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Lab 11: Properties of Solutions

Solutions are important to chemistry because it is the best way to mix chemicals so that they are in contact
with each other. That speeds up the reaction between the chemicals. In the lab that focused on double-
replacement reactions, we first made a solution of each compound and then mixed those solutions. The
reactions were immediate.
Also, most of the chemical reactions that make life occur in solution. So understanding the properties of
solutions is quite useful.
Objectives:
1. Classify compounds strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, or non-electrolytes by their conductivity.
2. Observe Heat of Solution.
3. Observe freezing point depression, which is a colligative property of solutions.
Applications and Principles:

A solution is a homogeneous mixture made up of a solute and a solvent. A solute exists as single atoms
(such as metal atoms in an alloy), ions (such as Na+ and Cl- ions in a salt solution), or molecules (such as
sugar molecules in solution) dispersed throughout the solvent.
Electrolytes

An electrolyte is a substance that produces ions in a solution. Because of those ions, the solution of an
electrolyte has electrical conductivity. Remember, the TDS meter is based on ions conducting electrical
current.
An electrolyte can be classified as strong or weak depending on how well it conducts electricity. Strong
electrolytes exist as positive or negative ions (not uncharged molecules) in water. For example, in a water
solution, strong acids are completely ionized:
HCl
(g)
H
+
(aq)
+ Cl
-
(aq)



Weak electrolytes do not completely ionize. In other words, most of the weak electrolyte dissolves without
dissociating into ions. The fraction that does ionize allows for low electrical conductivity and therefore is
a weak electrolyte. Acetic acid is a good example of a weak electrolyte. The large arrow says the reaction
mostly goes towards producing the acetic acid molecule. The small arrow means some of those acetic acid
molecules dissociate into ions (hydrogen ions and the acetate ions).

CH
3
COOH
(aq)
H
+
(aq)
+ CH
3
COO
-
(aq)


Nonelectrolytes dissolve in water but remain as intact molecules that do not dissociate into ions. Dissolved
sugars (like syrups) are good examples of nonelectrolytes. Below is equation using glucose. Again, sugar
dissolved in pure water does not conduct electricity.
C
6
H
12
O
6(s)
C
6
H
12
O
6(aq)


The word, "Electrolyte" should be explained more. "-lyte" is from a Greek word, Lytos,
meaning loosened or soluble. Electrolytes are soluble in water, meaning they are pulled apart (loosened)
by water. Remember, water has partial negative and partial positive charges. Sodium chloride is an
electrolyte because it is "loosened" by water and it has positive and negative ions. Roll mouse over the
image to see animation.

"-lyte" also indicates that this is the substance that can undergo "Electrolysis". "Lysis" means about the
same thing as lyte. It is the pulling apart or decomposing of something. Electrolysis means the breaking
apart of something using electricity. Electrolytes are vulnerable to electrolysis. Put them in water and
attach wires from a 9 volt battery and they will decompose. Copper(II) chloride (CuCl
2
) put in water will
dissolve into copper ions and chloride ions. Let the water evaporate and you get back the copper chloride.
However, expose it to a battery and the negative chlorine ions will be attracted to the positive side of the
battery, and the ions turn into chlorine gas and bubble away. The positive copper ions will be attracted to
the negative side of the battery and will plate out on that wire as copper metal. As this happens the copper
chloride is "decomposed."


In this lab we are not really decomposing the electrolytes using electrolysis. We are just dissolving them in
water. (Not as much fun but easier to do). If a substance dissolves in water, it gives you insight as to the
make up of the that substance. In other words it tells you that there are charges or partial charges on the
substance that water is pulling on. If the solution conducts electricity, it tells you more. It says that the
substance has split apart into ions.
Remember chemistry has the disadvantage of trying to study things that are too small to see. So we depend
on these indirect methods of "looking at" the substances. For example, when the TDS meter gives a high
reading when table salt (NaCl) is dissolved in water, we can "visualize" the sodium ions (Na
+
) moving
independent of the chloride ions (Cl-).

We have all seen these warning signs on items like hair blow dryers. We all know that dropping an
electrical device in water is risking electrocution. However, it's not water that causes the electric shock.
It's the ions from impurities in the water that allow electricity to flow into your body or hand. In a bathtub
of pure water, you would be safe if an electric blow dryer fell into the water because pure water is a non-
electrolyte However, tap water is not safe because of the ions from dissolved salts, which are electrolytes.

In the chart below, the strong electrolyte examples will completely ionize (completely dissociate into ions). In the case of the strong acids, one ion will
always be the hydrogen ion (H
+
). The weak electrolytes will also dissolve in water, but only a small fraction of electrolyte splits apart (dissociates) into
ions. The nonelectrolytes dissolve in water, but essentially none of the molecules dissociate into ions.
Strong Electrolytes Weak Electrolytes Nonelectrolytes
Strong acids: Sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
), nitric acid
(HNO
3
), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic
acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO
4
)
Weak acids: Acetic acid (CH
3
COOH), carbonic acid
(H
2
CO
3
), nitrous acid (HNO
2
), sulfurous acid (H
2
SO
3
),
hydrosulfuric acid (H
2
S), oxalic acid (HOOCCOOH),
boric acid (H
3
BO
3
), hypochlorous acid (HClO), and
hydrofluoric acid (HF).
Molecules: H
2
O, sugar, methanol
(CH
3
OH), ethanol (CH
3
CH
2
OH)
Strong bases: sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
potassium hydroxide (KOH), calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)
2
), barium hydroxide
(Ba(OH)
2
).
Weak base: NH
3

NH
3
+ H
2
O NH
4
+
+ OH
-


Most soluble salts: Sodium chloride (NaCl),
lithium chloride (LiCl), copper(II) chloride,
sodium carbonate (Na
2
CO
3
).




Haz Mat Application:
This image shows power lines down on an asphalt road in the rain. Rain is pure water which does not
conduct electricity. Asphalt has no electrolytes in it. So electrocution in this situation is not as likely.
However, if a person steps onto the dirt or grassy area, the electrolytes (salts) in the soil will conduct
electricity into the person's body.
Lesson: Stay on asphalt and only walk through freshly fallen rain water. If the water is muddy, then it has
electrolytes in it, which means it will conduct electricity. Of course at very high voltages, even areas
without electrolytes can still result in electrocution.

Battery Application:
In the table above, potassium hydroxide (KOH) is listed as a strong electrolyte, which means it is good at
conducting electricity. Potassium hydroxide is used to make alkaline batteries, which get their name from
the alkaline potassium hydroxide used in the batteries.

Eye care application:
Boric acid (H
3
BO
3
) is a weak electrolyte, which means very few of the acidic hydrogen ions split away
from the boric acid molecule. This makes solutions of boric acid very weak acids. Boric acid is anti-
fungal and anti-bacterial, so it is good for eye infections, and because it is such a weak electrolyte, it is safe
in eyewashes.

Forensic application:
When crime labs receive white powders as evidence, they try to identify the powder. If the powder
dissolves, it means the unknown substance is polar or ionic. If the solution is very conductive (reads high
on TDS meter), then that means it is ionic and a strong electrolyte. This helps narrow the list of possible
chemicals or drugs. For example, some drugs are treated with hydrochloric acid (a strong electrolyte) to
create a hydrochloride salt of the drug. This makes those drugs more soluble and strong electrolytes. The
image is of cocaine hydrochloride solution. That solution would read high on the TDS meter. If not, then
someone substituted the cocaine hydrochloride with something else.

Health Application: The body loses electrolytes during times of profuse sweating, diarrhea, vomiting, or
through excessive retention or elimination of urine. Electrolytes help the muscles contract, move nutrients
in and out of the cells, assists in nerve and brain functions, plus many other functions.
The electrolytes used in the body are sodium (Na
+
), potassium (K
+
), calcium (Ca
2+
), magnesium (Mg
2+
),
chloride (Cl
-
), hydrogen phosphate (HPO
4
2-
), and hydrogen carbonate (HCO
3
-
). Sodium, potassium, and
calcium are the ones that are more apt to be out of balance. The electrolyte salts of sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, and calcium chloride, and a calcium carbonate are the usual sources of these
electrolytes.
Heat of Solution

Attractions broken: ions are separated
NaOH(s) Na
+
+ OH
-

Attractions broken: Water molecules
are separated
H
2
OH
2
OH
2
O H
2
O + H
2
O + H
2
O
Attractions formed: Water attracted to
ions
H
2
O
|
H
2
O Na
+
H
2
O
|
H
2
O
H
2
O
|
H
2
O OH
-
H
2
O
|
H
2
O
When gases, liquids, or solids dissolve in a solvent (like water), heat may be generated or absorbed. It
depends on the total energy of the three below steps. Let's use sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as the example.
Attractions Broken: To get NaOH to dissolve in water, the ionic bonds between the sodium ions and the
hydroxide ions have to be broken. That takes some energy, which means this step is endothermic
(absorbs energy).
Attractions Broken: Before NaOH is added, the water molecules are held together by their partial charges
and from hydrogen bonds. For Na and OH ions to mix with the water, the water molecules have to be split
apart. So that takes some energy to break those attractions. This step is endothermic.
Attractions Formed: As the sodium ions come close to the water molecules, the water molecules race
towards the positive sodium ions because the negative side of water is attracted to a positive charge. As the
water molecules race towards the sodium ions, they run into other water molecules which releases heat
energy. The same is true with the OH- ions. The positive sides of other water molecules will race toward
the OH- ion. Energy is released as they come run into other water molecules or come to a stop next to the
OH- ion. This step is exothermic.
Attractions formed: The partially ()
negative side of water molecules are
attracted to the positive sodium ion.

Heat of Solution then depends on how much energy each of these steps either require or release. When
things are attracted to each other, it takes energy to pull them apart. So the first two steps require energy.
When things that attract each other are allowed to come together, they will release energy as they collide
with things along the way or at the point they collide with what they were attracted to. Think of two
magnets that fly towards each other because of the magnetic attraction. When they slam into each other,
energy in the form of sound waves is released along with some heating up of the magnets themselves. The
heat isn't very noticeable, but it's there.
If the energy needed to break those attractions in the first two steps is more than the energy released in the
last step, then the dissolving of NaOH will cause the water to get colder. However, if the last step produces
more energy than the first two steps, then the water will get hotter when NaOH dissolves. If tested you
will find that when NaOH is dissolved in water, the water gets hotter. So the step where the H
2
O molecules
race towards the Na+ ions and the OH- ions must produce more energy than the first two steps.

First Aid Application of Heat of Solution:
Some instant cold packs and instant heat packs use chemicals that upon dissolving their Heat of
Solution absorbs energy (cold pack) or produces energy (hot pack).

Biodiesel Production:
The first chemical reaction done in the production of biodiesel is the dissolving of sodium hydroxide in
methanol. The Heat of Solution of NaOH in methanol makes the solution quite hot. Some plastic containers
are softened by the heat, so that has to be avoided. Also, if rubbing alcohol is used by mistake, its Heat of
Solution produces no heat. That's a sign that the wrong alcohol was used.
The middle and right bottles contain 100% methanol. The left bottle contains 100% isopropyl alcohol,
which doesn't work in making biodiesel.

Acid Handling Safety:
The motto in chemistry labs is to "Never add water to acid; add acid to water." That's because the Heat of
Solution of acid dissolving into water produces so much heat that the water can turn to steam and splatter
the solution. If acid is added to water, the liquid that splatters will be mostly water. If water is added to
acid, the liquid that splatters will be mostly acid. Also, water has a high ability to absorb heat. So adding
acid to water will be cooled by the extra water.
If you want to be crazy, then do the opposite.

De-Icing Application:
All salts are good for melting ice because they reduce the melting point of ice. The salts that have a Heat of
Solution that produces heat are even better because of the extra heat they produce as they dissolve into the
melting ice. Calcium chloride is one of the electrolytes that has a Heat of Solution that produces heat. It's
also less detrimental to the environment and to automobiles, so it is often used to de-ice roads.
Colligative Properties of Solutions
Colligative means "collective". So it implies that there is a collective effort to change properties of a pure liquid or solid. A pure substance in liquid or
solid form will have certain properties such as a certain melting or boiling point. The addition of some other substance will change those properties. Let's
tell a story to make the point.

An ice storm is coming. Your cars radiator has no antifreeze in it; all stores are closed, and youve got to
use whatever you have around the house to keep the water from freezing in the cars engine and splitting
the engine block.
Rule one: What you add has to dissolve in water.
Rule two: If you add a solid or liquid that dissolves in water, it doesnt matter what it is, just the amount.
Rule three: Just like antifreeze, your goal is to replace about of the water with a solid or liquid that is
miscible with water.
Rule four: It is generally best if the substance isn't volatile (doesn't evaporate easily).

Examples 1: Sugar, salt, baking soda, shampoo, laundry detergent, pancake syrup.
Examples 2: Rubbing alcohol, brake fluid
The items on the left are what you had. So you mixed all of these into a gallon of water and poured it into
your radiator.

Note: This is where it doesn't matter what substance you use. It's the count (the moles) that matters, not its
chemical makeup.
It was a long cold night and the next morning you wonder if what you did saved you thousands of dollars
on a new engine.

It took several days before the ice on the car thawed enough to open the door and hood to check it out.
Fortunately, your substitutes for antifreeze worked. Of course, you drained them out and put in real
antifreeze now that the stores were open. You feel lucky but wonder how does antifreeze and these other
products reduce the freezing point of water?

Freezing point depression
Reason 1: The addition of these other substances reduces the number of water molecules that are available
to freeze.
Reason 2: By adding these other substances, youve added disorder to the mixture. Nature tends to favor
disorder (entropy). When water tries to freeze, it has to get organized, which will be more difficult because
its mixed with all of these other molecules.

This frog is frozen but is still alive because the water in it did not turn into ice crystals, which would have
ruptured the cells in its body. Why didnt ice crystals form?
Glucose and glycerin in its blood and cells prevent water from freezing. Glucose and glycerin dilutes the
water, so that reduces the number of water molecules available to make ice crystals. Also, their presence
created disorder in the water. So water as to overcome that disorder in order to arrange itself neatly into ice
crystals.

Dissolved sugars also play a role in helping plants be frost tolerant. The sugars have diluted the water, so
there are less water molecules available to crystallize.

Pure substances are more orderly. When mixed, they lose that order and become more random (more
entropy). Again, nature favors entropy.


You know entropy from experience. You may clean and organize your room, but it doesn't seem to take
long for everything to become disorganized and cluttered. It takes energy to organize and reduce clutter. It
seems easy to make it disorganized.

Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
Antifreeze is also called a coolant because it can elevate the boiling point of water.
So, if you dont have any antifreeze (coolant), what could you use instead?
Yes, the same items that you picked to keep it from freezing.

Let's talk more about freezing point depression.
Notice that ice cream melts differently than ice. Ice stays hard until it melts. Ice cream gradually get softer
and softer.
Ice is a pure substance but ice cream is a mixture. In other words, the concentration of water in ice is
100%, but the concentration of water in the mixture is much less. So the 2-way movement of liquid water
to frozen water favors frozen water because there are more molecules of water in the ice than out in the
solution. So you have get colder than 0C to get it to freeze.
About 30% of the water in ice cream never freezes because of the high level of dissolved solids like sugar,
fats, and proteins.

Mixtures don't have to have to be water based to have freezing point depression. Chocolate is a mixture.
The dissolved sugar, fats, and other components cause chocolate to slowly soften before it melts
completely.

Pure molten silica (SiO
2
) freezes into quartz at around 2000C, but if mixed with CaO and Na
2
CO
3
, it
freezes at about 1000C. Other additives can bring it down to 500C. Actually, at room temperature it is
still not completely frozen. Glass is classified as a supercooled liquid. Over many centuries, this drinking
glass could slowly melt into a pool of glass.
This effect is especially seen on panes of glass in windows. It doesn't take too many years and the glass at
the bottom of a window is thicker than the glass at the top of the window because the glass flows down to
the bottom of the window.

Eggs are mostly water, but dissolved proteins keep them from freezing at 0C.
Chefs take advantage of this in frozen desserts.

A story from Ken Costello:
At my office at the college, I stored sodas in a small refrigerator. One day I noticed that the Diet Coke had
exploded after freezing, but the regular Coke did not freeze and therefore did not explode. I thought, "Why
did the Diet Coke freeze and not regular Coke?" Regular coke has about 39 grams of sugar dissolved in it.
Diet Coke has only about 0.1 grams of Aspartame sweetener in it. The 39 grams of sugar reduces the
concentration of water. So the freezing point of regular Coke was lower than that of Diet Coke. Diet Coke's
freezing point is basically the same as water since very little is dissolved in Diet Coke. So at 32F, Diet
Coke froze, but regular Coke did not.
a. Lab 11 Experiment 1: Conductivity of Electrolytes

The categories of strong, weak, and nonelectrolytes places substances into 3 fixed groups. In reality, there
is a sliding scale from non-electrolyte to a strong electrolyte. Since electrolytes conduct electricity, we
can use the TDS meter to measure how many ions are in solution and therefore reflect how good of an
electrolyte a substance is.
This is the setup that we will use. The small 50mL beaker allows us to use only 20 mL of a solution to
cover the probes of the TDS meter. The large beaker is for stability. The thermometer allows us to do a
temperature adjustment on the TDS readings if we desire.

Let's begin with the liquid that is labeled "Pediatric Electrolyte". This is from a Walgreen's brand to
compete with PediaSure's brand electrolytes.
Pour in at least 20 mL into the 50 mL beaker. You can pour all of it in if you wish.

At first glance, the reading looks like 253 mg/L. That's only about half of the electrolytes in our tap water.
However, upon closer observation, you should see "x10" flashing.

Up close we can see the "x 10" readout. That means we are supposed to multiply the 254 by 10 to give us
2540 mg/L (ppm). That makes more sense. This is about 5 times the electrolyte (salt) level that is in
Phoenix area water.
The temperature of 22C is close enough to the standard 25C that we won't bother doing the temperature
adjustment on the TDS reading.
a1) What is the reading that you got with your Pediatric Electrolyte sample?
Take a photo of your setup for measuring the amount of electrolytes using the TDS meter.

The probes of the TDS meter needs to be washed in between testing different solutions. One way is to put
some tap water or purified water in the plastic beaker, then swirl the TDS meter in the solution. Then
shake off any excess liquid clinging to the meter.

We are now going to dissolve some compounds to see how good of an electrolyte they are depending on
their TDS value. First you need to make sure your purified water is pure so that you know the conductivity
is coming from your compound and not from your "pure" water. Here we see the TDS meter is reading
000 ppm for our purified water. If it is less than 10ppm, then it's OK.
a2) What is the reading of your purified water?

Put a little over 20 mL of purified water into the 50mL beaker. Add a couple of scoops of citric acid and
stir.

At first glance the reading looked like 146 ppm, but upon closer inspection we could see that the "x 10"
multiplier was flashing. So that means the reading is 1460 ppm. Citric acid is considered a weak
electrolyte, but it's stronger than other weak electrolytes.
a3) What is the reading of your solution of citric acid?
The electrical conductivity from the citric acid is from the two ions that it forms. The top molecule is the
citric acid structure as a solid. In a water solution, the bottom structure shows the hydrogen ions that could
be released leaving the negative citrate ion behind. Those hydrogen and citrate ions are responsible for
conducting electricity.



Citric acid is what gives citrus fruits like oranges, lemons, and grapefruit their tart and sour taste. Food
grade citric acid is also added to other foods to add tartness. If you wish, you can add a couple of scoops of
this food grade citric acid to a glass from your kitchen and add a little water and taste it. Don't drink from
one of the kit's beakers, those have been exposed to unsafe chemicals. Use a glass or cup from the kitchen.
a4) If you tried tasting a solution of citric acid, how did it taste?

Do the same thing with sodium chloride (NaCl). Add a little over 20 mL of purified water to the 50 mL
beaker. Add a scoop or two of sodium chloride (from you kit or from the kitchen). Stir to dissolve the
salt. Check it with the TDS meter.
In our sample, the reading was 586, but the "x 10" multiplier was flashing, so the reading is actually 5860
ppm (mg/L). This reading is higher than that of citric acid, which is expected because NaCl is a strong
electrolyte, meaning essentially all of the NaCl will dissociate into Na+ and Cl- ions. Of course, to get a
more accurate comparison between citric acid and sodium chloride, we would have to weigh the amounts
we put into the water. For this experiment, we are just getting some rough comparisons.
The temperature of 22C is close to the standard, so we aren't doing any temperature adjustment on the
TDS reading for our purpose here.
a5) What is the reading of your solution of sodium chloride?

Remember to wash off the probes of the TDS meter with tap water or purified water. Also rinse out the 50
mL beaker with tap water and dry it with paper towel to get it ready for the next test.

Now you will test acetic acid. This is a usual example of a weak electrolyte because less than 1% of the
acetic acid actually has dissociated into H+ ions and acetate ions. Let's use the TDS meter to see how weak
it is.
Your kit has about 9 mL of 5% w/v acetic acid (vinegar). You can pour that into the 50mL beaker. To
cover the probes of the TDS meter, you need 20mL, so add purified water to bring it up to 20mL.


Since we had extra vinegar, so we didn't have to dilute it. Our reading was 757 ppm. If you used diluted
vinegar, then your reading should be lower. The below reaction shows the ions that are responsible for the
reading.
CH
3
COOH
(aq)
H
+
(aq)
+ CH
3
COO
-
(aq)

a6) What is the reading of your solution of acetic acid? Also, did you have to dilute it, or did you have
some vinegar so that you didn't have to dilute it?
The TDS meter is mostly good at measuring the levels of strong electrolytes because it assumes that the
electrolyte has completely ionized. Our reading of 757 mg per Liter is low because it is only reading the
H+ and CH
3
COO
-
(acetate) ions, not all of the acetic acid in solution. Vinegar is 5% w/v meaning 5 grams
per 100 mL. That converts to 50 grams per 1000mL (1 liter). The TDS meter only read 757 mg (0.757
grams) per liter instead of 50,000 mg (50 grams) per liter. "0.757 grams" divided by 50 grams is 0.015, so
only 1.5% of the acetic acid actually dissociated into ions.

Put on goggles when working with this acid.

Now add 20mL of the 0.1M HCl to the beaker. Hydrochloric acid is a strong electrolyte. Let's see what
kind of reading the TDS meter does with that.

The reading we got was 923 with the "x 10" multiplier. So that's 9230 mg/L. That's almost at the limit of
the TDS meter.
a7) What is the reading of your solution of 0.1 M HCl?
The acetic acid above was 5% w/v, which is 5 grams/100mL, or 50 grams/Liter. Acetic acid weighs 60
grams per mole. Let's calculate how many moles per liter our acetic acid was.
50 grams x 1 mole =0.83 moles
1 Liter 60 grams 1 Liter
At 0.83 moles/L, that is 8.3 times more concentrated than the 0.1 moles/L for the HCl; however, the more
dilute HCl solution showed a salt equivalent level of 9230 mg/L compared acetic acid of 757 mg/L. If HCl
was at 0.83 moles/L instead of 0.1 moles/L, then its reading would have been 8.3 x 9230mg/L, which is
76609 mg/L. So at the sameconcentration, HCl has 101 times (76609/757=101)more ions in solution
compared to acetic acid. So now we see why hydrochloric acid is called a strong electrolyte and acetic acid
a weak electrolyte.

Add a couple of scoops of sugar to the 50 mL beaker and add a little more than 20 mL of purified water.
Stir to dissolve the sugar.
Test the sugar solution with the TDS meter.
a8) What is the TDS reading of your solution of sugar?


Empty and clean the 50 mL beaker. Then add in a little over 20 mL of tap water. Our tap water read 468
ppm. The temperature was 20C, so the actual reading is a little higher, but for the purpose of this next
experiment, we won't make the adjustment.
a9) What is the TDS reading of your tap water (without any temperature adjustment)?

Take the 50 mL beaker with tap water out of the large beaker. Locate the test tube labeled "Ion Exchange
Resin Dual Type".


Pour a few of the small beads from the test tube labeled "Ion Exchange Resin: Dual Type" onto the watch
glass. Examine them with your mini microscope.
a10) What do the beads look like?




Add 3 or 4 scoops of the resin to the beaker with the tap water, then stir.

Now the tap water is retested. We found that the amount of electrolytes in the tap water has been lowered
from 468ppm to 319ppm. So where did those ions go?
You may have noticed that this resin actually consists of two types of beads, light ones and dark ones.
Below is a close up of those beads. The dark ones grab onto metal ions like sodium (Na+). The light beads
grab onto the negative non-metal ions like chlorine (Cl-). The beads that grabbed the Na+ ions releases
positive hydrogen (H+) ions. The beads that grab the negative ions such as Cl- release hydroxide ions
(OH-). H+ and OH- then combine to make water (H2O). In other words, salt ions (one type of
electrolytes) comes in, but they are replaced by the electrolytes of H+ and OH-, which combine to make
pure water.

a11) What was the TDS reading after you added the ion exchange resin?
Take a photo of taking the TDS reading after adding ion exchange resin to tap water.

In the on-campus lab, the conductivity of electrolytes is indicated by the brightness of a light bulb. 110
volts is directed through the solution and then through the light bulb. If the solution contains an adequate
concentration of a strong electrolyte (like HCl or NaCl), electricity will flow through the solution and the
bulb will be bright. If the solution contains a weak electrolyte like 5% acetic acid, the bulb will be dim. If
the solution contains a nonelectrolyte like sugar, then the bulb will not be lit at all.

Extra Credit: Your kit also has some other ion exchange resin. This is the sodium type which is often used
in water softeners. What these beads do is trap electrolytes such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ and replace them with
sodium (Na+) ions. Calcium and magnesium ions latch onto soaps and cause soap scum. Hard water has
high levels of calcium and magnesium ions. If those are replaced with sodium ions, it will be called soft
water because sodium ions don't latch onto soap, so the soap works more efficiently. Place some of this
resin in tap water and see if it changes the TDS levels.
a12) If you did this extra credit experiment, what was the TDS reading before and after you added the ion
exchange resin: sodium type to tap water?
b. Lab 11 Experiment 2: Heat of Solution

Round up these four compounds: Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), potassium bromide (KBr), Citric acid, and
lithium chloride (LiCl). You will be testing these for their "Heat of Solution". In other words, you will
find out if heat is released or absorbed as the compound dissolves in water. For some chemicals, the
temperature does not change as it dissolves.

Before we begin with lithium chloride, we need to know the temperature of the purified water that we will
be adding to these compounds. So place the thermometer in a test tube and add about 2 mL of the purified
water. That will be about 1 inch in depth.
b1) What is the temperature of the purified water to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius?
Add 2 or 3 scoops of lithium chloride an empty test tube. In the image, that lithium chloride was added to
the right test tube. See image for amount.



Add about 1 or 2 mL of purified water to the small amount of lithium chloride. That's about 1/2 inch to 1
inch depth

Move the thermometer over to the test tube with the small amount of lithium chloride and water. Use the
thermometer to gently stir the mixture to help the lithium chloride dissolve. Feel the test tube where the
dissolve lithium chloride is. It ought to feel hot.
Now check the temperature of the thermometer. If it is rising, wait until it reaches the maximum
temperature. Because the temperature rose, the dissolving of lithium chloride is an exothermic reaction.
b2) What is the maximum temperature caused by the heat of solution of lithium chloride?



Now you will do the same thing with citric acid.
Now add 2 or 3 scoops of citric acid to a clean empty test tube. Then add 1 or 2 mL of purified water.
Use the thermometer to stir the solution. Then measure the temperature again to see if it rose, dropped, or
stayed the same as the temperature of the purified water.
b3) What is the ending temperature caused by the heat of solution of citric acid?

Now you will do the same thing with potassium bromide.
Now add a few crystals of potassium bromide to a clean empty test tube. Then add 1 or 2 mL of purified
water.
Use the thermometer to stir the solution. Then measure the temperature again to see if it rose, dropped, or
stayed the same.
b4) What is the ending temperature caused by the heat of solution of potassium bromide?

Now you will do the same thing with ammonium chloride.
Now add a 2 or 3 scoops of ammonium chloride to a clean empty test tube. Then add 1 or 2 mL of purified
water.
Use the thermometer to stir the solution. Then measure the temperature again to see if it rose, dropped, or
stayed the same. Also, feel the test tube where the solution is mixed to see if it feels colder or warmer than
the other part of the test tube. If the temperature dropped, then the dissolving of ammonium chloride is an
endothermic reaction.
b5) Does the bottom of the test tube feel colder, warmer, or the same as top of the test tube?
b6) What is the ending temperature caused by the heat of solution of ammonium chloride?
+14.8 kJ/mole
c. Lab 11 Experiment 3: Freezing Point Depression

Round up the four chemicals shown: Copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4), potassium bromide (KBr), sodium
chloride (NaCl), and lithium chloride (LiCl). Place them around the watch glass as shown.
In this experiment, we are not finding the exact freezing point depression caused by these chemicals, but
we will observing their ability to cause a lowering of the melting point of ice (a freezing point depression).

Set four ice cubes on the watch glass. These were store bought ice cubes, but home made ice cubes are
fine, too.

Use microspatula to drag out one or two KBr crystals onto the ice cube that was sitting closest to where the
KBr test tube was laying.

You will notice that the crystal(s) will begin to dissolve into the ice pretty quickly.
c1) Does your crystal(s) of KBr start melting quickly into the ice cube?

Now drag a crystal or two of copper(II) sulfate onto the ice cube that was closest to where the copper(II)
sulfate test tube was laying.

Now place a small pile of sodium chloride onto the ice cube that was closest to where the sodium chloride
test tube was laying. Notice what happens within a few seconds after placing some salt on the ice.
c2) Describe what you saw when you first placed the salt onto the ice.


Now place a small pile of lithium chloride onto the ice cube that was closest to where the lithium chloride
test tube was laying. Notice what happens within a few seconds after placing some lithium chloride on
the ice.
c3) Describe what you saw when you first placed the lithium chloride onto the ice.
Recall from the previous experiment that lithium chloride had quite a high heat of solution. So not only
does it lower the melting point of ice like the other chemicals, it also produce quite a bit of heat when it
dissolves, which helps with melting ice even more.

In a few minutes, the lithium chloride and sodium chloride have made small craters in their ice cubes. The
potassium bromide crystal has melted into the ice and is now under the ice. The copper(II) sulfate crystal
is sitting on the ice but has partially melted the ice below it.
We added more lithium chloride to the hole that it started and more sodium chloride to the hold it started.
You should do the same to see if you can create a hole completely through the ice cubes.
Take a photo of the ice cubes after you have placed all four compounds on them.

On the left is a hole created by adding more lithium chloride. The addition of salt did a little more melting
but our mixture of salt and water froze, so the melting more or less stopped.
c4) Describe what you are seeing regards to the melting of the ice due to adding more lithium chloride and
sodium chloride.

Here is the hole that the lithium chloride created in the ice. So it seems that lithium chloride would be good
as a chemical drill that could bore through ice.

Eventually, our copper(II) sulfate crystal caused the ice to melt enough for it to sink below the surface of
the ice. Interestingly, it didn't seem like it was dissolving much compared to the crystal of KBr, which
sank quickly and more rapidly dissolved.

Also our copper(II) sulfate crystal did not sink straight down. It slid to the side. That was the same thing
the KBr crystal did. It didn't sink straight down but sank at a slant; probably due to the irregular bottom of
the KBr crystal.
Summary of Data to Report:
If you wish, you can copy the below summary into your email (or Word document) and type your answers after the descriptions. The required photos
can either be attached to the email or inserted in the Word document if going that route. Try to keep each image under 2 megabytes. If you are in
section 20598, which has a start date of Aug. 19th, email your lab report to Quinn Thacker at QRT2004@yahoo.com. If you are in
section 20930 which has a start date of Sept. 9th, then email your lab report to Loree Cantrell-Briggs at lor2060912@phoenixcollege.edu. Be sure to
title the email "Lab 11".
a. Lab 11 Experiment 1: Conductivity of Electrolytes
a1) What is the reading that you got with your Pediatric Electrolyte sample?
Attach a photo of your setup for measuring the amount of electrolytes in the Pediatric Electrolyte solution using the TDS meter.
a2) What is the reading of your purified water?
a3) What is the reading of your solution of citric acid?
a4) If you tried tasting a solution of citric acid, how did it taste?
a5) What is the reading of your solution of sodium chloride?
a6) What is the reading of your solution of acetic acid? Also, did you have to dilute it, or did you have some vinegar so that you didn't have to dilute it?
a7) What is the reading of your solution of 0.1 M HCl?
a8) What is the TDS reading of your solution of sugar?
a9) What is the TDS reading of your tap water (without any temperature adjustment)?
a10) What do the beads look like?
a11) What was the TDS reading after you added the ion exchange resin?
Attach a photo of taking the TDS reading after adding ion exchange resin to tap water.
a12) If you did this extra credit experiment, what was the TDS reading before and after you added the ion exchange resin: sodium type to tap water?
b. Lab 11 Experiment 2: Heat of Solution
b1) What is the temperature of the purified water to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius?
b2) What is the maximum temperature caused by the heat of solution of lithium chloride?
b3) What is the ending temperature caused by the heat of solution of citric acid?
b4) What is the ending temperature caused by the heat of solution of potassium bromide?
b5) Does the bottom of the test tube feel colder, warmer, or the same as top of the test tube?
b6) What is the ending temperature caused by the heat of solution of ammonium chloride?
c. Lab 11 Experiment 3: Freezing Point Depression
c1) Does your crystal(s) of KBr start melting quickly into the ice cube?
c2) Describe what you saw when you first placed the salt onto the ice.
c3) Describe what you saw when you first placed the lithium chloride onto the ice.
Attach a photo of the ice cubes after you have placed all four compounds on them.
c4) Describe what you are seeing regards to the melting of the ice due to adding more lithium chloride and sodium chloride.
Post-Lab Questions:
Post-Lab questions and problems are on the Sapling Learning website. http://www2.saplinglearning.com/


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