpretations can be made on lithological units
rather than on their boundaries, and extracted prop-
erties relate to rock layers rather than to interfaces. Im-
pedance sections can improve layer visualization and
vertical resolution. In addition, impedance can serve as
an indicator of lithology (Pendrel and van Riel, 1997)
and hydrocarbon occurrence (Ruijtenberg et al., 1990;
Ronghe and Trung, 2000) and may also be correlated
with other rock properties, such as porosity (Brown,
1996; Burge and Neff, 1998).
This article reports on a seismic inverse modeling
study from an oil-producing eld in the Suphan Buri
basin, Thailand. Exploration and eld development re-
lied on well information and two-dimensional (2-D)
seismic data interpretation. Lithology and hydrocarbon
distributions were not known in detail. Recent acqui-
sition of three-dimensional (3-D) seismic data made
this inverse modeling study feasible, with the objective
of imaging distributions of lithology and/or hydrocar-
bons, depending on the data-specic discriminatory ca-
pability of acoustic impedance. This article outlines the
workow and the inferences derived at each stage,
presents the seismic-derived impedance maps imaging
sand distribution, and evaluates the tectonic inuences
on sedimentation.
BASI N GEOLOGY
The Suphan Buri basin is an onshore Tertiary rift basin
located about 100 km northwest of Bangkok in the
southern Central Plain of Thailand (Figure 1). The ba-
sin occurs between two parallel, northwest-southeast
trending strike-slip fault zones: the Mae Ping fault zone
to the north and the Three Pagodas fault zone to the
south (OLeary and Hill, 1989; Morley, 2001). The
basin is one of a string of generally north-southtrend-
ing basins that run from north Thailand into the Gulf
of Thailand. The Suphan Buri basin covers an area of
approximately 970 km
2
and is marked by a distinct
half-graben morphology with a north-southtrending,
east-dipping border fault to the west. The study area
is located along the western margin of the basin where
the only oil production occurs. The boundary fault in
the study area is characterized by a splay that isolates
a sliver of structurally shallower formation (Figure 2).
Numerous curved intrabasin faults exist. A structural
high adjacent to the boundary-fault splay forms a
three-way dip closure penetrated by producing wells.
A smaller high occurs in the northern part of the study
area adjacent to the boundary fault. The mapped sur-
face dips toward the northeast, where unit thicknesses
also increase toward possible depocenter locations.
The nonmarine sedimentary ll of the Suphan Buri
basin has been classied by Intharawijitr (K. Inthar-
awijitr, 1993, personal communication) into ve units
(Figure 3). Unit A (lower Oligocene) represents early
rift, basin-ll sedimentary rocks comprising conglom-
erates and sandstones of alluvial origin ning-upward
into shallow-lacustrine siltstones and mudstones. Units
B and C (upper Oligocenelower Miocene) are pre-
dominantly lacustrine deposits at their bases but show
increasing uvial inuence higher up in the section;
they form the main source rocks. Unit D (middle
upper Miocene) forms the interval of interest for our
study. Core analysis from unit D (Tongklang, 1995)
Ronghe and Surarat 1755
Figure 2. Time-structure map of horizon D3. Contours are in
milliseconds. Thick lines represent fault planes. Ticks mark
downthrown side. Dots represent well bottom-hole locations,
and associated lines mark well trajectories. Dashed lines rep-
resent the likely trends of preexisting basement fabrics that have
inuenced Tertiary fault-plane orientations (see Discussion).
revealed laminated mudstones with no evidence of
wave action (therefore, probably deposited below
wave base) that represent deep lacustrine deposits.
This interpretation is substantiated also by crustaceans
found in core (K. Schoeld, 1988, personal commu-
nication). Sandstones in core are medium to coarse
grained and commonly contain poorly sorted conglom-
erates (granule to pebble fraction) dispersed in the ma-
trix. The sandstones show normal to reverse grading
and erosional bases and contain mudstone rip-up clasts,
folded laminated brown silty mudstones, and coal frag-
ments. The sandstones are interpreted as debris ows
and turbidites deposited as alluvial fans and lacustrine
fan deltas near the western, fault-controlled margin of
the basin (OLeary and Hill, 1989; Tongklang, 1995).
Unit E (PlioceneHolocene) represents predominantly
alluvial and uvial postrift deposits comprising gravels,
siltstones, clays, and mudstones.
Data provided by PTT Exploration and Production
Public Co. Ltd., Thailand, comprised 16-fold 3-Dseis-
mic data acquired in 1998 (368 inlines and 640 cross-
lines at 12.5 m spacing) that covered approximately 37
km
2
and wire-line logs from four wells, 2 vertical (K-1
and K-2) and 2 deviated (K-1a and K-2b).
WI RE- LI NE ANALYSI S
Wire-line log analysis aimed to (1) dene the wire-line
characteristics of the sand and shale lithologies, (2) as-
sess the well to well correlatability of lithological units,
and (3) study the acoustic impedance response to
changes in lithology and uid in unit D. The wire-line
gamma-ray response has been calibrated to core by
Tongklang (1995). Blocky low gamma-ray patterns
several meters thick with intermittent serrated high
gamma-ray spikes represent coarse-grained fan-delta
deposits separated by thin laminated mudstones. Fin-
ing-upward gamma-ray patterns with abrupt basal
transitions correlate with channel ll sands, whereas
coarsening-upward trends have been calibrated with
prograding delta front facies in wells outside the study
area. The lacustrine mudstone sequences feature ser-
rated, moderately high to high gamma-ray signatures.
Figure 4 shows representative wire-line logs from
well K-2. The gamma-ray log displays an overall ning-
upward signature within the interval. Sandstones,
characterized by low gamma-ray values (80 API),
show high values for velocity and density and, there-
fore, for acoustic impedance, whereas mudstones,
characterized by high gamma-ray values (120 API),
show comparatively lower acoustic impedances. Six
geological markers (D1D6) provided by PTT Explo-
ration and Production Public Co. Ltd. correspond gen-
erally to the tops or bases of prominent mudstones. In
addition, two markers, the top and base of unit D, were
identied from seismic data and were back-correlated
to the well track using a synthetic seismogram (as dis-
cussed in a following section). The markers subdivide
1756 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 3. Stratigraphy and
depositional environments in
the Suphan Buri basin (based
on K. Intharawijitr, 1993, per-
sonal communication).
unit Dinto seven subunits (Figures 3, 4). Figure 5 pres-
ents the well to well gamma-ray log correlation using
the geological markers. Log trends show some similar-
ity. The mudstone markers are rendered correlatable
by their high gamma-ray values (for example, the D1,
D2, and D4 markers). Sands appear to be intermit-
tently deposited. The lower half of the unit shows
more sand.
Wire-line logs were crossplotted to study the
acoustic impedance response to lithology and uid var-
iations. Figure 6 displays crossplots of gamma-ray vs.
acoustic impedance data graded using water saturation
(S
w
) over the unit D interval from wells K-1a and K-2
as representative. Exclusion of the hydrocarbon-
saturated samples from consideration results in strong
inverse linear relationships between gamma-ray values
and acoustic impedance in each well. The upper
gamma-ray threshold for sand lithology (80 API) cor-
relates with an impedance cutoff value of about 9500
g/cc m/s. Impedance values larger than the cutoff gen-
erally belong to water-saturated sand because presence
of hydrocarbon lowers impedance. Hydrocarbon-sat-
urated samples formlow-impedance clusters that over-
lap the impedance range of shaly sand and shale
impedances.
Crossplot analysis provided the following conclu-
sions: (1) acoustic impedance shows separation in
values for both lithology (shale/sand) and uid (water-
saturated sand/hydrocarbon-saturated sand) compo-
nents; (2) acoustic impedance values are unique only
for the water-saturated sand component. Wire-line
crossplot analysis established the framework within
which the subsequent inverse modelingderived im-
pedance volume could be interpreted. The distribution
of high values within the impedance volume were used
to map the locations and shapes of water-lled sands.
The nonunique characteristic of impedance for hydro-
carbon-saturated sand meant that the impedance vol-
ume could not be interpreted for hydrocarbon
distribution.
LI NKI NG WI RE- LI NE TO SEI SMI C DATA
The well markers were correlated with seismic events
via synthetic seismograms. The transformation of wire-
line logs from depth into two-way traveltime was
achieved using checkshot information at each well.
Optimum wavelet estimation and synthetic seismo-
gram construction required a two-step iterative pro-
Ronghe and Surarat 1757
Figure 4. Wire-line logs from well K-2. Sands, characterized by low gamma-ray values (80 API), have high values of acoustic
impedance. The D1D6 geological markers correspond to the tops or bases of prominent shales and categorize the interval into seven
subunits.
cedure. An initial zero-phase wavelet was constructed
through Fourier synthesis of seismic trace amplitude
spectra and was used to obtain a synthetic seismogram
at each well. Each synthetic trace was compared
against adjacent seismic traces, and the time-depth re-
lationship was adjusted until the best synthetic-seismic
match was obtained. For the updated well to seismic
correlation, the wavelet was recalculated at each well
location as a least squares inverse lter that minimized
the mist function between seismic data and the syn-
thetic trace. This resulted in a more accurate estimate
of the wavelet and, consequently, an optimized syn-
thetic to seismic trace match at each well location. The
average of the four wavelets (Figure 7) has peak am-
plitude occurring at wavelet central location (zero
time), contains a dominant frequency of about 40 Hz,
and shows phase to change linearly within the limits of
the seismic bandwidth.
Figure 8 shows, for well K-2 as representative, the
nal wire-line to seismic match. Table 1 lists synthetic-
seismic cross-correlation coefcients calculated along
each well trajectory over the unit D interval. For the
two vertical wells (K-1 and K-2), the synthetic-seismic
correlations are good (coefcients of 0.74 and 0.77,
respectively). Deviations of the well path away from
the vertical cause uncertainties in matching the syn-
thetic trace created along the well track with the ver-
tical seismic traces. Consequently, the two deviated
wells (K-1a and K-2b) showlower cross-correlation co-
efcient values, but they still represent acceptable and
1758 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 5. Well to well gamma-ray log correlations. Inset shows correlation trajectory based on bottom-hole locations. High gamma-
ray shales are correlatable. Sands appear to be intermittently deposited.
optimum wire-line to seismic matches for use in sub-
sequent inverse modeling.
The synthetic or seismic trace represents the com-
posite reection response of the propagating source
pulse to all impedance boundaries in the formation.
The resolving power of seismic data is, therefore, de-
termined by the degree of interference between re-
ected wavelets and by the frequency and wavelength
(k) of the downward propagating pulse. Tuning occurs
when unit thickness equals k/4, and reected wavelets
fromclosely spaced boundaries interfere constructively
to result in large seismic amplitudes. Knowledge of the
wavelet peak spectral frequency and formation veloc-
ity allow for the calculation of the tuning thickness. In
this data, the dominant wavelet frequency is about 40
Hz (Figure 7). The prominent, thick sands occurring
in the D6 subunit of well K-2 have an associated max-
imum velocity of sonic propagation of about 4700
m/s (Figure 4). Tuning thickness for sand lithology,
therefore, calculates to about 30 m. The lithology of
unit D comprises intercalated units of sandstone and
mudstone lithologies that have thicknesses encompass-
ing the complete spectrum from a minimum of a few
centimeters to a maximum on the order of 25 m
(Tongklang, 1995). Therefore, the thickest sand units
are susceptible to tuning and do not have their upper
and lower interfaces independently resolved on the
seismic data.
The well to seismic correlation of Figure 8 shows
that prominent impedance boundaries relate to peak
or trough events on the synthetic and seismic data:
transitions of impedance from higher to lower values
Ronghe and Surarat 1759
Figure 6. Wire-line log crossplots of gamma-ray values vs.
acoustic impedance graded by water saturation (S
w
) for unit D
from (a) well K-1a and (b) well K-2. On exclusion of the hydro-
carbon-saturated samples, the gamma-ray values have strong
linear relationships with acoustic impedance. In these data, im-
pedance is a unique discriminator of water-saturated sand.
Figure 7. Characteristics of the derived average wavelet.
(a) Time domain representation; (b) amplitude spectrum;
(c) phase spectrum. The wavelet is of mixed phase, has peak
amplitude occurring at zero time, contains a dominant fre-
quency of about 40 Hz, and has a linearly changing phase over
the seismic bandwidth.
(as across the D6 well marker) correlate with seismic
trough events. The D2D6 well markers were corre-
lated accordingly, and seismic horizons were mapped
over the data volume. In addition, the top and base of
unit D, identied from reection characteristics on
seismic data and mapped as peak event horizons over
the data volume, were back-correlated to the well
tracks. Figure 9 is a seismic section view intersecting
well trajectories superimposed with synthetic seismo-
grams, well tops, and interpreted horizons. Figure 9
serves to display the seismic data characteristics adja-
cent to well locations and presents the optimum and
consistent derived match between all well markers and
seismic events.
SEI SMI C I NVERSE MODELI NG
The seismic data volume was inverted into an acoustic
impedance volume using the constrained sparse spike
inversion (CSSI) algorithm (Pendrel and van Riel,
1997). Theoretically, inverse modeling offers non-
unique solutions: any number of geological models
may satisfactorily explain the features of the seismic
data. The CSSI is a trace-based iterative algorithmthat
narrows down the range of possible solutions to within
user-dened impedance constraints. An acoustic im-
pedance trend and a set of constraints were established
for the data fromwire-line impedance logs (Figure 10).
The algorithm restricts the inversion result to within
the geologically and geophysically permissible range of
solutions represented by the established trend and con-
straints window. Additionally, the CSSI algorithm at-
tempts to replace the wavelet signature with a spike
reectivity response, thereby reducing tuning effects
and broadening the frequency bandwidth of the result.
Seismic data, being bandlimited, provide an impe-
dance solution that is missing lowand high frequencies.
Whereas missing high frequencies are unrecoverable,
low frequencies can be extracted from wire-line data
and merged with the sparse spike inversion result to
provide a nal broadband solution. Wire-line impe-
dance logs were mathematically extrapolated within a
3-D model dened by interpreted horizons and faults.
The model was ltered to extract the low-frequency
impedance components (10 Hz), and these were
1760 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 8. Well to seismic correlation for well K-2. The section view panel shows good agreement between seismic traces and the
superimposed synthetic seismogram displayed in color and wiggle trace modes.
Table 1. Cross Correlation Coefcients
Wells
Parameter K-1 K-2 K-1a K-2b
Synthetic/seismic trace 0.74 0.77 0.69 0.68
Impedance/pseudoimpedance log 0.78 0.80 0.80 0.77
merged on a trace by trace basis with the CSSI-derived
impedance volume.
RESULTS AND I NTERPRETATI ON
Figure 11 compares the results of inverse modeling at
well K-2. The section view panel displays the derived
impedance traces in color and wiggle trace modes and,
superimposed at well location, the wire-line impe-
dance log. The comparison illustrates the limit of res-
olution of inverse modeling: ne-scale wire-line im-
pedance variations are beyond the resolution capability
of the derived impedance traces, whereas lithological
impedance units of about 20 m and greater are poten-
tially resolvable. In the wire-line log panels, the wire-
line impedance log (red) is superimposed by the
pseudoimpedance log (black) extracted along the well
track from the derived impedance volume. A good
general agreement exists between the two, corrobo-
rated by the high value of the cross-correlation coef-
cient (0.80), shown in Table 1.
Figure 12 displays an impedance section intersect-
ing well trajectories. It is superimposed, at well loca-
tions, by wire-line impedance logs that have been high-
Ronghe and Surarat 1761
Figure 9. Seismic section intersecting well trajectories and superimposed at well locations by synthetic seismograms in color and
wiggle trace modes. Interpreted horizons displayed as dashed lines. Inset shows section trajectory based on bottom-hole locations.
The section presents the optimum and consistent derived match between all well markers and seismic events.
cut frequencyltered to the bandwidth of the derived
impedance traces to facilitate comparison. Agood gen-
eral agreement exists between impedance features of
the wire-line logs and the adjacent derived impedance
traces. Water-saturated, high-impedance sands appear
to be intermittently and locally deposited within a
background matrix of lower impedance shaly sand or
shale. More sand appears to be deposited in the bottom
half of the unit D interval, in agreement with the
gamma-ray log characteristics of Figure 5.
Maximum values of impedance were extracted
from each subunit to image the lateral distributions of
the water-saturated sands. Figure 13 presents the map
view impedance images for subunits D7D4, along
with line-drawing interpretations of the recognizable,
geologically meaningful patterns of sand distribution
and their inferred directions of sediment transport. The
images reveal that coarse-grained sediment is sourced
into the rift from two locations: from the south, out-
side the study area, and from the west, across the
boundary fault. Sand inux into the rift fromthe south
occurs as lobate features (e.g., in the southern part of
subunit D7 and adjacent to the eastern margin in sub-
units D5 and D4). These are interpreted, based on
their location, orientation, and shape, as deltas (D in
Figure 13). The D5 and D4 subunit images suggest that
the deltas are sourced by a single channel (C in Figure
13), giving the composite a tadpole-like appearance.
Sediment sourced fromthe west follows two styles
of deposition, lobate and linear. Lobate features, inter-
preted from their core/wire-line characteristics and
shape as fan deltas (FD in Figure 13), occur in two
locations: (1) in the central areas of subunits D7, D6,
and D5, located in the structural high adjacent to the
splay in the boundary fault and (2) in the northern and
southern areas adjacent to the boundary fault (e.g.,
subunits D7 and D4). Sediment inux is from across
the boundary fault, and sediment movement is from
west to east, perpendicular to the fault plane. The sec-
ond style of sedimentation derived from the west is
represented by lineations that originate in the struc-
tural high adjacent to the boundary fault and trend
downslope to the northeast. These features are seen in
the impedance images of subunits D6 and D4 (Figure
13b, d). They are interpreted fromcore/wire-line char-
acteristics and shape as sand-lled feeder canyons (FC
1762 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 10. The dened impedance trend and constraints
around the impedance log from well K-2, as representative.
Inverse modeling produced a solution that honored this con-
straints window.
in Figure 13) and represent northeastward downslope
transport of sediment derived from across the bound-
ary fault, outside the basin. In subunit D6, the sand-
lled feeder canyons culminate downslope in a distinct,
ponded deposit in the structurally deeper northern
part of the study area, whereas in subunit D4, the
canyon sedimentation interngers with the rift-oor
deposits.
The sequence of images in Figure 13 records
changes in depositional styles and locations of coarse-
grained sedimentation over the study area. In the
deeper intervals (subunits D7 and D6), axial sedimen-
tation is restricted to the southern half of the area.
There is no axial component of sediment transport in
the northern part. In contrast, the upper subunits (D5
and D4) show a northward progradation of axial sed-
imentation in the form of channelized ows that cul-
minate in delta deposits in the structurally deepest part
of the area. Subunit D4 shows a delta lobe also in the
southern part of the area. Axial sedimentation there-
fore occurred in pulses as it prograded northward into
the rift. The boundary faultinduced fan deltas vary in
location and size. Additionally, the downslope-trend-
ing feeder canyons are clearly visible only in subunits
D6 and D4. This suggests that boundary faultinduced
sedimentation was also sporadic. According to OLeary
and Hills (1989) paleogeographic reconstruction, u-
vial systems drained the western highlands and fed into
the Suphan Buri basin. The sporadicity of sedimenta-
tion therefore relates to changes in uvial systems that
may be brought about by a host of factors that include
hinterland morphology, tectonism, sediment availabil-
ity, climatic conditions, and drainage pathways. The
data for this article are insufcient to isolate the precise
inuencing factors.
DI SCUSSI ON
Tectonic Controls on Sedimentation
In this section we discuss basin formation and the in-
uence of rift-structure and boundary-fault evolution
on the imaged patterns of coarse-grained sedimenta-
tion. The evolution of Tertiary basins in Thailand has
been attributed to sigmoid extension from shearing
along strike-slip faults in the early Tertiary (OLeary
and Hill, 1989; Polachan and Sattayarak, 1989; Pola-
chan et al., 1991). However, Morley et al. (2001)
stated that there is no indication that throughgoing,
major strike-slip faults bound the basins or that the
basins evolved as pull-aparts. According to Morley
(2002a), strike-slip movements along the faults oc-
curred in the EoceneOligocene and preceded basin
formation. Watcharanantakul and Morley (2000) and
Morley (2001) proposed that Tertiary basin evolution
in Thailand was due to subduction rollback of the In-
dian plate under the West Burma block, which caused
nonuniform lithospheric stretching where steepening
of the slab with time caused increased extension. An
evaluation of 2-D seismic data from the Suphan Buri
basin (Buayai, 2000) concluded that there is no evi-
dence of strike-slip tectonics inuencing basin opening;
instead, preexisting basement fabric structures trend-
ing north-south, northeast-southwest, and northwest-
southeast controlled basin development and fault ge-
ometry. These major tectonic lineaments are easily
identied on geological maps of Thailand and have in-
uenced the development of other Tertiary basins
(Watcharanantakul and Morley, 2000; Kornsawan and
Morley, 2002). The controls of basement fabric on the
Ronghe and Surarat 1763
Figure 11. Comparison of the inverse modeling result at well K-2. The section view panel shows the derived impedance traces
overlain by the wire-line impedance log in color and wiggle trace modes. The left wire-line view panel shows the wire-line impedance
log overlain by the pseudoimpedance trace extracted from the impedance volume along the well trajectory.
location and geometry of rift basins, faults within the
rift, transfer zones, and rift segments have been de-
tailed by McConnell (1972), Daly et al. (1989), Smith
and Mosley (1994), and Morley (1999a).
The Suphan Buri basin opened in the late Oligo-
cene along a series of north-south suture zones. The
basin opened from south to north, in agreement with
the observation by Morley et al. (2001) that the Ter-
tiary basins of Thailand become younger toward the
north. Variations in displacement along the strike of
rift boundary faults can indicate joining of individual
fault segments (Duval et al., 1995; Dawers and Un-
derhill, 2000). A study of displacement patterns along
the western boundary-fault system of the Suphan Buri
basin (Buayai, 2000) suggested that the boundary-fault
system comprised several unconnected, generally
north-southtrending en echelon segments, each den-
ing a half-graben subbasin with its own depocenter
(Figure 14a). Fault tips curved where they intersected
the northeast-southwest and northwest-southeast fab-
ric trends. Displacement was maximum at the center
of each fault segment and died out at the tips.
The evolution of extensional faults through prop-
agation and linkage has been studied by, among others,
1764 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 12. Impedance section intersecting well trajectories and superimposed at well locations by high-cut frequency-ltered
impedance logs in color and wiggle trace modes. Interpreted horizons displayed as dashed lines. Inset shows section trajectory based
on bottom-hole locations. High-impedance sands are intermittently and locally deposited within a background matrix of lower im-
pedance shaly sand or shale.
Peacock and Sanderson (1991), Schlische (1991,
1995), Dawers and Anders (1995), Schlische and An-
ders (1996), Morley (1999b, 2002b), and Morley and
Wonganan (2000). Boundary faults grow by along-
strike propagation and by linkage with other faults.
Displacement is transferred from one fault to another
via an accommodation or transfer zone (Rosendahl,
1987; Morley et al., 1990; Morley, 1999b). Two end
members exist for the timing of boundary-fault prop-
agation and linkage (Morley, 2002b): (1) after minor
faulting has created an extensive area of subsidence
(Figure 15a) and (2) prior to signicant basin formation
(Figure 15b). Displacement patterns along the bound-
ary-fault system (see also Buayai, 2000) suggest that
fault propagation in the Suphan Buri basin falls in the
former category. Fault linkages may be soft or hard
(Walsh and Waterson, 1988). In soft fault linkages,
faults appear to be isolated from one another, whereas
in hard fault linkages, fault surfaces are linked by other
faults. Soft linkage of the Suphan Buri basin boundary-
fault segments began in the late Miocene (Buayai,
2000). Several fault segments still separated individual
depocenters throughout most of the Miocene. In the
center of the study area, a northeast-trending relay
ramp occurred between adjacent half grabens and con-
nected the footwall region with the rift oor (Figure
14b). This structural conguration is in agreement
with rift systems described by Leeder and Gawthorpe
(1987), Lambiase (1990), Lambiase and Bosworth
(1995), and Morley (1995, 1999c). Figure 16 concep-
tualizes the rift structure and sedimentation patterns
around the study area.
Sedimentation occurred in response to rift mor-
phology and evolution. Initial rifting in the early Oli-
gocene intercalated very coarse grained alluvial fan de-
posits with shallow-lacustrine muds of unit A in the
study area (K. Intharawijitr, 1993, personal commu-
nication; Tongklang, 1995). Increased intensity of rift-
ing and basin development through the Oligocene cre-
ated deep lacustrine conditions in which the
mudstones of unit B accumulated. The Miocene (units
C and D) was characterized by an interplay between
intermittent coarse-grained sedimentation and mud-
stone deposition in response to lake level uctuations.
Ronghe and Surarat 1765
Figure 13. Map-view images of maximum impedance extracted from each subunit and line-drawing interpretations of the recog-
nizable, geologically meaningful patterns of sand distribution and their inferred directions of sediment transport (red arrows).
(a) Subunit D7; (b) subunit D6; (c) subunit D5; (d) subunit D4. C channel; D delta; F fault plane; FC sand-lled feeder
canyon; FD fan delta.
1766 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 14. Schematic illustration of boundary-fault and basin evolution over the study area. Dashed lines represent the likely trends
of preexisting basement fabrics that have inuenced Tertiary fault-plane orientations (see Discussion). (a) In the late Oligocene, the
basin opened along a series of north-south suture zones as en echelon fault segments, each with an associated depocenter. (b) In
the earlylate Miocene, fault propagation and linkage created an extensive area of subsidence. A northeast-trending relay ramp
occurred between adjacent boundary-fault segments. (c) In the late MiocenePliocene, a renewed phase of extension linked boundary-
fault segments, signicantly altered topography, distorted the relay ramp, and created intrabasin faults.
Episodic axial sedimentation entered the study area in
the southern updip location as delta lobes, prograded
down plunge as channels, and culminated in rift-oor
deltas in the northern, structurally deepest but attest
part of the study area. The northeast-trending relay
ramp between the en echelon faults created a topo-
graphic low in the footwall region for episodic uvial
systems draining the western highlands to enter the
boundary-fault margin. These formed fan-delta depos-
its on the adjacent, elevated rift oor. Feeder canyons
transported coarse-grained sediments down the relay
ramp slope into the rift oor. Erosion of the boundary-
fault escarpments also contributed sediment as alluvial
fans or fan deltas that ponded in the structural lows
formed by areas of maximum displacement along the
fault planes. These patterns of sedimentation have
been well documented in rifts (Leeder and Gawthorpe,
1987; Gawthorpe and Colella, 1990; Lambiase, 1990;
Lambiase and Bosworth, 1995).
The Suphan Buri basin underwent a phase of re-
newed extension in the late Miocene (OLeary and
Hill, 1989) that persisted into the Pliocene (Morley et
al., 2001). This extensional phase coincides with an
abrupt change to deep lacustrine mudstone facies on
core and wire-line log signatures (Tongklang, 1995) at
the base of the D2 subunit. The renewed extension had
numerous effects on rift structure. It caused hard link-
age of the boundary-fault segments through fault prop-
agation, the directions of propagation being inuenced
by the preexisting fabric trends. Hence, the boundary-
fault segment annotated A in Figure 14b propagated
northward, whereas southward propagation of the B
fault segment followed a curved trajectory dening an
intersection of the northeast-southwest and northwest-
southeast fabric trends until it linked with the A seg-
ment. This propagation cut off the relay ramp and cre-
ated the fault splay in the newly amalgamated
boundary fault (Figure 14c). The tectonic activity also
created the intrabasin faults, their orientations inu-
enced by preexisting basement fabric trends. Such con-
trols of preexisting basement fabrics on fault develop-
ment and reactivation have been recorded in the Gulf
of Thailand by Duval et al. (1995) and Kornsawan and
Morley (2002).
Newly amalgamated faults may showeither of two
patterns of displacement (Morley, 2002b): the original
displacements may be altered so that the maxima lie
at the center of the joined segments (Figure 17b), or
original displacement patterns may remain, leading to
the development of a transverse anticline that is per-
Ronghe and Surarat 1767
Figure 15. Two end members for the timing of boundary-
fault propagation: (a) after minor faulting has created an exten-
sive area of subsidence; (b) prior to signicant basin formation
(from Morley [2002b], reprinted by permission of the AAPG
whose permission is required for further use). Fault propagation
in the Suphan Buri basin falls in the former category.
sistent throughout the basin history (Figure 17c). Fig-
ure 18 is a summary diagram over the study area that
incorporates the structural elements of the boundary-
fault system with rift-oor topography and patterns of
coarse-grained sedimentation. The study area shows
transverse anticlines between displacement maxima as-
sociated with individual boundary-fault segments.
Hence, the renewed phase of extension restricted ver-
tical displacement along the boundary fault to individ-
ual segments. This differential displacement signi-
cantly altered the topography over the study area and
also caused the remnant relay ramp to distort into its
present-day anticlinal structure (Figures 2, 18).
Sand Connectivity and Reservoir Implications
Sedimentation within the basin created three kinds of
sand bodies: fan deltas, rift-oor deltas, and sand-lled
feeder canyons. Although our study imaged the dis-
tribution of their water-lled components, these fa-
cies are likely to also form reservoirs for hydrocar-
bons. The potential for hydrocarbon occurrence in
the basin may depend on the areal distribution and
trapping mechanism of the sand bodies, their inter-
connectivity, and their connectivity with sands de-
posited in the deeper parts of the basin, thereby fa-
cilitating updip uid movement. The connectivity
and distribution of the water-lled sands can provide
insights into the characteristics of their likely hydro-
carbon-lled counterparts.
Figure 19 illustrates sand body connectivity for
subunit D6, as representative. To obtain Figure 19,
high-impedance samples greater than a dened size of
voxels were isolated within the subunit impedance vol-
ume, and all connected voxels were assigned an arbi-
trary color. The 3-D extent of a connected sand body
is, therefore, represented in one color. Sand body con-
nectivity is impeded by several factors:
1. The depositional styles of sedimentation create fea-
tures (fans and slumps) of lateral dimensions much
smaller than that of the study area.
2. Sand bodies may be deposited at different, uncon-
nected stratigraphic levels within the subunit.
3. Intrabasin faults break sand body connectivity.
4. The downslope northeast-trending feeder canyons
do not appear to connect with rift-oor deposits in
either the D6 or the D4 subunit, probably because
of postdepositional erosion, shale inlling, or down-
slope slumping of the channel sands.
5. The existence, thickness, and lateral extent of la-
custrine shale within and between subunits affect
vertical connectivity of the sand bodies.
Whether sand bodies can serve as potential con-
duits for hydrocarbon migration and/or as reservoirs
can be evaluated. Fan deltas occurring on the structural
high vary in shape and size. Generally they are small,
localized, and relatively isolated features occurring at
different stratigraphic levels. Poor lateral and vertical
connectivity exist between these features. Also, their
depositional setting and morphology mean that they
have little potential for connectivity with sands depos-
ited in the deeper areas of the basin; hence, uid mi-
gration pathways into these deposits may be uncertain.
Core analysis (Tongklang, 1995) shows that a consid-
erable proportion of their lithology comprises con-
glomeratic facies due to the proximity of these deposits
to the western boundary fault and their inability to
1768 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 16. Conceptual illus-
tration of the rift structure and
sedimentation patterns around
the study area (modied from
Gawthorpe and Colella, 1990).
Arrows show directions of
coarse-grained sediment trans-
port. Not to scale.
traverse large distances. This makes for poor reservoir
rock. Exploration in this facies may require a drilling
strategy that penetrates individual fans and slumps to
overcome the limitations in connectivity.
Rift-oor deltas representing down-plunge, pro-
grading axial sedimentation have the potential for con-
nectivity with the deeper, producing regions of the ba-
sin. Whether these deposits act as conduits or as
reservoirs depends on their vertical and lateral connec-
tivity, stratigraphic or fault-bound trapping congura-
tions, or updip connectivity to structural highs within
and outside the study area.
The northeast-trending sand-lled feeder canyons
merging into the rift-oor fan deltas form the best
means of linking deposits in the deeper part of the ba-
sin to those in the central structural high, although the
connectivity of their clean, water-bearing components
is seen to be impeded in this data set. The channel
sands may show considerable heterogeneity in size and
position and offer potential for interconnectivity.
These sands may not only form good conduits for hy-
drocarbon transport but also be excellent reservoirs
themselves (Tongklang, 1995), providing structural
and stratigraphic traps, and they may comprise suitable
exploration targets within this basin in the future.
CONCLUSI ONS
Our study utilized seismic inverse modeling to image
the distribution of water-lled sands within the unit D
interval of an oil-producing eld along the western
margin of the Suphan Buri basin. Extractions of max-
imum impedance values within each subunit imaged
two styles of sand distribution: axial deposits compris-
ing channel sourced deltas and boundary faultinduced
deposits comprising fan deltas and sand-lled feeder
canyons. The axial deposits prograded from south to
north, down plunge into the basin. The boundary
faultinduced deposits showed two sediment path-
ways: in the central regions of the study area, sediment
transport perpendicular to the fault created fan deltas
on the structural high, whereas feeder canyons trans-
ported sediment northeastward downslope to merge
with the rift-oor fan-delta deposits. Rift and bound-
ary-fault evolution exerted a considerable inuence on
the styles of coarse-grained sedimentation. The sedi-
mentation patterns and structural characteristics of the
study area are similar to published models investigating
the links between fault propagation and synkinematic
sedimentation. These published models have been
based on either well-exposed outcrop data or interpre-
tation of reection packages from seismic data. Our
study is an example of how lithology distributions also
can be obtained from seismic data through inverse
modeling and can be integrated with core, wire-line,
and boundary-fault structural information to provide
an understanding of synkinematic sedimentation along
with the geological characteristics of the formation.
Interpretation of the acoustic impedance volume
has imaged the precise locations, shapes, and deposi-
tional patterns of sands that were previously only
Ronghe and Surarat 1769
Figure 17. Two patterns of displacements along faults following linkage (from Morley [2002b], reprinted by permission of the AAPG
whose permission is required for further use). (a) Soft fault linkage across a transfer zone. (b) Displacement patterns may be altered
so that the maxima lie at the center of the joined segments. (c) Original displacement patterns remain, and a transverse anticline is
formed. Development of the study area followed the latter category.
Figure 18. Summary geologi-
cal model of the study area in-
corporating the structural ele-
ments of the boundary-fault
system, rift-oor topography,
and patterns of coarse-grained
sedimentation. Block arrows
represent sedimentation path-
ways. Vertical scale is about
400 ms.
1770 Acoustic Impedance Interpretation, Suphan Buri Basin (Thailand)
Figure 19. A 3-D display of the connectivity of high-impedance voxels in subunit D6. A single, colored shape represents the 3-D
extent of a connected sand body. The voxels are underlain by the time surface of horizon D6.
inferred to exist in this area. The derived impedance
volume may nd further uses: the voxel-based sand
connectivity investigated in our study may be extended
to calculation of volumetrics, and petrophysical prop-
erties may be extracted from the impedance volume
using linear regression or geostatistical techniques. The
lack of acoustic impedance contrast between shales and
hydrocarbon-saturated sands prevents mapping of hy-
drocarbon distribution on this full-stack, compres-
sional (P) wave seismic data. Clearly, other data types
and/or techniques are required to delineate hydrocar-
bon extents. These include comparison with full-stack,
shear-wave seismic data, amplitude vs. offset analysis,
and comparative interpretation of the derivatives of an-
gle-stacked data inversion. Such investigations will as-
sist in making informed eld development decisions.
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