Deformation and Strength Characteristics of Granular Materials

Deformation and Strength
Characteristics of Granular Materials:

from experimental research
for the last 35 years by a geotechnical
engineering researcher
I
March 29 April 6, 2005
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
Department of Civil Engineering
Tokyo University of Science
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
(averaged for a specimen)
Behaviour at small strains
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
stress-strain behaviour
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
particle size effects
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
Introduction: Background of the research and a very brief
summary of the lectures
Elasticity: Stress-strain behaviour at strains less than about
0.001 %
Non-linear pre-peak stress-strain behaviour: Mainly some effects
of stress history and the shape of yield locus
Effects on confining pressure on stress-strain behaviour: Mainly
those at relatively low and very low pressures
Inherent anisotropy in the pre-peak stress-strain behaviour and
peak strength: experimental results only
Shear banding: mainly analysis related to particle size effects
Time effects: mainly viscous property and partly ageing effects
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

a
t

s
t
r
a
i
n
s

l
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

1
0
-
5
,

E
0
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

Initial Compressive strength, q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
Hard rock core
Sedimentary soft rock
Cement-mixed soil
Clay, sand
& gravel
E
0
/q
max
= 10
2
E
0
/q
max
= 10
3
Initial Youngs modulus and compressive strength of
geomaterials (mostly PSC or TC tests)
(Tatsuoka & Shibuya, 1991)
Granular materials dealt with in this lecture: dense and loose
natural sands and gravels, mostly either air-dried or water-
saturated or moist, prepared in the laboratory
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

a
t

s
t
r
a
i
n
s

l
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

1
0
-
5
,

E
0
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

Initial compressive strength, q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
Hard rock core
Cement-mixed soil
Clay, sand
& gravel
E
0
/q
max
= 10
2
E
0
/q
max
= 10
3
Poorly graded sands often referred to in this lecture
Particle size, D (mm)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Toyoura sand (mostly quartz, D
50
= 0.16 mm)
Hostun sand (mostly quartz, D
50
= 0.31 mm)
Inclined sand specimens
Horizontal bedding plane
1
direction
(Tatsuoka et al., 1986a)
Plane strain compression tests
16 cm
8 cm
20 cm
Freezing
Negligible effects of a sequence of
freezing and thawing were
confirmed (Tatsuoka et al.,1986b)
Thawing
under partial vacuuming
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
c)
Axial strain,
1
(LDT) (%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=
'
1
-
'
3

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
(
o
) e
0.05
90 0.657
45 0.656
30 0.666
20 0.659
0 0.662
Elastic properties
at very small strains
0 3 6 9 12 15
-2
0
2
4
6
8
a)
vol
-
1
relations
R -
1
relations
30
o
45
o
90
o
20
o
0
o
0
o
30
o
20
o
45
o
90
o
Ticino Sand
'
3
=0.8kgf/cm
2
OCR=1.0
(
o
) e
0.05
90 0.657
45 0.656
30 0.666
20 0.659
0 0.662
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
'
1
/
'
3
Axial strain,
1
(%)
4
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
'
v

PSC
' ' 1.0
v h
R = =

(not to scale)
Initial state
0
29 98 '
h
(kPa)
(Park &Tatsuoka, 1994)
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
c)
Axial strain,
1
(LDT) (%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=
'
1
-
'
3

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
(
o
) e
0.05
90 0.657
45 0.656
30 0.666
20 0.659
0 0.662
0 3 6 9 12 15
-2
0
2
4
6
8
a)
vol
-
1
relations
R -
1
relations
30
o
45
o
90
o
20
o
0
o
0
o
30
o
20
o
45
o
90
o
Ticino Sand
'
3
=0.8kgf/cm
2
OCR=1.0
(
o
) e
0.05
90 0.657
45 0.656
30 0.666
20 0.659
0 0.662
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
'
1
/
'
3
Axial strain,
1
(%)
4
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Strong effects of inherent
anisotropy in the whole pre-
peak stress strain
behaviour and peak
strength
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
c)
Axial strain,
1
(LDT) (%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=
'
1
-
'
3

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
(
o
) e
0.05
90 0.657
45 0.656
30 0.666
20 0.659
0 0.662
0 3 6 9 12 15
-2
0
2
4
6
8
a)
vol
-
1
relations
R -
1
relations
30
o
45
o
90
o
20
o
0
o
0
o
30
o
20
o
45
o
90
o
Ticino Sand
'
3
=0.8kgf/cm
2
OCR=1.0
(
o
) e
0.05
90 0.657
45 0.656
30 0.666
20 0.659
0 0.662
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
'
1
/
'
3
Axial strain,
1
(%)
4
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Very small effects
of inherent anisotropy
on the residual behaviour
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
Shear banding
Shear banding
0 3 6 9 12 15
-2
0
2
4
6
8
a)
vol
-
1
relations
R -
1
relations
30
o
45
o
90
o
20
o
0
o
0
o
30
o
20
o
45
o
90
o
Ticino Sand
'
3
=0.8kgf/cm
2
OCR=1.0
(
o
) e
0.05
90 0.657
45 0.656
30 0.666
20 0.659
0 0.662
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
'
1
/
'
3
Axial strain,
1
(%)
4
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Drained saturated Toyoura sand:
- Enhanced rate of stress change associated with changes
in the strain rate at a constant rate;
- Noticeable creep deformation.
'
v
PSC
' ' 3.0
v h
R = =

(not to scale)
Initial state
0 '
h
(kPa)
29 392
(Tatsuoka et al., 2002)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3
4
5
6
c
j
i
h
g
f e
d
b
a
acc.: constant axial strain acceleration
dec.: constant axial strain deceleration
acc.
dec.
Drained creep for 24 hours
acc.
dec.
Drained PSC (test Combi1), '
3
= 392kPa
saturated Toyoura sand (e
0
= 0.730)

Vertical (axial) strain,
v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Very stiff, nearly elastic
behaviour, when ML at a
constant strain rate is
restarted!
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3
4
5
6
c
j
i
h
g
f e
d
b
a
acc.
dec.
acc.
dec.
3
= 392kPa
0
=0.730)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Air-dried Hostun sand
- A sudden change in the stress associated with a step change
in the strain rate
- Clear yielding or a sudden recovery of stiffness
- Decay in the viscous stress during ML at a constant strain rate
(Di Benedetto et al., 2002)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
. .
v
/
0
20
1/50
20
1/5
1/50
2
20

0
= 0.0125 %/min
PSC test (test Hsd03)

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
.
. .
v
/
0
20
1/50
20
1/5
1/50
2
20

0
= 0.0125 %/min

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Fluctuations are much larger in the stress
than in the strain, due to:
a) fluctuations in the recording system; or
b) material property ?
0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
3.30
3.32
3.34
v
=20
0
=0.25 %/min
. .

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
5.50 5.52 5.54 5.56 5.58 5.60
5.52
5.54
5.56
.
.
v
=20
0
=0.25 %/min

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
0025 . 0 R
0005 . 0 R
The fluctuation increases with R,
so factor b) is important.
1.38 1.40 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48
3.98
4.00
4.02
. .
v
=
0
/50=0.00025 %/min
Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
0025 . 0 R
Bearing capacity test of surface footing on air-dried Toyoura sand
W
=
4
0

c
m
D=65 cm
L
=
1
8
0

c
m
V
d

=

a
b
o
u
t

1
.
6
0
0

[
g
/
c
m
3
]
footing condition
39.5cm
rough
Lubricated rigid plane
(plane strain conditions)
A
i
r
-
d
r
i
e
d
T
o
y
o
u
r
a
s
a
n
d
Separated
two-
component
load cells
Rigid rough
footing
(no rotation)
(Tatsuoka et al., 1991 )
Plane strain bearing capacity tests
air-dried Toyoura sand (B
0
= 10 cm in 1 g)
Sand box: 40 cm wide,
183 cm long and
49 cm (sand depth )
Lubricated
1 3
(%) =
The central cross-section exposed
after having been made moist.
Rough footing
The strain field constructed from the displacements of
a latex rubber membrane used to lubricate the side wall.
Very non-uniform strain field and failure planes only
below the footing.
1 3
(%) =
S/B
0
= 70 %
Full failure planes appear only
at a very large footing
settlement.
- A noticeable thickness of shear band
- Non-uniform shear displacements along the shear band
B
=
1
0
c
m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
50
100
150
200
250
k
eq
=805 kPa/mm
k
eq
=789 kPa/mm
k
eq
=565 kPa/mm
TOYOURA Sand
e =0.648, Dr =92.2%
Peak (N
=253.7 at s/B =0.05839)

Footing settlement rate (mm/min)
b-c, d-e, h-i, n-o: 0.00472
a-b, e-f, g-h, j-k, l-m, o-p, q-r: 0.0472
c-d, i-j, m-n: 0.472
k-l: stress relaxation (2 hours)
f-g,p-q: creep (4 hours)
r
q
p
o
n
m
l
k
j
i
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

o
f

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

[
k
P
a
]

Settlement of footing, s [mm]
Step changes in the footing settlement rate, sustained
loading and load relaxation at a fixed footing settlement
(Hirakawa et al., 2003; Hirakawa &Tatsuoka, 2005 )
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
80
100
120
140
160
180
n-o: 0.00472
l-m, o-p, q-r: 0.047
m-n: 0.472
Sustaine loading & relaxation
k-l: load relaxation (2 hours)
p-q: creep (4 hours)
q
p
o
n
m
l
k

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

q

(
k
P
a
)

Settlement of footing, s (mm)
Step changes in the footing settlement rate, sustained
loading and load relaxation at a fixed footing settlement
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
50
100
150
200
250
k
eq
=805 [kPa/mm]
k
eq
=789 [kPa/mm]
k
eq
=565 [kPa/mm]
a)
TOYOURA Sand
e=0.648, Dr =92.2%
Peak (N
=253.7 at s/B =0.05839)

b-c, d-e, h-i, n-o: 4.72E-3 [mm/min]
a-b, e-f, g-h, j-k, l-m, o-p, q-r: 4.72E-2 [mm/min]
c-d, i-j, m-n: 4.72E-1 [mm/min]
k-l: stress relaxation (2 houes)
r
q
p
o
n
m
l
k
j
i
h
g f
e
d
c
b
a

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

o
f

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

[
k
P
a
]

Settlement of footing, s [mm]
Effects of drained creep on subsequent undrained TC
behaviour of Fujinomori clay (w
L
= 62 %, PI= 33, D
50
= 0.017
mm & U
c
10; reconstituted by 1D consolidating de-aired
slurry at
v
= 70 kPa for a period of 3t
EOP
in a large oedometer)
(Fig. 2.4 of Tatsuoka et al. 1999d)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
100
200
300
400
500
Undrained TC
at
V
=0.05%/min
19
16
07
Specimen 15
12
08
01
Napoli Fig.2.4(a)
Drained creep at
K('
3
/'
1
) = 0.5
for two days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean principal stress, p' = ('
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
Development of high stiffness zone by drained creep (this does
not take place if the soil were an elasto-plastic material !)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
100
200
300
400
500
Undrained TC
at
V
=0.05%/min
19
16
07
Specimen 15
12
08
01
Napoli Fig.2.4(a)
Drained creep at
K('
3
/'
1
) = 0.5
for two days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
Development of high stiffness zone by drained creep
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Fig.2.4(b)
08
12
01
15
07
16
Specimen 19
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
Development of high
stiffness zone by drained
creep
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Fig.2.4(b)
08
12
01
15
07
16
Specimen 19
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
50
100
150
200
Specimen 16
Drained
creep
Fig.2.4(c)
E
0
E
eq
-2 E
eq
-1
E
tan
E
tan
Deviator stress, q =
1
-
3
(kPa)
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
t
a
n

a
n
d

E
e
q

(
M
P
a
)
II-1
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
0.001 %
A geotechnical engineering case history
showing the importance of the stress-
strain behaviour at very small strains
Settlement of the foundations for Akashi Strait Bridge
Akashi Strait Bridge
The longest suspension bridge, but the worst ground conditions
ever for long suspension bridges in J apan
(*about 4 million years)
*
Time-history of the settlement of
Pier Foundation 2P on a gravel deposit
for Akashi Strait Bridge
10 years
Pier 2P of Akashi Strait Bridge
The 1995 Hygo-ken Nambu Earthquake

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
,

S
(
m
m
)
Elasped time (days)
End of tower construction
14
th
Oct., 1989

A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
t

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e
(
M
P
a
)

(Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995;
Tatsuoka et al., 2001)
-Instantaneous settlement
-Residual settlement
Creep settlement
Settlement by seismic effects
10 years

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
,

S
(
m
m
)
Elasped time (days)
14
th
Oct., 1989

A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
t

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e
(
M
P
a
)

- Elastic component is large part of the total settlement
- An increase in the tangent modulus d(p)
ave
/dS with (p)
ave
,
reflecting an increase in the loading rate d(p)
ave
/dS
e
with (p)
ave
.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Settlement rate
S
e
(elastic component, based on (V
s
)
field

& its pressure-dependency from laboratory stress-strain tests)
S
t
total settlment
as measured
S
ir
(=S
t
- S
e
)
S
e
mm/day 0.1 =
ir
S
&
Fitted to
(mm/day)
ir
S
&
0.10
0.0-0.05
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.15
0.15-0.20
0.20-0.25
>0.25

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e

(
M
P
a
)
Settlement, S (mm)
-Lower stiffness at slower construction rates
-Noticeable creep settlement during the cease of construction
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Settlement rate
S
e
s
)
field

S
t
total settlment
as measured
S
ir
(=S
t
- S
e
)
S
e
mm/day 0.1 =
ir
S
&
Fitted to
(mm/day)
ir
S
&
0.10
0.0-0.05
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.15
0.15-0.20
0.20-0.25
>0.25

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e

(
M
P
a
)
Settlement, S (mm)
Centreline vertical strains in
the gravel and sedimentary
softrock below the piers:
Strains less than about 0.5 %
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
10
-6
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2

To predict ground deformations at working loads,
the elastic property is important;
because:
1) strains in the ground are relatively small; and
2) deformation properties at these small strains
can be linked to the elastic property,
and the elastic property in the field can be obtained
by field shear wave velocity measurements.
Field shear wave velocity measurement
L
Bored
hole
Velocity
measurement
Down hole (PS logging)
Lateral velocity
Time, t
x
Depth, x
Velocity
measurement
0
Compressive
wave
First arrival of shear wave (VH)
t
Particle
velocity
Compressive wave velocity in
saturated soil is nearly the
same as the value in water, not
reflecting the stiffness of soil.
Wave arrival time, t
a
Depth, x
( ) /
s local a
V dx dt =
Trace of
first wave
arrival time
L
x
0
Shear phase velocity:
(V
s
)
VH
= L/t
Elastic shear modulus*:
G
f
= V
s
2
Elastic Youngs modulus*:
E
f
=2(1+)G
f
*) Isotropic property is assumed
Dt
Velocity
measurement
Lateral velocity
Velocity
measurement
Local shear
wave velocity:
A note for the wave propagation theory
Derivation of
2
s
G V =
x
Homogeneous isotropic linear elastic media
(density: , shear modulus G) dx
x

Propagation of dx
shear wave at a velocity of V
s

dy

0 u (lateral displacement)

1) and

dx
x
are the shear stresses acting at the bottom and top surfaces of an element.

2) The equation of motion for this element is:

2
2
u
dx dy dx dy
x t

+ =

(1)
2
2
u
x t

=

(2)

3) For an isotropic linear elastic material, the stress-strain property of soil is:

u
G G
x

= =
(G: shear modulus, constant) (3)

4) Equation of motion: For a homogeneous soil deposit, we have 0
G
x
. In this case, by
substituting Eq. 3 into Eq. 2, we have:

2 2
2 2
u u
G
x t

=

(4)

By using the parameter
s
G
V
= , Eq. 4 becomes:

2 2
2
2 2
s
u u
V
x t

=

5) Solution: As the displacement u is a function of the time t and the coordinate x, we can assume:

( , ) ( ) ( ) u x t X x T t = (6)

By substituting Eq. 6 into Eq. 5, we obtain:

2 2
2
2 2
s
X T
V T X
x t

=

(7)
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 1
s n
X T
V
X x T t

= =

(8)

where
n
is a constant, not a function of x and t. The general solution of Eq. 8 is:

{ }
1 2
1
exp( ) exp( )
n n n n
n
T A i t A i t
=
= +
(9a)
1 2
1
exp( ) exp( )
n n
n n
n
s s
X B i x B i x
V V

=

= +

(9b)
Therefore, we obtain:

1
exp{ ( ) }
n n
n
s
x
u T X C i t
V

=

= =

(9c)

Another form of the solution is:

{ }
1 2 3 4
1
sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos( )
n n n n n n n n
n
T A t A t A t A t
=
= + + +
(10a)
1 2 3 4
1
n n n n
n n n n
n
s s s s
X B x B x B x B x
V V V V

=

= + + +

(10b)


1 2
1
sin{ ( ) } cos{ ( ) }
n n n n
n
s s
x x
u T X C t C t
V V

=

= = +

(10c)
6) Implications of the solution:

In the figure above, the vertical propagation of shear wave is illustrated. The phase of u moves
as above when the time elapses from t
1
to t
1
+dt. The phase velocity is defined as:

Phase velocity=
dx
dt
(11)

Here, we have:

1 1 1 1
( , ) ( , ) u x t u x dx t dt = + + (12)
x
t=t
1
+dt

u(x
1
+dx,t
1
+dt)

Vertical propagation
of shear wave t=t
1

0 u

u(x
1
,t
1
)
x
1
+dx
x
1

By substituting Eqs. 9c or 10c into Eq. 12, we obtain:

1 1
1 1
s s
x x dx
t t dt
V V
+
= + (13a)
s
dx
V
dt
= (13b)

Eq. 13b means that V
s
is the phase velocity of shear wave.
s
dx
V
dt
= and
s
dx
V
dt
= mean,
respectively, upward and downward propagating shear waves.

7) Shear strain: Referring to Eq. 9c or Eq. 10c, the shear strain is obtained as:

s
u
u particle velocity
t
x V phase velocity

= = =
(14)

The particle velocity can be directly measured in the field.
Wave arrival time, t
a
Depth, x
( ) /
s local a
V dx dt =
Trace of
first wave
arrival time
L
x
0
Shear phase velocity:
(V
s
)
VH
= L/t
Elastic shear modulus*:
G
f
= V
s
2
Elastic Youngs modulus*:
E
f
=2(1+)G
f
*) Isotropic property is assumed
Dt
Velocity
measurement
Lateral velocity
Velocity
measurement
Local shear
wave velocity:
- Popular in J apan
- Accurate local shear wave
velocity: very difficult to
measure
- More difficult to measure
velocities at large depths
Cross-hole tests
( )
s HV
L
V
t
=
L
Bore hole
Velocity
measuring
Shear wave
generation
Velocity
measuring
-The wave speed in a thin soft layer
located between vertically adjacent
stiffer layers may be over-estimated.
-The length L becomes more
uncertain at larger depths.
-Expensive for deeper
measurements.
-Popular in the north America and
Europe
L=1 m
Bore hole
Velocity
measuring
Suspension method
(local up-hole method)
Shear wave
generation
Local:
V
s
=L/ t
z
Velocity
measuring
(V
s
)
VH.local
z
Suspension method
(local up-hole method)
Bore hole
Velocity
measuring
L=1 m
Shear wave
generation
Velocity
measuring
-The soil volume involved in the
measurement is relatively small.
-Rather sophisticated wave
generation process.
-A more direct measurement of
local shear wave velocity.
-Accuracy is not affected by the
depth of measurement.
-Developed and popular in J apan.
z
Local:
V
s
=L/ t
To predict ground deformations at working loads, the
elastic property is important;
because:
1) strains in the ground are relatively small; and
2) deformation properties at these small strains
can be linked to the elastic property,
and the elastic property in the field can be obtained by field
shear wave velocity measurements,
but, once the strain level exceeds the quasi-elastic strain limit,
the stress-strain behaviour becomes highly non-linear and
viscous effects becomes significant, and the entire pre-peak
stress-strain-time relation cannot be obtained only from the
elastic behaviour.
Young modulus back-calculated by FEM
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
E
f
:
from V
s
before construction)
E
PMT
/E
f
(strais for
E
PMT
unreported)
Gravelly soil
range
for
soft rock
2
5
1
1
4
3
7
2
6
3
4
5
6*
9
8
7
3P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.2 kgf/cm
2
1 6 Sedimentary soft rock (P3)
7 Granite
* E
f
was estimated as 5 x E
PMT
2P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.3 kgf/cm
2
1 5 Gravelly soil (Akashi)
6 9 Sedimentary soft rock
E
F
E
M
/
E
f
,

E
P
M
T
/
E
f
Measured ground vertical strain:
1
(%)
E
f
E
FEM
(Tatsuoka
& Kohata, 1995)
- Obvious non-linearity (mostly due to strain-non-linearity).
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
E
f
:
from V
s
E
PMT
/E
f
(strais for
E
PMT
unreported)
Gravelly soil
range
for
soft rock
2
5
1
1
4
3
7
2
6
3
4
5
6*
9
8
7
3P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.2 kgf/cm
2
7 Granite
* E
f
PMT
2P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.3 kgf/cm
2
E
F
E
M
/
E
f
,

E
P
M
T
/
E
f
1
(%)
E
f
E
FEM
- E
FEM
/E
f
approaches 1.0 as the strain becomes very small.
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
E
f
:
from V
s
E
PMT
/E
f
(strais for
E
PMT
unreported)
Gravelly soil
range
for
soft rock
2
5
1
1
4
3
7
2
6
3
4
5
6*
9
8
7
3P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.2 kgf/cm
2
7 Granite
* E
f
PMT
2P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.3 kgf/cm
2
E
F
E
M
/
E
f
,

E
P
M
T
/
E
f
1
(%)
E
f
E
FEM
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
E
f
:
from V
s
E
PMT
/E
f
(strais for
E
PMT
unreported)
Gravelly soil
range
for
soft rock
2
5
1
1
4
3
7
2
6
3
4
5
6*
9
8
7
3P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.2 kgf/cm
2
7 Granite
* E
f
PMT
2P case1 for (p)
ave
= 0 5.3 kgf/cm
2
E
F
E
M
/
E
f
,

E
P
M
T
/
E
f
1
(%)
E
f
E
FEM
Very small values of E
PMT
/E
f
p: pressure
applied to the
bore hole
wall*
r
u: lateral
displacement
in the ground
u
0
: lateral
displacement at
the wall face*
r
o
z
Bore hole
Balloon
Pressure-meter tests:
most popular field loading test to
evaluate the stress-strain behaviour
at small strains
p
0
0
0
u
r
1
2G
0
0
u
r
If soil is linear material.
Conventional Linear Theory for Pressure-meter Tests

1. Purpose of the test:
To evaluate the stiffness of the ground.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 (*: two quantities only measured)

o
p: pressure
applied to the
bore hole
ll*
r
u: lateral
displacement
in the ground
u
0
: lateral
displacement at
thewall face*

r
o

z
Bore hole
Balloon
( )

1. Linear theory
Strain changes (positive in compression) due to the horizontal displacement in the ground (u):
rr
u
r
(1)
u
r
= (2)
0
zz
= (3)
(assuming the plane strain conditions;
relevant when using a long enough balloon)

Strain changes by stress changes (positive in compression) in the ground:
[ ]
1
( )
rr rr zz
E

= + (4)
[ ]
1
( )
zz rr
E

= + (5)
[ ]
1
( )
zz zz rr
E

= + (6) Fig. 3

( )
rr

+
( )
rr
rr
r
r
rr

Deleting
zz
:
( )
zz rr
= + (8)
2 2
1
)
rr rr rr
E

=

(9)
2 2
1
(1 ) ( )
rr rr
E

= +

(9a)
[ ]
1
(1 )
rr rr
E

+
= (9b)
[ ]
1
(1 )
2
rr rr
G

= (9c)
Similarly, by substituting Eq. 8 into Eq. 5, we obtain:
[ ]
1
(1 )
2
rr
G

= (10)
From Eqs. 9c and 10, we obtain:
( )
1
2
rr rr
G

= (11)
By substituting Eqs. 1 and 2 into Eq. 11, we obtain:
2
1
2 ( )
rr
u u
G
r r r r

= +
(12)
Deleting
:
{ }
2 2
1 1 2
(1 ) (1 )
2 2
rr rr rr
G G

+ = =

(13)
1 2
(1 )
2
rr
u u
r r G

+ =

(14a)
By rearranging Eq. 14a, we obtain:
2
(1 )
1 2
rr
G u u
r r

= +

(14b)

By partially derivating Eq. 14b with respect to r, we obtain:
2
2 2
2 1
(1 )
1 2
rr
G u u u
r r r r r

= +

(14c)

Solutions from Eqs. 7b, 12 and 14c:
By substituting Eqs. 12 and 14c into Eq. 7b and by rearranging, we obtain the strain compatibility
equation:
2
2
2
0
u u
r r u
r r

+ =

(15)
Note that this does not include any material properties.

The solution of Eq. 15 is:

2
2 2 3
, , 2
a u a u a
u
r r r r r

= = =

(16a)
By using the known value u
0
at the wall face (
0
r r = ), we obtain:
0 0
u r a
u
r r
= = (17a)
0 0 0
2 2
0 0
u r u u a
r r r r

= = =
(17b)

Fig. 4
0
0
a
u
r
= (measured)
0 0
u r a
u
r r
= =
0
r
r
0
: 0 r u
By substituting Eq. 17b into Eq. 14a at the wall face (
0
r r = ), we obtain:
0 0
0 0
1 2
(1 )
2
u u
p
r r G

+ =

(18)
0 0
0 0
2 ;
2
u r p
p G G
r u
= = (19) (the solution is independent of the Poissons ratio)

Fig.5

The strains at the wall face are:
[ ] [ ]
0 0
0
0
1 rr
r r r r
r r o
u u
r r

= =
=

= = =

(20)
[ ] [ ]
0 0
0
3
r r r r
o
u
r

= =
= = (21)
But, note that the strain is not uniform in the radial direction from the central axis of bore hole.

p
0
p
0
0
u
r

1
2G
( )
rr
rr
r
r
rr

r

dr

0
0
a
u
r
= (measured)
0 0
u r a
u
r r
= =
0
r
r
0
: 0 r u

p
0
0
0
u
r
1
2G
A large variation is possible among different PMT methods
(a case in sedimentary soft rock)
Overview:
Deformation of ground and displacements of structures
at working loads constructed on and in the ground
could be reliably predicted;
1) based on field shear wave velocities;
2) while taking into account the non-linearity by pressure
and strain (including viscous property) evaluated by
relevant laboratory stress-strain tests that;
a) measure accurately stresses and strains;
b) using high-quality core samples; and
c) simulating the field loading history.
Gravel (Akashi
Formation)
Diameter (mm)
0.1 1.0 10 50
100
50
0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

i
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
Large triaxial apparatus;
30 cm in dia. x 60 cm h
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
v
Stress path in
the soil element
Start of loading
Behaviour in the field
(with creep deformation)
Basic postulate:
If we can predict accurately the
stress-strain-time behaviours of
all the concerned soil elements in
the ground, we can predict
accurately the load-displacement-
time behaviour of the foundation.
Ideal laboratory stress-strain
test (e.g., TC test) *
- local strain measurement
- high-quality core sample
- anisotropic re-consolidation
as in the field
- sustained loading
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
Start of loading
h
Stress path in the

field soil element
v
TC test
* Usually very difficult to perform
Nearly elastic behaviour
immediately after the start of
loading
TC test (non-ideal)
- Isotropic reconsolidation
- monotonic loading to failure
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
Difference between the
field behaviour and the
laboratory test result
TC test (non-ideal)
- external strain
measurement
- isotropic reconsolidation
- monotonic loading to
failure
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
Effects of bedding error
Triaxial testing system for small specimens
developed at at the University of Tokyo
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
v
External
LDT
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain, (%)
0 1 2 3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
max
q =9.39 MPa, E =1520 MPa
h
'=0.51 MPa (CD)
Sedimentary soft sandstone (Kobe Formation)
External
LDT
v
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain, (%)
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0
E =1520 MPa
1
LDT v
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain, ( ) (%)
Triaxial compression test
on an undisturbed
sample consolidated to
the field effective stress.
(Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995)
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
TC test (non-ideal)
- more-or-less disturbed sample
- isotropically reconsolidated
Effects of sample disturbance
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
TC test (most conventional)
- external axial strain measurement
- more-or-less disturbed specimen
- isotropic reconsolidation
Unconfined compression test
-external strain measurement
- noticeably disturbed sample
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
Significant underestimation of the stiffness in the field due to
inadequate stress path and history, effects of bedding error
and sample disturbance
0 =
Too conservative design
Significant
underestimation of
strength and stiffness
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
In design based on an allowable
footing settlement
Elastic stiffness from
field V
s
value
Conventional PLT
The link among results from laboratory and field
tests and field full-scale behaviour could be missed.
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
Conventional PMT
An extremely large variation in the E values obtained
from different field and laboratory tests; Why ?
100 1000 10000 100000
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Young's modulus E (kgf/cm
2
)
E
max
from CU and CD TC tests

c
' =
v
' (in situ)= 5.2 (kgf/cm
2
)
Kobe group softrock
1A-1
1A-2
1A-3
1A-4
1A-5
1A-6
E
f
(from shear wave velocity)
4060 2040, 020,
range of plate pressure(kgf/cm
2
)
E
PLT
; tangent modulus
in primary loading
E
BHLT
; primary loading
E
50
unconfined
compression tests
(from external axial strains)
E
max
E
max
Average
(from CD TC tests;
axial strains measured with LDTs)
(Anchor 1A)
(Tatsuoka
& Kohata, 1995)
100 1000 10000 100000
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
2
)
E
max

c
' =
v
2
)
Kobe group softrock
1A-1
1A-2
1A-3
1A-4
1A-5
1A-6
E
f
4060 2040, 020,
2
)
E
PLT
; tangent modulus
in primary loading
E
BHLT
; primary loading
E
50
unconfined
compression tests
E
max
E
max
Average
(from CD TC tests;
Totally different so-called static and dynamic Youngs moduli
100 1000 10000 100000
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
2
)
E
max

c
' =
v
2
)
Kobe group softrock
1A-1
1A-2
1A-3
1A-4
1A-5
1A-6
E
f
4060 2040, 020,
2
)
E
PLT
; tangent modulus
in primary loading
E
BHLT
; primary loading
E
50
unconfined
compression tests
E
max
E
max
Average
(from CD TC tests;
But, the E
max
values from relevant static tests are essentially the
same with those from shear wave velocities (dynamic tests)
0 1 2 3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0
max
q =9.39 MPa, E =1520 MPa
h
'=0.51 MPa (CD)
Sedimentary soft sandstone (Kobe Formation)
External
LDT
v
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain, (%)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
v
External
LDT
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain, (%)
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0
E =1520 MPa
1
LDT v
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
CD TC test on an undisturbed
sample consolidated to the field
effective stress with local axial
strain measurement
100 1000 10000 100000
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
2
)
E
max

c
' =
v
2
)
Kobe group softrock
1A-1
1A-2
1A-3
1A-4
1A-5
1A-6
E
f
4060 2040, 020,
2
)
E
PLT
; tangent modulus
in primary loading
E
BHLT
; primary loading
E
50
unconfined
compression tests
E
max
E
max
Average
(from CD TC tests;
The E
max
values from relevant static tests are essentially the
same with those from shear wave velocities (dynamic tests)
Full-scale behaviour
of pier 3P
- Over-estimation of the
instantaneous settlement
when based on the
conventional methods.
- Accurate simulation by
FEM based on
2
f s
G V =
(Tatsuoka & Kohata, 1995)
Some lessons:
1) Strains operating in the ground supporting
foundations allowing limited displacements;
generally small, lower than about 0.5 %.
2) Non-linear behaviour even at strains less than 0.1 %.
3) The E value approaches E
0
from V
s
as the strain
approaches about 0.001 %, indicating the
importance of elastic property when predicting
ground deformation and structural displacemnts.
4) E
PMT
from conventional pressure-meter tests with
linear interpretation could be too small to directly
use in the prediction.
II-2
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
0.001 %
Non-linear p e-peak stress-strain behaviour: Mainly some effects
Quasi-elastic property of granular material
1) Some fundamental questions on the static &
dynamic moduli with a brief historical review
2) Modelling
3) Some implications of the hypo-elastic model
4) Some case histories
Some questions:
1) Elastic deformation characteristics:
can obtained only by dynamic tests ?
2) Are statically and dynamically determined
elastic deformation properties different ?
Static tests (monotonic or cyclic);
stress-strain property obtained from stresses and strains !
(or loads and displacements)
Dynamic tests (RC tests & wave-propagation tests);
stress-strain property obtained from dynamic responses !
Understanding of the relationship between static & dynamic
tests in the framework of non-linear stress-strain behaviour
Non-linear stress-strain behaviour in relation to quasi-elastic behaviour
at very small strainsand shear banding at very large strains
E
0
Quasi-Linear
elastic
Elastic-
weak visco-plastic
Elastic-
strong visco-plastic
E
sec
E
eq
Shear banding
Laboratory and field testing methods to evaluate non-linear stress-strain
behaviour in relation to elastic behaviour at very small strainsand shear
banding at very large strains
Bender
Element
Reliably measurable
smallest strains
30 years ago
Quasi-Linear
elastic
Shear banding
Elastic-plastic-
viscous
ML or CL Loading
rate
Wave length/
particle size
Number
of cycles
Strain level
Very small
Fast
Nearly infinitive
Nearly infinitive
Large
Small
Large
Small
Very small
Medium to
very large
Medium
Fast
Fast
Large
Very fast
Large
Large
Very large
Medium
Large
Very small to
large
Small Very small
Fast
Cyclic
cycle
Slow Small Cyclic
cycle
Slow Monotonic
Monotonic
Static tests
Dynamic
tests
What are different between static and dynamic tests ?
Influencing
factors
ML or CL Loading
rate
Wave length/
particle size
Number
of cycles
Strain level
Very small
Fast
Nearly infinitive
Nearly
infinitive
Large
Small
Large
Small
Very small
Medium to
very large
Medium
Fast
Fast
Large
Very fast
Large
Large
Very
large
Medium
Large
Very small to
large
Small Very small
Fast
Cyclic
cycle
Slow Small Cyclic
cycle
Slow Monotonic
Monotonic
Static tests
Dynamic
tests
Popular idea about the difference between static and
dynamic tests
ML or CL Loading
rate
Wave
length/
particle size
Number of
cycles
Strain level
Very small
Fast
Nearly
infinitive
Nearly
infinitive
Large
Small
Large
Small
Very small
Medium to
very large
Medium
Fast
Fast
Large
Very fast
Large
Large
Very large
Medium
Large
Very small to
large
Small Very small
Fast
Cyclic
cycle
Slow Small Cyclic
cycle
Slow Monotonic
Monotonic
Static tests:
Static cyclic
loading
tests
starting in
60s
Dynamic
tests:
Resonant-
Column
A historical review of the comparison between static
and dynamic tests - I
Hollow cylindrical specimen
vh
: shear stress
Toyoura sand
Static torsional tests
starting from early
70s at the IIS
(Iwasaki et al., 1977; Tatsuoka et al.,1978, 1979a&b)
Initial isotropic stress state:
2
=
a
=
r
=
t
; and = 45
o,
b=0.5
b
Pure shear
(Iwasaki et al., 1977)
S
e
c
a
n
t

s
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

G
e
q
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Reliably measurable strain :
larger than about 0.01 %
Shear stress,
Shear strain,
Non-linear stress-strain
curve of actual soil
1
4
W
h
W

=
Equivalent linearization taking into account the strain-
nonlinearity of shear modulus and damping ratio
Linear spring
having G
eq
Linear dash
pot
&
An equivalent linear system
having the same G
eq
& h as
soil (i.e., a Voigt model)
Stress-strain curve of the
equivalent linear system
(note a different shape from
the one of actual soil)
Single amplitude
shear strain,
G
eq
and h depends on
Shear stress,
Shear strain,
1
4
W
h
W

=
Shear stress,
Linear spring
having G
eq
Linear dash
pot
&
An equivalent linear system
having the same G
eq
& h as
soil (i.e., a Voigt model)
Stress-strain curve of the
equivalent linear system
(note a different shape from
the one of actual soil)
Shear strain,
Note: This linear system can be equivalent only for a sinusoidal time history
of input strain. If it is assumed that the stress-strain relation of soil were rate-
independent (which is not true), the viscosity coefficient of the dash pot,
=/(d/dt), is inversely proportional to the frequency, f, of the sinusoidal
wave of strain. In this sense, the equivalent linearization method is
approximate in nature, in particular when used for an arbitrary time history of
input strain or stress. A relevant non-linear three-component model is a more
rational model (fore details, refer to Di Benedetto & Tatsuoka., 1997).
Resonant-column apparatus
(Lo Presti, D., Technical University
of Torino )
Reliably measurable strain :
smaller than about 0.01 %
2
n
L
G
F

=

tan
A
M
F F
M
=

x

Homogeneous linear isotropic elastic media
(density: , shear modulus: G) dx
x

Cross-section: A, mass M A L =

Shear wave velocity: dx
V
s

dy
0 u (horizontal displacement)

Fig. 1
0
( 0) sin u x a t = = Fig. 2

A
L
Mass: M
A

Invented by late Prof. IIDA, Kumiji in 1930s
at the Earthquake Research Institute, the University
of Tokyo, and then ignored in J apan.
Found in 1960s in the USA and developed mainly at
the Univ. of Michigan (late Prof. Richart), and
imported to J apan in 1970s by Dr Iwasaki.
(Tatsuoka & Silver, 1980)

It is assumed that the base is being forced to vibrate by the following input motion:

0
( 0) sin( ) u x a t = = (15)

where is the angular frequency and f is the frequency ( 2 f = ). Eq. 10c is the general
solution for this case. Among those in Eq. 10c, only the term including sin( ) t can satisfies Eq
15. Then Eq. 10c becomes:

1 2
( , ) sin sin
s s
u x t C t x C t x
V V

= + +

(16)

where C
1
and C
2
are the coefficients determined by the boundary conditions. By substituting
Eq.15 into Eq. 16 under the condition x= 0, we obtain:

0 1 2
sin ( ) sin( ) a t C C t = + (17)
0 1 2
a C C = + (18)


1 0 1
( , ) sin ( ) sin
s s
u x t C t x a C t x
V V

= + +

(19)

At the resonance, we obtain that
0
0 a = and Eq. 19 becomes:

( )
1 1
( , ) sin sin 2 sin cos
n n n
n n n
s s s
u x t C t x t x C x t
V V V

= + =

(20)

Eq. 20 means that there exist two shear waves propagating upwards and downwards that have the
same amplitude of displacement while opposite signs, with a phase difference of (180
o
).
n
is
the angular frequency at resonance, which is obtained as follows:
The force equilibrium at the top of the media is:

2
2
0
A
x L
x L
u u
M A G
t x
=
=

+ =

(21)

At the resonance, we obtain the following from Eq. 20:

2
2 2
1 1
2
2 sin cos( ) 2 sin cos( )
n n
n n n n
s s
x L
x L
u
C x t C L t
t V V

=
=

= =

(22a)
1 1
2 cos cos( ) 2 cos cos( )
n n n n
n n
x L s s s s
x L
u
C x t C L t
x V V V V

=
=

= =

(22b)

By substituting Eqs. 22a & 22b into Eq. 21, we obtain:

2
sin cos
n n n
A n
s s s
M L A G L
V V V

=

(23)

The non-dimensional angular frequency at the resonance F is defined as:

n
s
L
F
V

= (24)

By using Eq. 24 and referring to the fact that M A L = , we obtain the following from Eq. 23:

tan
A
M
F F
M
= (25)

Accordingly, when M and M
A
are known, we can obtain the value of F from Eq. 25 and then by
substituting that value of F into Eq. 24, we obtain the value of
n
as:

s
n
V
F
L
= (26)

On the other hand, when the value of
n
is measured, the shear modulus G is obtained from the
following equations that is obtained from Eq.24:

n
s
L
V
F

= (27a)
2
n
L
G
F

=

(27b)

When M
A
= 0, we obtain / 2 F = from Eq. 25. In this case, from Eq. 26, we obtain:

2
s
n
V
L
= (28a)
1
2 4
n s
n
V
f
L
= = (28b)
or / 4
s n s n
V f V T L = =
1) Cyclic torsional shear tests (f= 1/10 Hz at N= 10); and
2) Resonant-column tests (fast, f= 100 Hz at N larger 5,000)
a good agreement between G
sec
at shear strains around 0.01 %
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d
s
e
c
a
n
t

s
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

G
e
q
/
G
*

Single amplitdu shear strain,
2
0.5
(2.17 )
* 700
1
e
G p
e
=
+
(Iwasaki et al., 1997)
Laboratory and field tests to evaluate non-linear stress-strain behaviour in
relation to elastic behaviour at very small strainsand shear banding at very
large strains
Bender
Element
Quasi-Linear
elastic
Shear banding
Elastic-plastic-
viscous
Present reliably measurable
smallest strain
ML or CL Loading
rate
Wave
length/
particle size
Number of
cycles
Strain level
Very small
Fast
Nearly
infinitive
Nearly
infinitive
Large
Small
Large
Small
Very small
Medium to
very large
Medium
Fast
Fast
Large
Very fast
Large
Large
Very large
Medium
Large
Very small to
large
Small Very small
Fast
Cyclic
cycle
Slow Small Cyclic
cycle
Slow Monotonic
Monotonic
Static tests:
New series
starting in
80s
Dynamic
tests:
Resonant-
Column
and dynamic tests - II
A new static (monotonic & cyclic
loading) torsional shear apparatus
developed at the IIS
(Tatsuoka et al., 1986, Tatsuoka, 1988)
Teachavorasinskun et al., 1991a&b;
Tatsuoka & Shibuya, 1991)
A typical test result:
shear strain rate=
0.001 %/min
shear strain rate=
0.001 %/min
Stiffness at strain less than
0.001 %; G
0
=1,100 kgf/cm
2
shear strain rate=
0.001 %/min
Shear modulus at strains
less than 0.001 %;
G
0
=1,100 kgf/cm
2
Newstatic cyclic (slow
& a limited number of
cycles, up to 10)
Teachavorasinskun
et al., 1991a&b)
Static monotonic
(Teachavorasin-
skun et al.,
1991a&b)
Shear strain,
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

r
a
t
i
o
G
/
G
0
2
0.5
0
(2.17 )
700
1
e
G p
e
=
+
(p: kgf/cm
2
)
Resonant-column tests
(fast and many cycles)
Cyclic (slow & a limited
number of cycles, up to 10)
Toyoura sand
(1.0 % (0.0001
RC & SC (Iwasaki et
al., 1977)
Static monotonic
(Teachavorasin-
skun et al.,
1991a&b)
Shear strain,
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

r
a
t
i
o
G
/
G
0
2
0.5
0
(2.17 )
700
1
e
G p
e
=
+
(p: kgf/cm
2
)
(fast and many cycles)
Cyclic (slow & a limited
number of cycles, up to 10)
Toyoura sand
(1.0 % (0.0001
RC & SC (Iwasaki et
al., 1977)
Agreement of G between static (slow ML & CL) and dynamic (fast CL) tests
Newstatic cyclic (slow
& a limited number of
cycles, up to 10)
Teachavorasinskun
et al., 1991a&b)
Another example showing a good agreement between the G values from
static (slow ML & CL) and dynamic (fast CL & RC) torsional tests
Tatsuoka et al., 1999a&b)
ML or CL Loading
rate
Wave length/
particle size
Number of
cycles
Strain level
Very small
Fast
Nearly
infinitive
Nearly
infinitive
Large
Small
Large*
Small
+
Very small
Medium to
very large
Medium
Fast
Fast*
Large
Very
fast*,
+
Large
Large
+
Very large*
Medium*
Large
Very small
to large
Small (a half
to one)
+
Very
small
+
,*
Fast
Cyclic
cycle
Slow Small Cyclic
cycle
Slow Monotonic
Monotonic
Static tests:
New series
starting in
80s
Dynamic
tests:
Resonant-
column*
Wave
propagation
+
and dynamic tests - III
Resonant-column tests:
measuring the dynamic
response (i.e., the resonant
frequency) of a system
including the whole specimen
with a relatively large wave
length
Wave velocity measurements:
measuring the velocity of wave
that travels through part of a
media with a relatively small wave
length (usually detecting the fist
arrived body wave of the same
category).
Bottom fixed & top excited
A good agreement:
perhaps because of a short wave shear length relative
to the particle size in the BE tests
Tested at ENTPE in Lyon (Di Benedetto)
Hostun sand (RF)
Mean principal stress, p ( kPa)
Bender Element
(wave velocity
measurement)
Resonant-Column
Triaxial test
10 100 1000
100
10
G
0
/
F
(
e
)
Tatsuoka et al., 1999a)
ML or CL Loading
rate
Wave length/
particle size
Number of
cycles
Strain level
Very small
Fast
Nearly
infinitive
Nearly
infinitive
Large
Small
Large
Small
Very small
Medium to
very large
Medium
Fast
Fast
Large
Very fast
Large
Large
Very large
Medium
Large
Very small to
large
Small (a half
to one)
Very small
Fast
Cyclic
cycle
Slow Small Cyclic
cycle
Slow Monotoni
c
Monotoni
c
Static tests:
new
Dynamic
tests:
wave
propagation
and dynamic tests - IV
Study on effects of strain rate the stress-strain behaviour
at small strains by means of triaxial tests:
1) most relevant to undisturbed samples;
2) less sophisticated and so better operational than torsional
shear tests
h
Triaxial compression:
v
>
h
Triaxial Extension:
h
>
v
But, one serious technical problem
to be overcome: bedding error !
Proximity
transducer
Local
deformation
transducer
Local axial
strain
Axial strain
including B.E.
Bedding error
Pressure cell
Triaxial testing system for small specimens
locally measuring axial strains developed at
the IIS, the University of Tokyo
LDT; Local deformation transducer
(Goto et al., 1991).
Phosphor bronze
strain-gaged strip
LDT
Pseudo-hinge
Membrane
Heart of LDT
(includes electric resistance strain gages,
terminals, wiring, sealant)
Scotch tape used to fix wire
on the specimen surface
Instrument Leadwire
Membrane Surface
PB strip
(Back)
(Front)
Teflon tube protection
Instrument
leadwire
Terminal
Gage leadwire
Active e.r.s.g.
D'
B'
C
A
No. 2
No. 1
Back face (compression side)
C'
A'
B
D
No. 4
No. 3
Front face (tension side)
Proximity
transducer
Local
deformation
transducer
Local axial
strain
Axial strain
including B.E.
Proximity
transducer
Local
deformation
transducer
Local axial
strain
Axial strain
including B.E.
h
= 49 kPa
Loose Toyoura sand (void ratio, e= 0.798)
LDT
Proximeter
0
v
=
h
Triaxial
compression
Proximity
transducer
Local
deformation
transducer
Local axial
strain
Axial strain
including B.E.
Proximity
transducer
Local
deformation
transducer
Local axial
strain
Axial strain
including B.E.
0
v
=
h
Triaxial
compression
h
= 49 kPa
Proximeter
LDT
Proximeter
LDT
Proximity
transducer
Local
deformation
transducer
Local axial
strain
Axial strain
including B.E.
Proximity
transducer
Local
deformation
transducer
Local axial
strain
Axial strain
including B.E.
0
v
=
h
Triaxial
compression
h
= 49 kPa
Proximeter
LDT
LDT
E
0
: Initial Youngs
modulus
= 127.5 MPa
LDT
Proximeter
How is this picture
distorted by BE!
E
0
Quasi-Linear
elastic
Elastic-
weak visco-plastic
Elastic-
E
sec
E
eq
Shear banding
1. Even with a fine sand, serious bedding error.
2. Nearly the same Emax from static ML and CL tests
LDT
Proximeter
Monotonic loading
(e
i
= 0.798)
h
= 49 kPa
Loose Toyoura sand
Even with a fine sand, serious bedding error.
E
sec
E
s
e
c
(
M
P
a
)
BE
LDT
Proximeter
Monotonic loading
(e
i
= 0.798)
h
= 49 kPa
Loose Toyoura sand
Cyclic loading
(e
i
= 0.819)
E
sec
E
s
e
c
o
r

E
e
q
(
M
P
a
)
E
eq
- Serious bedding error in both ML and CL tests
- Nearly the same
0
from static ML and CL tests only when the
axial strains are measured locally.
Monotonic loading
(e
i
= 0.720)
h
= 49 kPa
Medium dense Toyoura sand
Proximeter
Cyclic loading
(e
i
= 0.706)
LDT
E
sec
E
s
e
c
o
r

E
e
q
(
M
P
a
)
E
eq
- Nearly the same
0
Usually;
- static: low strain rates
- dynamic: high strain rates
Then, the effects of strain rate are significant in static cyclic tests ?
At the number of loading cycle equal to 10 for the same stress amplitude
(Tatsuoka & Kohata., 1995;
Di Benedetto & Tatsuoka, 1997)
Negligible effects of
loading frequency not
only at strains=
0.001 % or less but
also at lager strains
during cyclic loading
0
v
=
h
Cyclic prestraining
196
78.4
137
Cyclic loading to
Evaluate E
eq
and h
(kPa)
1E-3 0.01
0
50
100
150
200
0.05 0.02
0.005 0.002
cyclic loading under steady state conditions
after cyclic prestraininng of 65,000 cycles
of
v
=78.4~196 kPa
Test HOSTN5
Neutral stress state

v
=137 kPa &
h
=78.4 kPa
f(Hz)
0.005
0.10
0.25
0.50
1.00
1.50
(
v
)
SA
(%)
E
e
q

(
M
P
a
)
0.001
1E-3 0.01
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
HOSTN5
f(Hz)
0.005
0.10
0.25
0.50
1.00
1.50
D
a
m
p
i
n
g

r
a
t
i
o
,

h
(
v
)
SA
(%)
0.005 0.02
0.05
0.002
0.001
(Tatsuoka & Kohata., 1995;
Tatsuoka et al., 1999b)
Large triaxial apparatus
Institute of Industrial
Science, University of
Tokyo,1986
Dr. Goto,S.; the inventor of
LDT (local deformation
transducer)
Specimen (30 cm-dia.
& 60 cm-high)
Gravel showing a more significant bedding error than sand
Monotonic loading
(e
i
= 0.224)
Proximeter
Cyclic loading
(e
i
= 0.235 & 0.219)
LDT
Proximeter
Dense well-graded gravel
h
= 785 kPa
BE
BE
Monotonic loading
(e
i
= 0.224)
Proximeter
Cyclic loading
(e
i
= 0.235 & 0.219)
LDT
Proximeter
Dense well-graded gravel
h
= 785 kPa
BE
BE
- Nearly the same
0
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Start of loading
Chiba gravel
5
th
cycle
h
=19.6 kPa
d
v
/dt (%/min)
3.6x10
-1
1.8x10
-1
3.6x10
-2
7.2x10
-3
3.6x10
-3
7.2x10
-4
3.6x10
-4
7.2x10
-5
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

i
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain increment,
v
(%)
Despite a large difference
among the loading
frequencies (up to 5,000
times), essentially zero
effects of loading frequency.
(Tatsuoka et al., 1999b)
- Cyclic triaxial tests with a
very small axial strain
amplitude (less than
0.001 %)
- Chiba gravel (crushed
sub-angular sandstone
D
max
= 38 mm, D
50
= 3.5
mm and U
c
= 12.75)
-0.0010 -0.0005 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010
-4
-2
0
2
4
f (Hz) E
v(s)
(MPa)
10 477.9
5 479.0
1 484.8
0.2 476.0
0.1 469.0
0.02 470.3
0.01 458.3
0.002 455.3

Chiba gravel
5
th
cycle
h
=19.6 kPa
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
-0.0015 -0.0010 -0.0005 0.0000
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0

Chiba gravel
5
th
cycle
h
=19.6 kPa
Start of
unloading
d
v
/dt (%/min)
3.6x10
-1
1.8x10
-1
3.6x10
-2
7.2x10
-3
3.6x10
-3
7.2x10
-4
3.6x10
-4
7.2x10
-5
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

i
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
v
(%)
Despite a large difference
among the loading
frequencies (up to 5,000
times), essentially zero
effects of loading frequency.

- Cyclic triaxial tests with a
very small axial strain
amplitude (less than
0.001 %)
- Chiba gravel (crushed
sub-angular sandstone
D
max
= 38 mm, D
50
= 3.5
mm and U
c
= 12.75)
-0.0010 -0.0005 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010
-4
-2
0
2
4
f (Hz) E
v(s)
(MPa)
10 477.9
5 479.0
1 484.8
0.2 476.0
0.1 469.0
0.02 470.3
0.01 458.3
0.002 455.3

Chiba gravel
5
th
cycle
h
=19.6 kPa
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
E
v
for (
v
)
SA
=0.0005 %

v
/
h
(E
v
)
f=10Hz
(MPa)
1.0 476.6
1.0 604.5
3.2 1111.0
5.3 1419.2
7.5 1594.5
E
v
/
(
E
v
)
f
=
1
0

H
z
f (Hz)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0
500
1000
1500
2000

h
(kPa)
v
/
h
19.6 1.0
49.0 1.0
49.0 3.2
49.0 5.3
49.0 7.5
E
v
for (
v
)
SA
=0.0005 %
E
v

(
M
P
a
)
f (Hz)
Very small effects of
strain rate, or f, on the
stiffness at small strains,
in particular at more
isotropic stress state
Very small effects of strain rate, or f, also on
the strain path at very small strains
-0.0008 -0.0004 0.0000 0.0004 0.0008
-0.0003
-0.0002
-0.0001
0.0000
0.0001
0.0002
0.0003

Chiba gravel
5
th
cycle
h
= 19.6 kPa
f (Hz)
10
5
1
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.002
R
a
d
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

h

(
%
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
for (
v
)
SA
= 0.0005 %

h
(kPa)
v
/
h
19.6 1.0
49.0 1.0
49.0 3.2
49.0 5.3
49.0 7.5
v
h
=

-
d
h
/
d
v
f (Hz)
Very small effects of strain rate, or f, on the
Poissons ratio at very small strains
10 100 1000
200
400
600
800
1000
v
/
h
=7.5
e=0.2496
v
/
h
=5.3
e=0.2481
v
/
h
=3.2
e=0.2474
v
/
h
=1
e=0.2470
v
/
h
=1
e=0.2471

(
v
)
SA
=0.0005 %
f(e)=(2.17 - e)
2
/(1+e)
f (Hz)
10
5
1
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.02
E
v
/
f
(
e
)

(
M
P
a
)
v
(kPa)
1 10
1
5
0.2
0.5
0.5
(
v
)
SA
=0.0005 %

f (Hz)
10
5
1
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.02
v
h
v
/
h
Youngs modulus and
Poissons ratio when d
v
= d
1
;
increase with an increase in
v
and
v
/
h
respectively (this
issue is discussed more in
detail later in this lecture)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0
2
4
6

h
(kPa)
v
/
h
19.6 1.0
49.0 1.0
49.0 3.2
49.0 5.3
49.0 7.5
h
0
for (
v
)
SA
= 0.0005 %

D
a
m
p
i
n
g

r
a
t
i
o
,

h
0

(
%
)
f (Hz)
- Small but noticeable effects of strain rate, or f, on the
damping ratio, h
0
(as h
0
is more sensitive to inelastic
behaviour than E and .
- More effects due to more inelastic behaviour at more
anisotropic stress state
Summary of E
v
at strains of 0.001 % or
less, obtained mostly by static tests
(mostly cyclic triaxial tests, and partly
monotonic triaxial tests):
- hard rock cores (Sato et al.,1997)
- mortar & concrete (Sato et al.,1997)
- sedimentary softrock
- gravels and sands
- clays
Sandy gravel (D)
sand (U)
Hostun sand (D)
Resonant-column
Hard rock core
Ultrasonic wave
Concrete
Mortar
Sagamihara soft rock (U)
OAP clay (U)
Air-dried
Wet Chiba gravel (D)
Metramo silty sand (U)
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Vallericca clay
.
E
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Axial strain rate, d
v
/dt (%/min)
N.C. Kaolin (CU TC)
Saturated Toyoura
-0.0010 -0.0005 0.0000 0.0005 0.0010
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4

Chiba gravel
5
th
cycle
h
=19.6 kPa
f(Hz) d
v
/dt (%/min)
10 3.6x10
-1
5 1.8x10
-1
1 3.6x10
-2
0.2 7.2x10
-3
0.1 3.6x10
-3
0.02 7.2x10
-4
0.01 3.6x10
-4
0.002 7.2x10
-5
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
E
v
E
v
= E
0
in the
vertical direction
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
Sandy gravel (D)
sand (U)
Hostun sand (D)
Resonant-column
Hard rock core
Ultrasonic wave
Concrete
Mortar
OAP clay (U)
Air-dried
Vallericca clay (U)
.
E
v

(
M
N
/
m
2
)
v
/dt (%/min)
N.C. Kaolin (CU TC)
Saturated Toyoura
Cement-mixed gravel (D)
New data:
Cement-mixed
well-graded gravel
CTX (
h
= 20 kPa)
Cement= 60 kg/m
3
Compacted at w= 5 %
Cured for 7 days
Omae et al. (2003)
Resonant-column
Hard rock core
Ultrasonic wave
Concrete
Mortar
10
5
10
6
m
2
)
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
.
v
/dt (%/min)
E
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Hard rock core & mortar:
1. A very low dependency on the strain rate
2. With homogeneous* materials, nearly the same statically
and dynamically evaluated E
v
values
(* compared with the wave length)
E
v
= E
0
in the
vertical direction
(Tatsuoka et al., 1999a&b)
Resonant-column
Hard rock core
Ultrasonic wave
Concrete
Mortar
10
5
10
6
m
2
)
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
.
v
/dt (%/min)
E
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Concrete
E
v
from body wave velocities (P waves): higher than those
evaluated statically, due likely to a high heterogeneity* of
the specimens (* compared with the wave length)
Sandy gravel (D)
Resonant-column
Hard rock core
Ultrasonic wave
Concrete
Mortar
OAP clay (U)
10
4
10
5
10
6
E
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Saturated Toyoura
Effects of heterogeneity;
Body waves that
propagate faster through
relatively stiffer parts are
first detected.
The resonant-frequency of
a system consisting of the
whole specimen represents
the average stiffness of the
whole specimen.
Sandy gravel (D)
sand (U)
Hostun sand (D)
OAP clay (U)
Air-dried
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
3
10
4
Vallericca clay
.
E
v

(
k
v
/dt (%/min)
N.C. Kaolin (CU TC)
Saturated Toyoura
A very low
dependency on the
strain rate
Sandy gravel (D)
sand (U)
Hostun sand (D)
OAP clay (U)
Air-dried
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
3
10
4
Vallericca clay
.
E
v

(
k
v
/dt (%/min)
N.C. Kaolin (CU TC)
Saturated Toyoura
E
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
A noticeable
dependency
on the strain
rate
E
v
(= E
0
at strains less than 0.001 %) from cyclic undrained
triaxial tests on isotropically consolidated Metramo silty sand
0.00001 0.00010 0.00100 0.01000 0.10000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
'
c
= 98.1 kPa
'
c
=196.2 kPa
'
c
=392.4 kPa
.
(a)
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E

0

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain rate,
v
(%/min)
v
&
Higher dependency on the
strain rate at lower strain rates
E
v
Lower dependency on the
strain rate at higher strain rates
(Santucci de Magistris et al., 1999)
E
v
and h
0
at strains less than 0.001 %, respectively,
decreases and increases noticeably with a decrease in the
loading rate; showing that
1) the stress-strain behaviour at strains less than 0.001 % is
not totally elastic; and
2) the viscous property is important.
0.00001 0.00010 0.00100 0.01000 0.10000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
'
c
= 98.1 kPa
'
c
=196.2 kPa
'
c
=392.4 kPa
.
(a)
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E

0

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain rate,
v
(%/min)
0.00001 0.00010 0.00100 0.01000 0.1000
0
2
4
6
8
10
.

Metramo silty sand
test MO03
undrained
a,SA
= 0.00075 %
e
0
= 0.307
'
c
= 98.1 kPa
'
c
=196.2 kPa
'
c
=392.4 kPa
(b)
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

r
a
t
i
o
,

h

0

(
%
)
Axial strain rate,
v
(%/min)
v
&
v
&
(Santucci de Magistris et al., 1999)
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
larger strain rate
start of loading
Metramo silty sand
MO03UT
3
rd
cycle
'
c
= 392.4 kPa
(a)
Axial strain rate
v
3.52x10
-5
%/min
1.55x10
-4
%/min
4.11x10
-4
%/min
8.08x10
-4
%/min
2.44x10
-3
%/min
8.00x10
-3
%/min
2.44x10
-2
%/min
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

i
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
v
(%)
The stress-strain relations at strains less than 0.001 %:
not perfectly linear ! - more linear at higher strain rates
More than
1000 times
Highly linear & rate-independent (i.e., elastic) stress-strain
behaviour appears only at strains of the order of 0.0001 % in
this particular case
0.00001 0.00010 0.00100 0.01000 0.10000
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
Axial strain, 2(
v
)
sa
1.05x10
-6
2.02x10
-6
5.00x10
-6
1.47x10
-5
Metramo silty sand
MO03UT
3
rd
cycle
'
c
= 392.4 kPa
.

S
e
c
a
n
t

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
s
e
c

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain rate,
v
(%/min)
Highly elastic property
Quasi-elastic
property
v
&

q Elastic limiting line

Slope; E
o
at Increasing
strain rate 1 constant strain rate

Strain rate 1

; Limit of elastic behaviour at each strain rate
0 0.001 %
General trends of behaviour:
1. A longer elastic zone at a higher strain rate
2. The elastic zone may disappear at very low strain rates
Creep
The shear modulus at
very small strain, G
0
, of
high-quality samples is
nearly the same with G
f
from field V
s
.
G
0
values of more
disturbed samples are
noticeably lower than G
f
from field V
s
.
Technical problems with
conventional rotary core
tube (RCT) sampling
method for soft rocks
10 100 1000 5000
10
100
1000
5000
RCT
BS+DC
(
1
:
2
)
(
1
:
1
)
Range for Soft rocks and
Cement-treated soils
(BS+DC) and clays
RCT
BS+DC
Kazusa

Local axial strain measurements
G
0
=
E
0
/
{
2
(
1
+
)
}

(
M
P
a
)
(
=
0
.
5

f
o
r

c
l
a
y
s

a
n
d

0
.
4
2

f
o
r

s
o
f
t
r
o
c
k
s
)
G
f
=(V
s
)
vh
2
(MPa)
Kobe

Sagara

Miura

Uraga-A

Slurry

Dry

Pleistocene clay site
Cement-treated soil
DMM

TS
BS
Tokyo
bay

Osaka
bay

OAP

RCT=rotary coring
DC=direct coring
BS=block sampling
TS=fixed-piston thin-wall sampling
Suginami

Uraga-B

Tokoname

(Tatsuoka et al., 1999a&b)
Effects of cyclic prestraining on the small strain
stiffness:
Whether the quasi-elastic Youngs modulus increases
of sand increases by cyclic prestraining?
0.4
0.8
1.2
-0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02
(b)
At the end of CP
At the beginning
of CP
1280
1
1320
1
v
(%)
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
-
v
relations from cyclic triaxial tests (
h
= 78 kPa) on an air-died
specimen (7.5 cm in diameter and 15 cm high) of Toyoura sand (Hoque,
1996)
After 25,000 cycles of pre-cyclic loading, the stress-strain hysteresis loop
has become: 1) highly reversible; and 2) noticeably non-linear such that
the tangent modulus increases with an increase in the axial stress.
0.78
0.81
0.84
-0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
(a)
1
1
Elapsed
LDT GS time(min)
0
3000
7500
11200
Before CP
After CP
1900
1500
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
(%)
TYRA 3
c
=0.8 kgf/cm
2
(78.4 kPa)
Isotropically consolidated
0.4
0.8
1.2
-0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02
(b)
At the end of CP
At the beginning
of CP
1280
1
1320
1
v
(%)
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Stiffness for a very small strain amplitude does not increase
by cyclic pre-straining.
Relationship between the quasi-elastic Youngs modulus E
v(s)
defined for (
v
)
SA
= about 0.001 % and the elapsed,
isotropically consolidated Toyoura sand (Hoque, 1996)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1000
1500
2000
2500
(
0
.
7
4
9
)
(
0
.
7
4
9
)
(
0
.
7
4
9
)
(
0
.
7
5
0
)
(
0
.
7
5
0
)
Cyclic prestraining
(no. of cycles=25000 of cyclc axial stresses
between 0.4 and 1.20 kgf/cm
2
)
Post-CP
Pre-CP
(b)
Void ratio
D
r
o
p
e
0.8
=0.750~0.749
E
v(s)
based on LDT
f(e)=(2.17-e)
2
/ (1+e)
t (*10
4
) (min.)
E
v
(
s
)

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Toyoura sand (TYRA 3)
c
=0.8 kgf/cm
2
Relationship between the quasi-elastic Youngs modulus E
v(s)
defined for (
v
)
SA
= about 0.001 % and the elapsed,
isotropically consolidated Toyoura sand (Hoque, 1996)
0.0 0.5 1.0
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
(a)
t (*10
4
) (min.)
E
v
(
s
)

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
(
0
.
6
4
9
)
(
0
.
6
4
9
)
(
0
.
7
5
0
)
(
0
.
6
5
0
)
D
r
o
p
Cyclic prestraining
(No. of cycles=25000 of cyclic axial stresses
between 0.4 and 1.20 kgf/cm
2
)
Post-CP
Pre-CP
e
0.8
=0.650~0.649
E
v(s)
based on LDT
Toyoura sand (TYRA 2)
c
=0.8 kgf/cm
2
The quasi-elastic Youngs modulus increases
of sand may not increase by cyclic prestraining.
Comparison of statically and dynamically
measured Youngs moduli of granular materials
by
Prof. Koseki, J . and his colleagues,
the Institute of Industrial Science,
the University of Tokyo
(AnhDan et al., 2002; Maqbool et al., 2004, 2005)
Large scale true triaxial apparatus at IIS, Univ. of Tokyo
LDT-Local deformation transducer
25cm
22 cm
5
0

c
m
V-LDT
Vertical load cell
Horizontal load cells
Friction load cells
Gap sensors
Vertical LDTs
Horizontal LDTs
Confining
plate
Setting measurement transducers
in true triaxial test
25
22
50
Unit: cm
Z
Y
X
Static measurement of vertical Youngs modulus, (E
v
)
static
0.0070 0.0075 0.0080 0.0085 0.0090 0.0095
48.0
48.5
49.0
49.5
50.0
50.5
51.0
51.5
52.0
52.5
53.0
E
s
= 162.8 MPa
Isotropic Consolidation

1
(%) by average of all vertical LDTs
1
,

M
a
j
o
r

p
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
P
a
)
1
E
s
About 0.002 %
Wave generation and recording control system
Accelerometers
Oscilloscope
4ch,1s,16bit
Function generator Amplifier
Signal conditioners
Trigger inside top cap
Trigger and receivers for dynamic measurement
P-wave
5
0

c
m
22 cm
25cm
60kHz,0.7g
4kHz,1.3g
Accelerometers
E
d
= V
p
2
V
p
= L/t
L = Wave travel length = L
2
- L
1
t = Wave travel time
= Dry density of specimen
E
d
=Unconstrained vertical
Youngs modulus
Pedestal
Top cap
Trigger
L
1
L
2
0
0
1
1.1 0.2
(1 )(1 2 )
h
h
v
v
v
d
v
v
v
d
M
when
E
=
=

=

= =
+
=

Note:
Stacking to obtain clear wave signal
128 waves were enough to obtain clear averaged wave signal
Wave number =1
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
G
)
Time (Sec)
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
G
)
Time (Sec)
Wave number =32
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
G
)
Time (Sec)
Wave number =8
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
G
)
Time (Sec)
Wave number =128
-0.0003 0.0000 0.0003 0.0006 0.0009
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4

Toyoura Sand (TC-7)
Time (Sec)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
G
)
Pulse wave triggering
25V
0
Input
t
rise
= 0.000702 sec
t
pk
= 0.000668 sec
t
zerox
= 0.000665 sec
t
rise
=0.000702 sec
t
pk
=0.000668 sec
t
zerox
=0.000665 sec
Wave travel time (t) by manual techniques
Output
-0.0003 0.0000 0.0003 0.0006 0.0009 0.0012 0.0015
-1.2
-0.9
-0.6
-0.3
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
-1.2
-0.9
-0.6
-0.3
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
X
-
C
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
G
)
Time (sec)
t
rise
= 0.000702 sec
t
pk
= 0.000668 sec
t
zerox
= 0.000665 sec
t
XCOR
= 0.000668 sec
t
XCOR
=0.000668 sec
1
st
half cycle
of Input
Output
sampling interval = 1sec
First largest peak
Wave travel time (t) by X-correlation technique
Modified wave triggering system to generate P-wave in gravel
specimens
Top cap
P-wave signals became clear enough
to detect wave travel time
after employing couple triggers
capable of exciting simultaneously
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
-0.0002 0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006
-1.2
-0.9
-0.6
-0.3
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

o
u
t
p
u
t

r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

(
G
)
output
(TC-1)
Chiba Gravel

Time (Sec)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

i
n
p
u
t

r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

(
G
)
Single Pulse
t
pk
input
Couple triggers
Position of triggers & accelerometers
E
d
were by 15-25% larger than E
s
.
100 1000
200
400
600
800
1000
Static measurement
TC4 (Dr = 92.6%)
TC5 (Dr = 92.6%)
TC6 (Dr = 95.4%)
TC7 (Dr = 92.6%)
Dynamic measurement
TC4
TC5
TC6
TC7
Toyoura Sand
1
=
3
(kPa)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
v

(
M
P
a
)
(Maqbool et al., 2004, 2005)
Significant difference between E
d
and E
s
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
100
1000
TC-3 (2.15)
TC-2 (2.09)
Es (1.92)
Ed (1.92)
Es (2.09)
Ed (2.09)
Es (2.15)
Ed (2.15)
Chiba Gravel
( ): dry density in g/cm
3
E
s
:Statically measured E
v
E
d
:Dynamically measured E
v
Stress,
1
=
3
(kPa)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
v

(
M
P
a
)
TC-1 (1.92)
Large size prismatic specimen (23.5cm x23.5cm x 50cm)
Chiba gravel: D
max
= 38mm, D
50
= 11mm and U
c
= 30
(Maqbool et al., 2004, 2005)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
Triaxial tests on undisturbed samples
Sand
Gravelly soil (specimen dia. 10cm)
Gravelly soil (specimen dia. 30cm)
Crushed rock
Triaxial tests on reconstituted samples
Chiba gravel (D
max
=38mm)
Toyoura Sand (D
max
=0.35mm)
Granite (D
max
=38mm,12.5mm)
(
o
r

V
s
,
i
n
v
/

V
s
,
P
S

f
o
r

i
n
v
e
r
s
i
o
n

a
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
)
PS-17(1.95)
TC-11(2.17)
TC-10(2.05) PS15(1.97)
T. Sand
TC-7(1.62)
T.Sand
TC-6(1.63)
AnhDan et al,2002
Maqbool,2005
PS-12(1.90)
PS-13(2.07)
PS-11(1.90)
Granite
D
max
=31.5mm(2.21)
Chiba gravel
(2.23)
Granite
D
max
=12.5mm(2.21)
T. Sand
(1.61)
T.Sand
TC-4(1.61)
T. Sand
TC-5(1.62)
TC-1(1.92)
TC-2(2.09)
TC-3(2.15)
0.3 0.2
0.1
0.01
0.001
Regression line
for gravelly soils
Hualien site
Inversion analysis of field measurement
D
50
/(/2)
V
c
y
c
/

V
s
v

1)
1)
2)
1) V
S
: Tanaka et al.
2) V
P
: Study at IIS, Univ. of Tokyo
Mean particle diameter, D
50
/a half wave length, /2
(
w
a
v
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
)
s
t
a
t
i
c
/
(
w
a
v
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
)
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
dFor the same average
stiffness, shorter the wave
length, faster the wave speed
(Maqbool et al., 2004, 2005)
A possible reason for an increase in E
d
(wave) /E
v
(static)
with a decrease in wave length/particle size
The difference between E
d
& E
s
reduces
with the increase in dry density because of
less heterogeneity
Triggers
Soil particles
Body waves can transmit
more selectively and faster
through the inside of large
particles as the wave length
relative to the particle size
decreases.
can be obtained only by dynamic tests ?
Some
questions
Summary:
1) Elastic deformation characteristics;
they can be obtained also by static tests.
can be obtained only by dynamic tests ?
2) Are statically and dynamically determined
elastic deformation properties different ?
Some
questions
2a) Statically and dynamically measured elastic
deformation properties are essentially the same with
fine-grained geomaterials.
Hardin (1978) and Woods (1991) have already
pointed out this fact.
2b) Statically and dynamically determined elastic
deformation properties are different with very
coarse-grained geomaterials and hard rocks with
dominant discontinuities.
The elastic modulus determined from wave velocity
could be significantly larger than the statically
determined average value of a given mass
2) Modelling
Modelling of the elastic deformation property of
geomaterial
Not simple, because it is not constant, but a
function of stress and others.
Only hypo-elasticity models are relevant.
v
h
h
Cross-anisotropy
Axis of symmetry
1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0
1
1
2
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
1
2
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
hv hv
v h h
e
v
v
vh hh
e
h
h
v h h
e
h
h
vh hh
e
v h h
vh
vh
e
vh
hv
e
hv
hh
hh
E E E
d
d
d
d
E E E
d
d
E E E
d
d
G
d
d
G
d
G

=

1
2
vh
hh
d

Cross-anisotropic hypo-elasticity model:
All the parameters are a function of instantaneous stress state
1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0
1
1
2
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
1
2
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
2
1
0 0 0 0 0
hv hv
v h h
e
v
v
vh hh
e
h
h
v h h
e
h
h
vh hh
e
v h h
vh
vh
e
vh
hv
e
hv
hh
hh
E E E
d
d
d
d
E E E
d
d
E E E
d
d
G
d
d
G
d
G

=

1
2
vh
hh
d

General-anisotropic hypo-elasticity model:
All the parameters are a function of instantaneous stress state
Not necessarily
zero
Hardin (1978);
for sands, the Youngs modulus at very small strain in any
particular direction X, E
X
, is a unique function of the normal
stress working in the direction X,
X
, while it is independent of
the normal stresses acting in the other orthogonal directions.
Roesler (1979) reported results by wave velocity
measurements supporting the above. J amiolkowski et al. (1991)
and Stokoe et al. (1991, 1995) confirmed this fact.
; independent of ; and
; independent of ,
compared to the popular (but wrong) equation:
E(isotropic)= c(
3
)
m
or E(isotropic)= f(stress state); e.g., E=f(p, q)
( )
m
h h
E
( )
m
v v
E
h
Proximeter for
h
see
Fig. 2b
Lateral LDT
Vertical LDT
W=23 cm
W=23 cm
h
H=57 cm
Proximeter for
v
Lubricated
9.5 cm
19 cm
9.5 cm
3.5 cm
Examination by laboratory
stress-strain tests
- Large rectangular prismatic specimen of granular material
with local axial and lateral strain measurements.
- Rectangular prismatic specimens to avoid bedding error and membrane
penetration effects on the side face of specimen
(Hoque et al., 1996, 1997: Hoque &Tatsuoka, 1998, 2004)
v
0
Isotropic stress state
Anisotropic behaviour at
anisotropic stress state?
v
0
Anisotropic behaviour at
anisotropic stress state?
.
.
;
h
h
v
v
v
const
h
vh
v
const
E
v
=
=

=

.
(1 )
v
h
h hh
h
const
E
=

=

Cyclic loading of vertical

and horizontal stresses,
independently with a
small stress amplitude
v
(Hoque et al., 1996, 1997: Hoque &Tatsuoka, 1998, 2004)

E
v
depends only on
v
, while E
h
depends only on
h
.
h
(kPa)
h
/
F
(
e
)
(
M
P
a
)
Horizontal stress,
h
(kPa)
v
(kPa)
v
/
F
(
e
)
(
M
P
a
)
Vertical stress,
v
(kPa)
(Hoque et al., 1996, 1997: Hoque &Tatsuoka, 1998)
Elastic Youngs moduli, E
v
and E
h
, measured during triaxial
tests, compared with those measured at isotropic stress states
0.01 0.1 1
50
100
1000
2000
h
h
v v
h
h
v
' (kPa)
' (kPa)
49
98
147
196
245
294
343
392
441
h
v
E

o
r

E

(
M
P
a
)
h v
' or ' (MPa)
25~108
49~216
74~323
98~431
123~539
147~647
172~755
196~862
221~970
Nerima gravel
TC test ( '=49kPa)
E ~ '
E ~ '
stress states
Isotropic
(Tatsuoka, 1999a&b)
0.01 0.1 1
50
100
1000
2000
h
h
v v
h
h
v
' (kPa)
' (kPa)
49
98
147
196
245
294
343
392
441
h
v
E

o
r

E

(
M
P
a
)
h v
' or ' (MPa)
25~108
49~216
74~323
98~431
123~539
147~647
172~755
196~862
221~970
Nerima gravel
TC test ( '=49kPa)
E ~ '
E ~ '
stress states
Isotropic
As approaching the peak stress state, the E
v
value starts decreasing relative
to those at the isotropic stress state. Then, its absolute value starts
decreasing associated with strain-softening in the post-peak regime.
These trends are due likely to damage by large shearing.
v
0
Cyclic triaxial loading at a constant
confining pressure (both triaxial
compression and extension)
.
.
;
h
h
v
v
v
const
h
vh
v
const
E
v
=
=

=

.
(1 )
v
h
h hh
h
const
E
=

=

Cyclic drained triaxial

test
-Highly un-symmetric
stress-strain curve
with an increase in E
tan
with q, due to an
increase in E
v
with an
increase in
v
-0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15
-500
0
500
1000
Triaxial
extension
Very dense Chiba gravel
Test CR22
e
0
=0.221,
d
=2.22 g/cm
3
h
=638 kPa
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
Measurements of stiffness
and Poisson's ratio
for a very small strain amplitude
Triaxial
compression
Cyclic drained
triaxial test
- Highly symmetric
stress-strain curve
representing the
stress-strain
behaviour in shear
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Very dense Chiba gravel
Teat CR22
e
0
=0.221,
d
=2.22 g/cm
3
h
=638 kPa
s
i
n

m
o
b
Shear strain, (=
v
-
h
) (%)
Basically,
E
v
: controlled by
v
E
h:
independent of
v
100 1000
10
100
1000
E
h(s)
at isotropic stress state
E
v
E
v
(
s
)
(
t
r
i
a
x
i
a
l
)
/
F
(
e
)

a
n
d

E
h
(
s
)
(
t
r
i
a
x
i
a
l
)
/
F
(
e
)

(
M
P
a
)

v
(kPa)
2000 200 500
e
0
= 0.221,
d
= 2.22 g/cm
3
h
= 638 kPa
Dense Chiba gravel
Test CR22
E
h
during cyclic triaxial loading
E
v
during
cyclic triaxial loading
100 1000
10
100
1000
E
h(s)
E
v
E
v
(
s
)
(
t
r
i
a
x
i
a
l
)
/
F
(
e
)

a
n
d

E
h
(
s
)
(
t
r
i
a
x
i
a
l
)
/
F
(
e
)

(
M
P
a
)

v
(kPa)
2000 200 500
e
0
= 0.221,
d
= 2.22 g/cm
3
h
= 638 kPa
Dense Chiba gravel
Test CR22
E
h
during cyclic triaxial loading
E
v
during
cyclic triaxial loading
- Noticeable scatter of
data: due to effects of
viscous deformation
- Smaller values than
those at the isotropic
stress state: due to
damage to micro-
structure when sheared
to high shear stress
levels
; independent of
; independent of
0
0
( )
m
v
v v
E E

1) is proportional to the inherent anisotropy.

2) increases in a non-linear fashion with . /
v h
E E
/
v h

0
0
( )
( )
v v
m
h
v
h h
E
E
E
E
=
0
0
( )
m
h
h h
E E

/
v h
E E
Power m 0.5 for of uncemented materials
( )
m
v v
E
0.01 0.1 1
100
1000
m
h
v
Toyoura sand 0.49
SLB sand 0.47
Ticino sand 0.53
Hostun sand 0.47
Hime gravel 0.51
Nerima gravel 0.52
Chiba gravel 0.52
Nagoya gravel 0.57
E
v
/
f
(
e
)

(
M
P
a
)
' =
' (MPa)
(Tatsuoka, 1999a&b)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
h
v
h v
anisotropy
Stress system-induced
Inherent anisotropy
Perfectly isotropic material
Toyoura sand
SLB sand
Ticino sand
Hime gravel
Chiba gravel
Nerima gravel
E

/
E
'/ '
0
0
( )
( )
v v
m
h
v
h h
E
E
E
E
=
(Tatsuoka, 1999a&b)
Power m
m= 0.5
Differences between
sandstone (larger than 0.5)
and mudstone (close to zero)
of sedimentary softrock
Elastic Youngs modulus E
v
(=E
0
) (measured at the isotropic
stress state) of various sedimentary soft rocks
0.1 1 10
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
(* Tokyo Bay mouth)
4A*
2P* 3P*
1A*

Kazusa Group
Sagamihara, Tokyo Met. area (m=0.04)
Negishi, Tokyo Met. area (m=0.11)
Tsunashina, Tokyo Met. area (m=0.08)
Kanon-zaki, Tokyo Bay mouth (m=0.22)
Rainbow bridge, Tokyo Met. area (m=0)
Other sedimentary soft rocks
Kobe (m=0.69)
Tokoname, Nagoya (m=0.15)
Weathered granite
Tatara bridge, Hiroshima (m=0.58)
E
v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Isotropic confining pressure, '
c
(kgf/cm
2
)
Older for the
same D
50
.
Finer for the same
geological age
Smaller m for finer and older geomaterials
1-2 million years
10-20 million years
Smaller m for finer and older geomaterials
O
l
d
e
r

Inferred relations for the
same geological ages
0
0
( )
( )
m
v v v
h h h
E E
E E

=

vh hv
v h
E E

=

0.5
0
( )
m
vh
a R =
0.5
0
/( )
m
hv
a R =

where a is /
v h
E E at 1 R = ; and
0
is
vh hv
= when
1/ n
R a
=

Elastic Poissons ratio affected by stress state
: increases with the increase in R
(from the symmetry of the compliance matrix)
0
0
( )
( )
m
v
h
E
R
E
=
v
h
=

-
d
h
/
d
v
/
h
v
h
=

-
d
h
/
d
v
/
h
Poissons ratio,
vh
= -(d
h
/d
v
)(d
h
=0),
,
increases with
an increase in
v
/
h
(Hoque et al., 1996, 1997: Hoque &Tatsuoka, 1998)
Chiba gravel
1 10
1
5
0.2
0.5
0.5
(
v
)
SA
=0.0005 %

f (Hz)
10
5
1
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.02
v
h
v
/
h
Slope=0.25
10 100 1000
200
400
600
800
1000
v
/
h
=7.5
e=0.2496
v
/
h
=5.3
e=0.2481
v
/
h
=3.2
e=0.2474
v
/
h
=1
e=0.2470
v
/
h
=1
e=0.2471

(
v
)
SA
=0.0005 %
f(e)=(2.17 - e)
2
/(1+e)
f (Hz)
10
5
1
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.02
E
v
/
f
(
e
)

(
M
P
a
)
v
(kPa)
Slope=0.5
-E
v
increases with an
increase in
v
; and
-
vh
when d
v
= d
1
increases with an increase

in
v
/
h
,
following the hypo-elastic
model.
(Tatsuoka, 1999b)
Can the Poissons ratio reach and exceed 0.5?
1) No with an isotropic elastic media.
2) Possible with anisotropic elastic media.
(V
p
)
x
: Compressive wave velocity (under constrained
conditions) in the x direction
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
x
x
x
yx
y
y
zx
z
z

=
1
( )

/ ) (
) 0 ( = =
=
z y
d d
x x x p
d d V
where
With an isotropic elastic media,
( )
2
0
0
0
2 1
1
). / (

=
x
x
p
E V
(V
p
)
x
becomes infinitive when
0
becomes 0.5.
Can the Poissons ratio reach and exceed 0.5?
1) No with an isotropic elastic media.
2) Possible with anisotropic elastic media.
(V
p
)
x
: Compressive wave velocity (under constrained
conditions) in the x direction
d
E
d
E
d
E
d
x
x
x
yx
y
y
zx
z
z

=
1
( )

/ ) (
) 0 ( = =
=
z y
d d
x x x p
d d V
where
Also with a cross-anisotropic elastic media,
( )
2
0
0
0
2 1
1
). / (

=
x
x
p
E V
But,
0
= 0.15 - 0.2; and (V
p
)
x
is independent of the values
of
zx
,
zy
,
xy
and so on, among which one or several
may become larger than 0.5.
2) Modelling
4) Case histories
Plate loading test on a very dense well-graded gravel
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
a)
(
d
=2.087 g/cm
3
)
Case A
Contact pressure (kgf/cm
2
)
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
The tangent modulus
in the contact pressure !
reflecting an increase
in the elastic vertical
Youngs modulus with an
increase in the pressure
level.
Rigid plate (d= 30 cm)
(Tatsuoka, 1999a)
Elastic Youngs modulus under drained & undrained conditions
v
d
0
h
d =
0
h
d
=
Drained vertical Youngs modulus:
(E
v
)
d
= d
v
/d
v
e
=d
v
/d
v
e
material property
Undrained vertical Youngs modulus:
(E
v
)
u
= d
v
/d
v
e
=(d
v
du)/d
v
e
not material property but affected by a response
(i.e., the change in the pore water pressure)
(Tatsuoka, 1999a)
d
v
e
= {1/(E
v
)
d
} d
v
- {2
hv
/(E
h
)
d
} d
h
(1a)
d
h
e
= {(1-
hh
)/(E
h
)d}d
h
- {
vh
/(E
v
)
d
}d
v
(1b)
The undrained condition: d
v
e
+2d
h
e
= 0 (2)
Basic equations:
v
h
h
Cross-anisotropy
Axis of symmetry
v
h
h
Cross-anisotropy
Axis of symmetry
(E
v
)
d
=
v
/
v
e
= (E
v
)
0
(
v
/
0
)
nv
F(e)/F(e
0
) (3a)
(E
h
)
d
=
h
/
h
e
= (E
h
)
0
(
h
/
0
)
nh
F(e)/F(e
0
) (3b)
vh
=
0
R
n/2
(3a)
hv
=
0
(1/ ) (1/R)
n/2
(3b)
where a= (E
v
)
0
/(E
h
)
0
, which is (E
v
)
d
/(E
h
)
d
at R= 1, and
0
is the value of
vh
=
hv
when R= a
-1/n
R=
v
/
h
(Tatsuoka &Kohata 1995)

a
a
Solutions:
(E
v
)
u
= d
v
/ d
v
e
= (E
v
)
d
G(R); (4)
where:
G(R)=(1+x)/(1+2
0
a
0.5
R
n/2
x)
x= -d
h
/d
v
=(1-2 a
0.5
R
n/2

0
)/{2 a R
n
(1-
0
-
0
a
-0.5
R
-n/2
}
x= 0.5 for isotropic material (e.g., a= 1.0 & R= 1.0)
Undrained effective stress path:
Isotropic response; x= 0.5 therefore dp=0
General case:
dp/dq= (1-2x)/{3 (1+x)} (5)
(Koseki et al., 1998; Tatsuoka, 1999a)
0 20 40 60 80 100
-100
-50
0
50
100
S
Stress points where small cyclic
axial loadings were applied
S: Triaxial shearing keeping p' constant
I: Isotropic consolidation
Test 6
(Toyoura sand, D
r
(when p'= 30kPa)=63.7%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

v
'

-

h
'

(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean principal stress, p'=(
v
'+2
h
')/3 (kPa)
Measurements of (E
v
)
d
and (E
v
)
u
at isotropic and TC &TE
stress states along a p= constant stress path
(E
v
)
d
= d
v
/d
v
=d
v
/d
v
The hypo-elastic model can
explain the test results.
50 100 150 200
100
200
300
400
Measured
Measured
Isotropic states (measured)

v
'=98.1 (kPa)
R='
v
/'
h
2 1
0.5
Average
Theory (a=1.1)
Triaxial extension
Triaxial compression
w/ MP
w/o MP
undrained (E
v
)
u
Test 6: Toyoura Sand, D
r(30kPa)
=63.7%; p'=98.1kPa (const.)
drained (E
v
)
d
D
r
a
i
n
e
d

a
n
d

u
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
v

(
M
P
a
)
v
' (kPa)
(E
v
)
u
= d
v
/d
v
=(d
v
du)/d
v
: always larger than (E
v
)
d
q
0
p
dp=0
Undrained effective path
of granular material
1 2 3
-0.2
0.0
0.2
a=(E
v
)
0
/(E
h
)
0
Isotropic elastic
material
Theory
a=1.1(w/ MP)
a=1.0(w/o MP)
a=1.1(w/o MP)
Measured
Effective principal stress ratio, R=
v
'/
h
'
S
t
r
e
s
s

p
a
t
h

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

d
u
r
i
n
g

s
m
a
l
l

c
y
c
l
i
c

u
n
d
r
a
i
n
e
d

t
r
i
a
x
i
a
l

l
o
a
d
i
n
g
;

d
p
'
/
d
q
Test 6: Toyoura sand, D
r(30kPa)
=63.7 %;
p'=98.1 kPa (const.)
0.5
The hypo-elastic model can
explain the test results.
Summary
1) Stiffness values measured statically & dynamically at very
small strains are basically the same. As the ratio of wave
length to particle size becomes smaller, the wave phase
velocity tends to become faster than the value predicted
from statically measured stiffness.
2) The Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio at very small
strain are a specific function of instantaneous stress state.
Only hypo-elastic models taking into account the inherent
and stress system-induced anisotropy are relevant.
3) Some implications of the hypo-elastic model are presented.
II-3
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
0.001 %
2) Modelling
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
(completed Dec. 1997)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
Sedimentary Soft Rock
in
Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Sedimentary soft rock deposits:
KZ: Kazusa group
(Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene)
MU: Miura group
(Late Miocene to Pliocene)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
(after Hoshino 1993)
Sedimentary mud softrock
of Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene
(Kazusa group)
q
u
= 2- 10 MPa;
t
= 2.0 gf/cm
3
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
Sagamihara test site
A deep experimental excavation in
sedimentary sot rock
Ochi et al. (1994); Ysubouchi et al. (1994);
Tatsuoka et al. (1993, 1995a, b & c, 1997,
2002)
Sagamihara test site: first phase
Sagamihara test site:
first phase
first phase
second phase
A typical grading curve of crushed sample and
a specimen after a triaxial test with including a fossil of leaf
along a shear band
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sagamihara test site (depth=50 m)
Fines content: 7 %
Silt content: 68 %
Clay content: 25 %
D
50
= 0.0188 mm
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

f
i
n
e
r

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

(
%
)
Particle size (mm)
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CD TC test

Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
Compression strength (kgf/cm
2
)
BS & DC samples; q
max
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
RCTS samples
q
u
(U tests)
q
max
(CU and CD TC tests)
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Compressive strength from;
- unconfined compression tests
- CU and CDTC tests
Why so large scatter ?
A natural variation ? or ?
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CD TC test

Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
2
)
BS & DC samples; q
max
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
RCTS samples
q
u
(U tests)
q
max
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Compressive strength from;
-unconfined compression tests
on RCT samples;
and
- CU and CDTC tests on core
samples* reconsolidated to the
field stress state.
*: obtained by
- RCT sampling;
- direct coring (DC); &
- block sampling (BS).
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CD TC test

Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
2
)
BS & DC samples; q
max
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
RCTS samples
q
u
(U tests)
q
max
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
1) Unconfined compression
strength on RCT samples:
- utterly unreliable;
due to
a) no confining*; and
b) effects sample disturbance
*: The effect of no confining in
the U tests could be very large
with noticeably disturbed
RCTS samples.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
mob

at residual state
=39.5
o
(41.1
o
)
(46.7
o
)
(55.8
o
)
'
c
='
h
=118 kgfcm
2
'
c
=15 kgfcm
2
'
c
=10 kgfcm
2
'
c
=2 kgfcm
2
'
c
=0 kgfcm
2
Sedimentary soft rock, Sagamihara; U and CD tests,
v
=0.01 %/m.

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
.
'
c
=18 kgfcm
2
'
c
=15 kgfcm
2
'
c
=10 kgfcm
2
'
c
='
h
=2 kgfcm
2
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

b
y

e
x
p
e
l
l
e
d

w
a
t
e
r
,

v
o
l

(
%
)

Externally measured axial strain, (
v
)
external
(%)
In situ effective overburden pressure;
'
v0
=4.8 (kgf/cm
2
)
Sedimentary sofr rock (Kazusa grooup);
Sagamihara test site, depth 50 m, vertical sample:
U and CD TC tests (axial strain rate=0.01 %/min.)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
'
c
='
h
(kgf/cm
2
)
A small pressure-dependency
of compressive strength with
least disturbed BS samples.
U and CD TC tests on block
samples
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CD TC test

Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
2
)
BS & DC samples; q
max
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
RCTS samples
q
u
(U tests)
q
max
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
strength: utterly unreliable.
2) CU TC strength of RCT
samples:
some effects of sample
disturbance.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CD TC test

Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
2
)
BS & DC samples; q
max
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
RCTS samples
q
u
(U tests)
q
max
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
strength: utterly unreliable.
2) CU TC strength of RCT
samples:
some effects of sample
disturbance.
3) CU TC strength of BS and DC
samples; the least effects of
sample disturbance:
- most reliable
Stiffness: laboratory test data from the fist phase
Again,
why so large scatter !
A good agreement
between
E
max
and E
f
E
50
from U tests on RCTS
samples:
very low & utterly unreliable
due to:
- sample disturbance;
- bedding error;
- large strain; and
- no-confinement*
all the laboratory data
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

E
f
(Downhole)
E
f
(Suspension)
Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
RCTS core samples
E
50
(U Test)
E
0

(CD and CU TC tests)
Young's Modulus (kgf/cm
2
)
BS and CD samples, (E
0
)
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
*: The effects of this factor could be
particularly large with noticeably
disturbed RTCS samples.
BS and DC samples (E
0
)
In situ effective overburden pressure;
'
v0
=4.8 (kgf/cm
2
)
Sedimentary sofr rock (Kazusa grooup);
Sagamihara test site, depth=50 m, vertical sample:
U and CD TC tests (axial strain rate=0.01 %/min.)
'
c
='
h
(kgf/cm
2
)
E
0

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
A very small pressure-
dependency of E
0
with the least
disturbed BS samples.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
mob

at residual state
=39.5
o
(41.1
o
)
(46.7
o
)
(55.8
o
)
'
c
='
h
=118 kgfcm
2
'
c
=15 kgfcm
2
'
c
=10 kgfcm
2
'
c
=2 kgfcm
2
'
c
=0 kgfcm
2
Sedimentary soft rock, Sagamihara; U and CD tests,
v
=0.01 %/m.

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
.
7
'
c
=18 kgfcm
2
'
c
=15 kgfcm
2
'
c
=10 kgfcm
2
'
c
='
h
=2 kgfcm
2
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n

m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

b
y

e
x
p
e
l
l
e
d

w
a
t
e
r
,

v
o
l

(
%
)

Externally measured axial strain, (
v
)
external
(%)
U and CD TC tests on
block samples
E
50
from U tests on RCTS
samples:
very low & utterly unreliable
due to:
- sample disturbance;
- bedding error;
- large strain; and
- no-confinement*
all the data
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

E
f
(Downhole)
E
f
(Suspension)
Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
RCTS core samples
E
50
(U Test)
E
0

2
)
0
)
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
*: The effects of this factor could be
particularly large with noticeably
E
0
from TC tests using LDTs on
core specimens re-consolidated
to the field stress state:
- close to the values from V
s
- but, some effects of sample
disturbance with both BS&DC
and RCT samples.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

E
f
(Downhole)
E
f
(Suspension)
Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
RCTS core samples
E
50
(U Test)
E
0

2
)
0
)
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
- More disturbance at deeper places
with RCTS samples.
0
)
CU TC
CD TC
Angle in the vertical plane (degree)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x
(
M
P
a
)
CU TC
CD TC
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x
(
M
P
a
)
Angle in the horizontal plane (degree)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x
(
M
P
a
)
CU TC
CD TC
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x
(
M
P
a
)
CU TC
CD TC
Insignificant inherent
anisotropy in the strength
and deformation
characteristics at
CU TC
CD TC
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
0
(
M
P
a
)
CU TC
CD TC
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
0
(
M
P
a
)
CU TC
CD TC
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
0
(
M
P
a
)
CU TC
CD TC
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
0
(
M
P
a
)
Insignificant inherent
anisotropy in the strength
and deformation
characteristics at
Stiffness: field loading test data from the fist phase
Why so large scatter ?
A natural variation ? or ?
A so large variation among different PMT methods
p: pressure
applied to the
bore hole
wall*
r
u: lateral
displacement
in the ground
u
0
: lateral
displacement at
the wall face*
r
o
z
Bore hole
Balloon
Pressure-meter tests:
The accuracy depends on:
1) pre-bored or self-bored
(effects of disturbance and pressure
relief at the wall of bored hole);
2) measured on the ground or in the
bore hole (effects of system
compliance);
3) sensitivity of measuring system;
and
4) applied pressure and its history
p
0
0
0
u
r
1
2G
0
0
u
r
Menard: p and r measured
on the ground
Stiffness: field loading test data from the fist phase
Why high stiffness
from PLTs ?
Plate loading tests
Why high stiffness
from PLTs
on mudstone
at Sagamihara site ?
1A of Akashi
strait bridge
Link among the stiffness values from different origins.
2D and 3D analysis
2D and 3D analysis Effects of assumed K value
E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU)
Block samples (undrained)
Block samples (drained)
Field full-scale behaviour
E
PLT(S)
from in-ground strains
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
PLT(D)
from plate displacements
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
BHLT(C)
from unloading curves
E
BHLT(M)
from primary
loading curves
Data from the first phase
E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU)
E
PLT(S)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
PLT(D)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
BHLT(C)
E
BHLT(M)
from primary
loading curves
A discrepancy:
due to the viscous
properties of the
soft rock ?
E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU)
Noticeably disturbed samples (undrained)
Noticeably disturbed
samples (drained)
E
PLT(S)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
PLT(D)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
BHLT(C)
E
BHLT(M)
from primary
loading curves
E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU)
E
PLT(S)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
PLT(D)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
BHLT(C)
E
BHLT(M)
from primary
loading curves
E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU)
E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU) E
f
=E
0
CU)
E
PLT(S)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
PLT(D)
( : GL - 35 m; : GL 50 m)
E
BHLT(C)
E
BHLT(M)
from primary
loading curves
Link among the stiffness values
from different origins.
1) Three patterns of the effects of sample disturbance on
the strain-non-linearity of stiffness; and
E
t
a
n
/
(
E
v
)
0
q/q
max
E
t
a
n
/
(
E
v
)
0
q/q
max
2) Effects on FEM simulation of plate loading tests based on
E
f
Sagamihara
site (pattern I)
E
t
a
n
/
(
E
v
)
0
q/q
max
E
t
a
n
/
(
E
v
)
0
q/q
max
Pier 3,
Akashi Strait
Bridge
Simulation of plate loading tests on mudstone and sandstone
based on E
f
and accurate non-linearity (pattern I)
Sample disturbance:
an irritating topic,
but it is a reality !
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
0
20
40
60
80
100
.
(a)
RCTS samples
BS samples
Sedimentary soft rock (Sagamihara, depth=38-93 m)
CU TC tests (
v
=0.01 %/m.)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

'
v
-
'
h

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
Effects of sample disturbance in CU TC tests measuring
locally the axial strains
10 100
1,000
10,000
100,000
E
0
/
qm
a
x
=
1
0
0
200
200,000

RCTS (CU and CD)
BS+DC(CU)
BS+DC(CD)
E
0

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
Effects of sample disturbance;
larger on q
max
than on E
0
Effects of sample disturbance; larger on q
max
than on E
0
10 100
1,000
10,000
100,000
E0
/
qm
a
x
=
1
0
0
200
200,000

RCTS (CU and CD)
BS+DC(CU)
BS+DC(CD)
E
0

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
However, the field values q
max
not affected by sample
disturbanceis very difficult to obtain:
- An index to represent the degree of sample disturbance:
I
d1
= 0.0: no disturbance.
0
1
1
d
f
E
I
E
=
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
0
20
40
60
80
100
.
(a)
RCTS samples
BS samples
Sedimentary soft rock (Sagamihara, depth=38-93 m)
CU TC tests (
v
=0.01 %/m.)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

'
v
-
'
h

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
tan
E
E
0
from TC tests using LDTs on
core specimens re-consolidated
to the field stress state:
- close to the values from V
s
- but, some effects of sample
disturbance with both BS&DC
and RCT samples.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

E
f
(Downhole)
E
f
(Suspension)
Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
with lamina
Sandy mudstone
Sand
RCTS core samples
E
50
(U Test)
E
0

2
)
0
)
CU TC tests
CD TC tests
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
The effects of sample disturbance
are particularly large with noticeably
max
1
1
d
f
E
I
E
=
0
)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
RCTS samples
BS samples
(b)
0.1
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
a
n
g
e
n
t

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

(
E

v
)
t
a
n
/
(
E
v
)
0
Shear stress level, q/q
max
max
tan. / 0.1 0
( ) /( )
v q q v
E E
=
(even larger effects
of sample disturbance)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
RCTS samples
BS samples
(b)
0.1
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
a
n
g
e
n
t

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

(
E

v
)
t
a
n
/
(
E
v
)
0
Shear stress level, q/q
max
max
tan. / 0.1 0
( ) /( )
v q q v
E E
=
(even larger effects of sample disturbance)
2) can be evaluated from TC tests.
Another index to represent the degree of sample disturbance:
I
d2
= 0.0: no disturbance.
max
tan. / 0.1
2
0
( )
1
( )
v q q
d
v
E
I
E
=
=
max
tan. / 0.1 0
( ) /( )
v q q v
E E
=
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
I
d2
(E
v
)
tan
/(E
v
)
0
1.0
q/q
max
0.1
0
low disturbance high
l
o
w

d
i
s
t
u
r
b
a
n
c
e

h
i
g
h
I
d1
(=1-(E
v
)
0
/E
f
)
I
d
2

(
=
1
-
(
E
v
)
t
a
n
,
q
/
q
m
a
x
=
0
.
1
/
(
E
v
)
0
)
Sagamihara Tokyo Bay
BS+DC
RCTS RCTS
No disturbance
Two indexes
necessary to represent
the degree of sample
disturbance
Settlement of the foundations for Rainbow
Bridge
1) Foundations on a sedimentary soft rock.
2) The fist caisson foundations without piles.
(Izumi et al 1997; Tatsuoka et al 1995c)
Type A pattern of settlement due to a very
small pressure-dependency of stiffness
Nearly no pressure-dependency and small strain-non-linearity
A large bedding error;
the first tests using a LDT by
a private consulting
company.
Later introduced to the
laboratory test standards of
the JGS (a long time before
public acceptance).
: Shear modulus G
f
from the field shear
wave velocities V
s
: Shear modulus from the back analysis
of the ground deformation caused by
construction of the foundation.
Shear modulus G
0
from CDtriaxial compression tests
using LTDs.
Shear modulus G
0
from CU triaxial compression tests
using LTDs.
Shear modulus, G (MPa)
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
G
0
assumed in the FEM analysis
Bottom of
caisson
Anchor 4A
G=250 MPa
G=250 MPa
(
u
=0.42)
Youngs modulus (MPa)
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Plate loading tests
(Shibaura 1A)
Pressure-meter tests
Daiba (4A anchorage)
Shibaura (1A anchorage)
G
PLT
much smaller than G
f
=G
0
=
about 500 MPa
: Shear modulus G
f
from the field shear
wave velocities V
s
: Shear modulus from the back analysis
of the ground deformation caused by
construction of the foundation.
Shear modulus G
0
from CDtriaxial compression tests
using LTDs.
Shear modulus G
0
from CU triaxial compression tests
using LTDs.
Shear modulus, G (MPa)
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
G
0
assumed in the FEM analysis
Bottom of
caisson
Anchor 4A
Full-scale behaviour
CD Triaxial
compression
tests using LDTs
Pressure-meter tests
(Linear interpretation of
primary loading curve)
Shear wave velocities
(Suspension method)
1
, (%) Ground strain
0.1
1.0
10
0.01 0.001
0.0001
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

G

(
M
P
a
)
Depth= 54 - 74 m
- Over-estimation of the footing settlement
by the conventional methods.
- Accurate estimation when based on
while accounting for strain-non-linearity.
2
f s
G V =
140,000 tonf
Anchorage
Observed
Non-liner FEM
using the shear
modulus from Vs
and the non-linearity
from CD TC tests
Observed
Based on m
v
from
primary loading
curves of oedometer
tests
Based on PMTs
Based on m
v
from
unload/reload curves
of oedometer tests
Case history:
Tokyo Bay Mouth Bridge
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
Akabane-bashi
Tokyo Bay
mouth bridge
(under
consideration)
West side
East side
West side
East side
B, C, D and E: sedimentary soft rock deposits
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
B, C, D and E: sedimentary soft rock deposits
Akashi strait bridge Tokyo Bay mouth bridge
about 1,990 m 2,250 m
Design
seismic
load
High Very high
- after 1995 Kobe
Earthquake
- closer to active faults
Allowable
construction
cost
Relatively high Relatively low
Ground
conditions
Relatively low Sedimentary soft rock:
younger than Kobe
formation (at 3P and 4A)
Central
span
Four more difficult design conditions:
a more detailed advanced geotechnical investigation is warranted.
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Site
1A
2P
3P
4A

q
max
(CD) (kgf/cm
2
)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)

Tokyo Bay Mouth
Generally larger drained
compressive strength with older
deposits
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
older
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1

Mean diameter of original soil, D
50
(mm)
Site
1A
2P
3P
4A
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Tokyo Bay Mouth
A large variation in the
grain size of the original soil;
ranging from mudstone to
silty-sandstone
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
TC tests
q
max
(CD)
q
max
(CU)
Tuff-coarse sandstone
Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone
Muddy fine-sandstone

Gravel-mixed coarse sand
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
q
u
, q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
U tests
q
u
Site 3P
Muddy fine-sandstone & tuff-coarse sandstone

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Muddy fine-sandstone & sandy mudstone

U tests
q
u
TC tests
q
max
(CD)
q
max
(CU)
Sandy mudstone
Site 4A
q
u
, q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sandstone & mudstone
Sandy-mudstone
Sandy-mudstone
Sandy-mudstone
Sandy-mudstone
Sandy-mudstone
Site 1A
Sandy-mudstone
q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
TC tests
q
max
(CD)
q
max
(CU)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Site 2P
Tuff-sandy mudstone
Tuff-sandy mudstone

Sandy mudstone
Tuff-sandy mudstone
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Muddy sandstone & sand/gravel
Sand/gravel
q
u
q
max
(CD)
q
max
(CU)
q
u
,q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
Tokyo Bay Mouth; four sites
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Muddy fine-sandstone & sandy mudstone
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Muddy
fine-sandstone

Sandy mudstone
Young's modulus (kgf/cm
2
)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
Site 4A
E
f
(suspension)
U tests
E
50
TC tests
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
PMTs
E
p
E
1
E
2
E
3
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Site 3P
PMTs
E
p
E
1

Gravel-mixed coase sand
Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone
U tests
E
50

TC tests
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
Tuff-gravel-mixed coarse-sandstone
Tuff-coarse-sandstone
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Tuff-
coarse-sandstone
E
f
(suspension)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Sandston, mudstone&
sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
Sandy mudstone
Sandy
mudstone
Sandy mudstone
E
f
(suspension)
PMTs
E
p
E
1
E
2
E
3
Site 1A
Sandy mudstone
2
)
TC tests
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Sandy mudstone
Tuff-sandy mudstone
Tuff-sandy mudstone
Muddy sand &
sand-gravel
E
f
(suspesion)
2
)
Muddy sand & sand-gravel
U tests
E
50
PMTs
E
p
E
1
E
2
E
3
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)

(TC tests)
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
Site 2P
Sand-gravel
Tuff-sandy mudstone
Tokyo Bay Mouth (four sites); Youngs modulus E
0
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
Tokyo Bay Mouth; site 3
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
TC tests
q
max
(CD)
q
max
(CU)
Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone

D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
q
u
, q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
U tests
q
u
Site 3P

Significant underestimation of
compressive strength by U tests;
in particular with coarser or
deeper sedimentary soft rocks or
both.
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Site 3
Depth from the seabed
10m
50m
100m
Mudstone
at Sagamihara

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

f
i
n
e
r

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

Particle size (mm)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
TC tests
q
max
(CD)
q
max
(CU)
Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone

D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
q
u
, q
max
(kgf/cm
2
)
U tests
q
u
Site 3P

Significant underestimation of
compressive strength by U tests;
in particular with coarser or
deeper sedimentary soft rocks or
both.
max
=11.7+0.95*
3f
'
:z=61.50-62.00m(CU)
: z=43.14-43.58m(CU)
: z=28.39-28.83m(CU)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
10
20
30
40
50
: z=22.08-22.49m(CU)
m
a
x
=

q
m
a
x
/
2

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
3f
' (kgf/cm
2
)
: z=93.27-93.79m(CD)
: z=72.21-72.70m(CD)
: z=52.00-52.62m(CD)
: z=47.30-47.90m(CD)
: z=31.76-32.70m(CD)
: z=25.14-25.93m(CD)
: z=8.62 - 9.99 m(CD)
Site 3P
: z=10.55-11.37m(CU)
Generally coarse sedimentary soft rock at site 3;
a relatively large friction angle
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Site 3P
PMTs
E
p
E
1

Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone
U tests
E
50

TC tests
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Tuff-
coarse-sandstone
E
f
(suspension)

Youngs modulus obtained from:
- field Vs measurements (down-hole)
- PMTs
- U tests
- TC tests
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
Youngs modulus from U tests on
RCT samples:
- utterly unreliable
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Site 3P
PMTs
E
p
E
1

Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone
U tests
E
50

TC tests
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Tuff-
coarse-sandstone
E
f
(suspension)

Youngs modulus fromPMTs:
- not unique, depending on the strain
amplitude and pressure level, and
- becomes closer to the values from
Vs as the strain amplitude becomes
small enough and the pressure level
high enough.
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Site 3P
PMTs
E
p
E
1

Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone
U tests
E
50

TC tests
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Tuff-
coarse-sandstone
E
f
(suspension)

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
.
Sediementary soft rock (Tokyo Bay mouth, site 4A)
CD TC test ('
h
'=14.1kgf/cm
2
,
v
=0.01%/min)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

'
v
-
'
h

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Axial strain measured with LDTs, (
v
)
LDT
(%)
0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

'
v
-
'
h

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
)
LDT
(%)
(E
v
)
0
=20920kgf/cm
2
Tokyo Bay Mouth site; CD TC test
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
R2
U2
R1
U1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

g
(
s
)
'
v
-
'
h

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
)
LDT
(%)
Recoverable and linear
behaviour
1E-4 1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
T
a
n
g
e
n
t

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

(
E

v
)
t
a
n

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
)
LDT
(%)
Elastic Youngs modulus
Youngs modulus from TC tests on
RCT samples:
- similar to the value from Vs,
- but, effects of sample disturbance
are noticeable, in particular at
deeper places.
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
1A 2P
3P 4A
West side
East side
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)Legend
A: Uncemented soil
(Holocene)
B: Kazusa group
(mid-Pleistocene)
D: Miura group
(Pliocene)
E: Miura group
(late-Miocene)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000
Site 3P
PMTs
E
p
E
1

Muddy sandstone
Sandy mudstone
Muddy sandstone &
sandy mudstone
U tests
E
50

TC tests
E
0
(CD)
E
0
(CU)
D
e
p
t
h

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

s
e
a
b
e
d

(
m
)
Muddy
fine-sandstone
Tuff-
coarse-sandstone
E
f
(suspension)

G
f
from
field shear wave
velocities
versus
G
0
values from
CU TC tests
1,000 10,000
1,000
10,000
RCTS
Kazusa group (Sagamihara)
Sagara group (Shizuoka)
Miura group (Tokyo Bay mouth)
Miura group (Site 1A)
Miura and Kazusa groups (Site 2P))
Kazusa group (Site 3P)
Kazusa group (site 4A))
40,000
40,000
G
0
/
G
f
=
0
.
5
G
0
/
G
f
=
1
BS+DC
Kobe group (Akashi strait)
Tokoname group (Nagoya)
G
0

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
G
f
(kgf/cm
2
)
Sedimentary soft rock in
Tokyo Metropolitan Area
and other areas
G
0
values of high-quality
BS & DC core samples;
similar to the G
f
values.
1,000 10,000
1,000
10,000
RCTS
40,0
40,000
G
0
/
G
f
=
0
.
5
G
0
/
G
f
=
1
BS+DC
G
0

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
G
f
(kgf/cm
2
)
G
0
values of RCT
samples:
- a noticeably larger
scatter; and
- mostly much lower
than the G
f
values.
1,000 10,000
1,000
10,000
RCTS
40,0
40,000
G
0
/
G
f
=
0
.
5
G
0
/
G
f
=
1
BS+DC
G
0

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
G
f
(kgf/cm
2
)
A problem of sample
disturbance with RCT
sampling of soft rock.
III-1
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
0.001 %
Non-linear pre-peak stress-strain behaviour:
1. General; strain-non-linearity and pressure-
non-linearity
2. Shear and compression yielding
mechanisms and the shape of yield loci
3. Effects of isotropic over-compression and
isotropic sustained loading
4. Dilatancy
5. Case history
non-linearity
1-1) Non-linearity due to irreversible shear strain
(strain-non-linearity) : general trend
1-2) Non-linearity due to pressure change
(pressure-non-linearity)
a) Different trends of non-linearity along different
stress paths
b) Non-linearity linked to the non-linear elasticity
1-3) Non-linearity in drained TC at constant confining
pressure
E
0
Linear
elastic
Elastic-
weak visco-plastic
Elastic-
E
sec
E
eq
Non-linearity by strain changes along a fixed stress path
at constant pressure
Non-linear* versus Linear
(* strain-non-linearity)
0
Initial modulus;
a) Quasi-elastic; the same value from
static & dynamic tests
b)Too large, but useful in design
Non-linear versus Linear
0
Which one should be employed in design ?
Actual behaviour when
sheared along a fixed
stress path at a fixed
confining pressure
Non-linear versus Linear
0
Operated strain
Over-estimation of ground
deformation; & under-estimation of
structure stress
Under-estimation of ground deformation;
& over-estimation of structure stress
1) Normalisation based on the reference strain
- not unique, but a large variation
2) More linear and less deformable stress-strain
behaviour with stronger & stiffer materials
Largely different degrees of
non-linearity among different
types of geomaterial !
(Tatsuoka et al., 1991; Shibuya et al., 1991)
q
1
0 (x=0, y=0)
( )
1
( . ., )
f
f
i e x
max
( . ., 1)
q
i e y =
0
E
( )
max
1
0
( . ., 1)
r
q
i e x
E
= =
So called the reference strain
( )
max
1
1
r
q
y
q
x

=
=
Normalised stress and strain
Modelling of non-linear stress-strain relationship
1. Original Hyperbolic:
2. Modified Hyperbolic (Kondners method and others)
3. Genera Hyperbolic : Tatsuoka and Shibuya (1992)
The original hyperbolic equation in terms
of normalised stress and strain, y & x:
Is this simple relation
relevant to any case ?

1
1
x x
y x
x y
= = +
+
x
y

1.0
0
x
Slope: 1.0
y
x
0
1 y =
The hyperbolic equation:
Slope
=1.0
0.5 y =
1 x =
1
x
y
x
=
+
Is this simple relation
relevant to any case ?
Hyperbolic fitting of
TC test data
c
1
& c
2
:
correction
coefficients
1 2
1
x
y
x
c c
=
+
y
1
1
1 max 2 max
1
q
c E c q
=
+

1
1
1
max
1 2 1
( )
1
( )
r
r
q
q
c c
=
+
x
1
1
max 1
1
max 1 max
, , ( )
( )
r
r
q q
y x
q E
= = =
Reference strain (usually assuming that E
max
and q
max
are constant during loading)
A method to determine the parameters of hyperbolic
equation by linear fitting:
When the original hyperbolic fitting is relevant and c
1
= c
2
= 1.0;.

1
1
x x
y x
x y
= = +
+
x
y

1.0
0
x
1 1 1
1
max max
max max
1
1
q
q E q
E q

= = +
+
1
q
max
1
E
max
1
q
1
max
E
max
q
and :
the true values.
*
* PSC on
Toyoura sand
The original
hyperbolic fitting
is not relevant in
the whole strain
region.
Comparison of measured
stress-strain relations with
those predicted by several
different hyperbolic
models
At large strains
OH: because of c
2
=1.0, the peak
strength is attained at an infinite
strain, which is not realistic.
x= 1.0, y= 0.5.
models
At small strains
OH: because of c
1
=1.0, the
stiffness at small strains are
correctly simulated. However,
the strain-nonlinearity is grossly
under-estimated.
Comparison of
measured
stress-strain
relations with
those predicted by
several different
hyperbolic models
E
sec
/E
0
Comparison of measured stress-strain relations with
those predicted by several different hyperbolic
models
Small strains
Large strains
Utterly non-unique
relations with actual
geomaterials
(Tatsuoka et al.,
1991; Shibuya et
al., 1991)
sec0
// yxEE =
( )
1 1
/
r
x =
It is not possible to represent this large variation of
non-linearity among different types of geomaterial by
a single y - x curve (e.g., the original hyperbolic
equation).
y
/
x

(
=
E
s
e
c
/
E
0
)
y (= q/q
max
)
It is not possible to
represent this large
variation of non-
linearity among
different types of
geomaterial by a
single relation: e.g.,
the original
hyperbolic equation:
y/x + y= 1.0
(E
0
)
hf
/E
0
(
E
0
)
h
f
/
E
0
(q
max
)
hf
/q
max
A number of proposals to modify the original hyperbolic equation
to fit better the experimental data:
and :
Fitted initial Youngs modulus
and peak strength, which may
be different from the true
values.
A method to determine the parameters of hyperbolic
equation by linear fitting (Kondners method):
When the hyperbolic fitting is relevant and c
1
& c
2
are not equal
to 1.0;.

1
1
x x
y x
x y
= = +
+
x
y

1.0
0
x
1 1 1
1
1 max 2 max
1 max 2 max
1
1
q
q c E c q
c E c q

= = +

+

1
q
1 max
1
c E
2 max
1
c q
1
1 max
c E
2 max
c q
1
c
: less than unity.
2
c
: larger than unity.
1
& c
2
are not equal
to 1.0;.

1
1
x x
y x
x y
= = +
+
x
y

1.0
0
x
1 2
1 2
1
1
x x x
y
x
y c c
c c
= = +
+
1
1
c
1
2
1
c
*
* PSC on
Toyoura sand
Kondners x/y- y
method:
fitting well the
large strain
region,
but not relevant
at small strains.
Kondners x/y y method can fit any stress-strain curve at
large strains, but cannot fit the relation at small strain and not
to linked to the elastic modulus.
y
/
x

(
=
E
s
e
c
/
E
0
)
y (= q/q
max
)
If a given stress-strain
relation is fitted by a
hyperbolic equation,
E
0
or q
max
or both
should be modified
before used in the
equation.
Usually, E
0
is made
smaller to (E
0
)
hf
; and
q
max
is made larger to
(q
max
)
hf
.
(E
0
)
hf
/E
0
(
E
0
)
h
f
/
E
0
(q
max
)
hf
/q
max
Kondners x/y y method
using c
1
& c
2
.
Fitting to the large strain
part of a given stress-
strain relation.
and :
Fitted initial Youngs modulus
and peak strength, which may
be different from the true
values.
Another method to determine the parameters of
hyperbolic equation by linear fitting:
1
& c
2
are not equal
to 1.0;.
1
1
xx
yx
xy
==+
+
x
y
1.0
0
x
1
1
1 max 1 2 max
1 max 2 max
1 1 1 1
1
' '
' '
q
q c E c q
c E c q

= = +

+

1
q
1
1
1
1 max
' c E
2 max
' c q
2 max
1
' c q
1 max
1
' c E
1
' c
: larger than unity.
2
' c
: less than unity.
1 1
1
1
x
y
x y x
= = +
+
1
y
1
x
When the hyperbolic fitting is relevant
and c
1
& c
2
are not equal to 1.0;.
1.0
0
1
x
1 2
1 2
1 1 1 1
1
' '
' '
x
y
x
y c x c
c c
= = +
+
2
1
' c
1
1
1
' c
Fitting well in the small strain region,
but not in large strain region.
models
At large strains
models
At small strains
Comparison of
measured
stress-strain
relations with
those predicted by
several different
hyperbolic models
E
sec
/E
0
those predicted by several different hyperbolic
models
A number of proposals to modify the original hyperbolic equation
to fit better the experimental data:
1 2
1
x
y
x
c c
=
+
1 2
1
x
y
x
c c
=
+
1
( 0)
1.0
c x =
=
models
At large strains
models
At small strains
Comparison of
measured
stress-strain
relations with
those predicted by
several different
hyperbolic models
E
sec
/E
0
those predicted by several different hyperbolic models
1) Normalisation based on the reference strain
- not unique, but a large variation
2) More linear and less deformable stress-strain
behaviour with stronger & stiffer materials
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

a
t

s
t
r
a
i
n
s

l
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

1
0
-
5
,

E
0
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

max
(kgf/cm
2
)
Hard rock core
Cement-mixed soil
Clay, sand
& gravel
E
0
/q
max
= 10
2
E
0
/q
max
= 10
3
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

a
t

s
t
r
a
i
n
s

l
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

1
0
-
5
,

E
0
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

max
(kgf/cm
2
)
Hard rock core
Cement-mixed soil
Clay, sand
& gravel
E
0
/q
max
= 10
2
E
0
/q
max
= 10
3
General trend
max
max
0
: :
q
q increase increase
E
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

a
t

s
t
r
a
i
n
s

l
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

1
0
-
5
,

E
0
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

max
(kgf/cm
2
)
Hard rock core
Cement-mixed soil
Clay, sand
& gravel
E
0
/q
max
=10
2
E
0
/q
max
=10
3
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

a
t

s
t
r
a
i
n
s

l
e
s
s

t
h
a
n

1
0
-
5
,

E
0
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

max
(kgf/cm
2
)
Hard rock core
Cement-mixed soil
Clay, sand
& gravel
E
0
/q
max
=10
2
E
0
/q
max
=10
3
General trend
More linear behaviour and
less deformable
with stiffer and stronger
materials
q
1
0
( )
1
f
max
q
0
E
Stiffer materials
Softer materials
( )
max
max 1
0
: :
r
q
q increase increase
E
=
( )
max 1
: :
f
q increase decrease
( )
max
1
50
0.5
2
q
y
E
= =
q
1
0
( )
1
f
max
( . ., 1)
q
i e y =
0
E
max
2
( . ., 0.5)
q
i e y =
Index for deformability
at relatively large strains
( )
max
1
0
( . ., 1)
r
q
i e x
E
= =
So called reference strain
Various ways to
represent the non-
linearity of stress-
strain behaviour
1 /2 1 /2
max 50 0
1 max 0 max 0 50
( ) ( )
{ /2}/
( 0.5)
( ) / / 2
mqx mqx
q q q q
r
q E E
x y
q E q E E

= =
= = = = =
q
1
0
( )
1
f
max
( . ., 1)
q
i e y =
0
E
max
2
( . ., 0.5)
q
i e y =
50
E
1
( /2; 0.5)
mqx
q q y = =
1
( )
( . ., 1)
r
i e x
=
Index for non-linearity:
the larger,
the less linear
A larger x(y=0.5); less linear
Index for non-linearity
1 1
max 50 0
1 max 0 max 0 50
( /2) ( /2)
{ /2}/
( 0.5)
( ) / / 2
mqx mqx
r
q q q q
q E E
x y
q E q E E

= =
= = = = =
:
1
0.5 1
x
y
x
y x
=
+
= =
Only when the power m is very large
More deformable
( )
max
1
50
0.5
2
q
y
E
= =
0
50
(0.5)
2
E
xy
E
==
Less linear
The larger, the less linear.
y at x=1.0
The smaller,
the less linear.
1 1
max 50 0
1 max 0 max 0 50
( /2) ( /2)
{ /2}/
( 0.5)
( ) / / 2
mqx mqx
r
q q q q
q E E
x y
q E q E E

= =
= = = = =
max
q
y
q
=
sec
0
y E
x E
=
x
=
1
y at x=1.0
The smaller,
the less linear.
q
1
0
( )
1
f
max
( . ., 1)
q
i e y =
0
E
max
2
( . ., 0.5)
q
i e y =
50
E
1
( /2)
mqx
q q =
1
( )
( . ., 1)
r
i e x
=
( 1) y x =
1 1
max 50 0
1 max 0 max 0 50
( /2) ( /2)
{ /2}/
( 0.5)
( ) / / 2
mqx mqx
r
q q q q
q E E
x y
q E q E E

= =
= = = = =
Two similar linear or non-linear indexes

M
o
r
e

l
i
n
e
a
r
50
0
1
2 ( 0.5)
E
x y E
=
=
sec
0
()
(1)
Ex
yx
E
=
==
M
o
r
e

l
i
n
e
a
r
max
q
y
q
=
sec
0
y E
x E
=
More linear stress-strain behaviour with stiffer and
stronger materials
More linear stress-strain
behaviour with stronger
materials
sec
0
y E
x E
=
E
0
More linear stress-strain
behaviour with stiffer
materials
sec
0
y E
x E
=
1.General; strain-non-linearity and pressure-
non-linearity
stress paths
1-3)Non-linearity in drained TC at constant confining
pressure
I: s-s curve froma TC
test at the initial
pressure level before
construction work
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
Fig. 6
F: s-s curve froma TC test at a
pressure level higher than the
value at the start of construction
v
Stress path in
the soil element
S-S relation from laboratory s-s
tests well simulating the field
behaviour
Effects of stress path
I
F
Secant shear modulus
Stiffness from conventional PLT*
Stiffness from
conventional PMT*
Fig. 13
*) On the premise that stresses and strains are measured accurately.
Other factors, such as anisotropy and time effects, are not accounted for.
+) PMTs with disturbance at the bore hole wall and BE at the bore hole wall
Log(shear strain)
I: Stiffness - strain relation at the
initial pressure level before the
start of construction work
Stiffness from field V
s
value
measured at the initial
pressure level
Stiffness - strain relation
operated in the ground during
construction with an increase in the
pressure level during construction
+
Effects of stress path in field full-scale behaviour and field tests
Fig. 14
How to take into account the effects of stress path
It is difficult to control the stress path in
field loading tests.
operated during construction
Log(shear strain)
Stiffness from
field V
s
value
measured
at the initial
pressure
level
F: Stiffness - strain relation at a pressure level
higher than the value at the start of construction
How to take into account the effects of stress path
Effects of shear strain and pressure level are
mixed differently in the G
sec
values from different
origins: The relation is not very objective.
Log(shear strain)
Stiffness from
field V
s
value
measured
at the initial
pressure
level
F: Stiffness - strain relation at a pressure level
higher than the value at the start of construction
Fig. 15
Tangent shear
modulus
0 Shear stress level
F: Stiffness shear stress level relation at a pressure
level higher than the value at the start of
construction
Peak stress state
Stiffness fromfield
V
s
value measured
at the initial
pressure level
Stiffness-shear stress
level relation from
laboratory s-s tests well
representing the field
behaviour
Stiffness shear stress level relation
G
tan
relation: may be more objective
I: Stiffness - strain relation
at the initial pressure
level before the start of
construction work
I: s-s curve froma TC
test at the initial
pressure level before
construction work
Stress
0 Strain
Soil element
Load
Settlement
Fig. 6
F: s-s curve froma TC test at a
pressure level higher than the
value at the start of construction
v
Stress path in
the soil element
S-S relation from laboratory s-s
tests well simulating the field
behaviour
Effects of stress path
I
F
Roles of constitutive model
General; strain-non-linearity and pressure-non-
linearity
1) Non-linearity due to irreversible shear strain
2) Non-linearity due to pressure change
stress paths
3)Non-linearity in drained TC at constant confining
pressure
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
HOSTN5 (e
0.8
=0.81)
'
h
=0.80 kgf/cm
2
sub(v): virgin
sub(p): prestrained
S
p
S
v
v
(p)
v
e
(p)
v
e
(v)
v
responses at a cycle of
1
200
25000
65000
S: start of loading
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
-0.25 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00
HOSTN5
e
0.8
=0.81
h
(p)
h
e
(p)

h
e
(v)
S: start of loading
sub(v): virgin
sub(p): prestrained
v
responses at cycle
1
200
25000
65000
S
v S
p
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Horizontal strain,
h
(%)
Drained cyclic triaxial tests on
air-dried Hostun sand (Hoque,
1996)
-For a fixed cyclic axial stress
amplitude (f= 0.1 Hz), the
stress-strain becomes more
reversible with cyclic loading.
0
v
=
h
Triaxial
compression
78.4
Cyclic
prestraining
(kPa)
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
HOSTN5 (e
0.8
=0.81)
'
h
=0.80 kgf/cm
2
sub(v): virgin
sub(p): prestrained
S
p
S
v
v
(p)
v
e
(p)
v
e
(v)
v
responses at a cycle of
1
200
25000
65000
Fig06.org/CP/D2
S: start of loading
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
Purely elastic behaviour based on the hypo-elasticity model
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
h

Damping ratio h
HOSTN5
Poisson's ration
eq
Single amplitude
of axial strain (
v
)
SA
e
q
Number of cycle, N
(
d
v
)
S
A

(
%
)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
For a fixed cyclic axial stress amplitude (f= 0.1 Hz), the
stress-strain becomes more reversible with cyclic loading.
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Measured relation
at a cycle equal to 65,000
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

v

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
HOSTN5 (e
0.8
=0.81)
'
h
=0.80 kgf/cm
2
Purely elastic relation
at a cycle equal to 65,000
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
During monotonic loading after a large amount of cyclic
prestraining, the tangent Youngs modulus E
tan
increases with an
increase in
v
reflecting an increase in E
v(s)
with an increase in
v
.
1 2
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Triaxial
compression
0.8

v
(kgf/cm
2
)
E
v
(
s
)

/

F
(
e
)

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
]
L: loading (
v
or
h
increasing)
U: unloading (
v
or
h
decreasing)
B: before CP, A: after CP
Measured at isotropic stress states
(at virgin state)
L (B)
L (A)
U (A)
L (B)
U (B)
HOSTN5
CP
str
=0.8~2.0 kgf/cm
2
h
=0.8 kgf/cm
2
2
By cyclic prestraining, the quasi-elastic Youngs modulus E
v(s)
basically does not increase, but it becomes more anisotropic.
non-linearity
stress paths
1-3)Non-linearity in drained TC at constant confining
pressure: a specific topic of 1-2b)
0 2 4 6
0
100
200
300
Range of axial stress
during CP
Prestrained
v
Virgin
Initial void ratio,
e
Hostun sand (CD)
v: virgin
p: prestrained
h
= 78.4 kPa
HOSTN6 (v) 0.76
HOSTN5 (p) 0.78

Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
By cyclic prestraining for a fixed deviator stress amplitude (f= 0.1
Hz), the non-linearity of stress-strain curve becomes more linear
for a stress range larger than the one during CP.
The initial Youngs modulus does not increase by CP.
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
0
5
10
15
Virgin (HOSTN6)
LDT v
Prestrained (HOSTN5)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

i
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0 2 4 6
0
100
200
300
during CP
Prestrained
v
Virgin
Initial void ratio,
e
Hostun sand (CD)
v: virgin
p: prestrained
h
=78.4 kPa
HOSTN6 (v) 0.76
HOSTN5 (p) 0.78

Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0 2 4 6
0
100
200
300
during CP
Prestrained
v
Virgin
Initial void ratio,
e
Hostun sand (CD)
v: virgin
p: prestrained
h
=78.4 kPa
HOSTN6 (v) 0.76
HOSTN5 (p) 0.78

Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
0
50
100
150
200
Virgin (HOSN6)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain, (
v
)
LDT
(%)
during CP
During monotonic loading after CP, the tangent Youngs
modulus increases with an increase in the deviator stress.
In this case, insignificant effects of cyclic prestraining of a
fixed cyclic axial stress amplitude (f= 0.1 Hz) on the dilatancy
characteristics.
0 1 2 3 4
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Virgin (HOSTN6)
v
o
l

=

v

+

2
h

(
%
)
v
(%)
0 2 4 6
0
100
200
300
during CP
Prestrained
v
Virgin
Initial void ratio,
e
Hostun sand (CD)
v: virgin
p: prestrained
h
=78.4 kPa
HOSTN6 (v) 0.76
HOSTN5 (p) 0.78

Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
0
50
100
150
200
Virgin (HOSN6)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain, (
v
)
LDT
(%)
during CP
During monotonic loading after CP, the tangent Youngs
modulus increases with an increase in the deviator stress.
This trend of stress-strain curve
cannot be modelled by the
conventional method (in which the
tangent modulus decreases with an
increase in the stress (or the strain).
A method based on tangent
modulus / instantaneous
elastic modulus
Instantaneous
elastic modulus,
not constant
during loading
The initial elastic
modulus, not the
maximum value of E
eq
Definitions of Youngs moduli, E
0
, E
v
and E
tan
E
v
During monotonic loading after CP, the tangent Youngs modulus
increases with an increase in the deviator stress (i.e., an increase
in the axial stress).
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
0
100
200
300
'
h
=78.4 kPa
Virgin (HOSTN6)
E
t
a
n

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
100
200
300
400
h
=78.4 kPa
Hostun sand
Quasi-elastic Young's modulus
at isotropic stress state:
E
v(s)
(isotropic) =E
0
(
v
/(
v
)
0
)
0.47
(fitted to the data of HOSTN3)
E
tan
Quasi-elastic Young's modulus E
v(s)
(TC)
measured during drained TC (test HOSTN3)
E
t
a
n
,

E
v
(
s
)

a
n
d

E
v
(
s
)
(
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
i
c
)

(
M
P
a
)
q/q
max
Virgin (HOSTN6)
An increase in E
tan
with
v
reflects an increase in the elastic
Youngs modulus, E
v
, with
v
.
E
e
at SL
0

v
E
v
at SL
E
tan
at SL
SL
f(SL)
g(SL)
A
(
v
e
)
undamaged
(
v
e
)
damaged
v
t
(
v
)
0
v
E
0
0
E
v
= E
e
f(SL)
E
tan
= E
v
g(SL)
= E
e
h(SL)
E
e
(
v
)
(a)
(b)
(c)
1.0
1.0
f(SL)
g(SL)
h(SL)
1.0
SL = q/q
max
SL
Definitions of two types of elastic moduli;
-instantaneous, E
v
; and
-undamaged, E
e
= E
v
(isotropic)
g(SL): representing
the development of
irreversible strain
h(SL)=f(SL) x g(SL)
E
e
=
E
v
(isotropic)
E
e
=E
v
(isotropic)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
100
200
300
400
Prestrained
(HOSTN5)
Prestrained
(HOSTN3)
Prestrained
(HOSTN1)
'
h
=78.4 kPa
Hostun sand
D TC tests
Quasi-elastic Young's modulus
at isotropic stress states fitted to
the results of test HOSTN3:
E
v(s)
(isotropic)=E
0
(
v
/(
v
)
0
)
0.47
E
tan
Quasi-elastic Young's modulus E
v(s)
(TC)
measured during CD TC test (HOSTN3)
E
t
a
n
,

E
v
(
s
)

a
n
d

E
v
(
s
)
(
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
i
c
)

(
M
P
a
)
SL= q/q
max
Virgin (HOSTN6)
With the cyclically prestrained specimens, as the shear stress
level SL= q/q
max
increases approaching the shear failure state,
E
tan
first increases and then decreases.
(Kohata et al., 1997; Tatsuoka et al., 1999b)
- With all the specimens, as SL= q/q
max
increases, the ratio
E
tan
/E
v
(isotropic) decreases.
- E
tan
/E
v
(isotropic) q/q
max
relation is more representative of
the non-linear deformation property of sand in shear.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Hostun sand (CD TC tests)
E
v(s)
(TC)/E
v(s)
(isotropic) =f (SL)
HOSTN3 (p)
E
tan
/E
v(s)
(isotropic) =h(SL)
HOSTN6 (v)
HOSTN5 (p)
HOSTN3 (p)
HOSTN1 (p)
SL=q/q
max
'
h
=78.4 kPa
E
v
(
s
)
(
T
C
)
/
E
v
(
s
)
(
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
i
c
)

a
n
d

E
t
a
n
/
E

v
(
s
)
(
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
i
c
)

-3
-2
-1
0
v
o
l

(
%
)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
0
2
4
6
8
a)
h
'=0.5kgf/cm
2
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
q

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
(LDT)(%)
An example showing the implications of the hypo-elastic model
CD TC on a very dense
well-graded gravel
Increase in E
tan
with q even during primary TC loading
How do you explain this ?
0
v
=
h
Triaxial
compression
49
Unload/reload
cyclic to
evaluate E
v
(kPa)
= 49 kPa
(Tatsuoka, 1999a)
-3
-2
-1
0
v
o
l

(
%
)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
0
2
4
6
8
a)
h
'=0.5kgf/cm
2
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
q

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
(LDT)(%)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
b)
D
50
=6.4mm
U
c
=85.5
F
c
=8.5%
w=3.74%
d
=2.10g/cm
3
q

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
(LDT)(%)
Key feature: an increase in
E
v
with q (or
v
)
= 49 kPa
-3
-2
-1
0
v
o
l

(
%
)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
0
2
4
6
8
a)
h
'=0.5kgf/cm
2
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
q

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
v
(LDT)(%)
f
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
5000
10000
15000
f
-1000
g
c
b
h
g
e
d
b
a
c
reloading
unloading
unloading
E
t
a
n

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
q (kgf/cm
2
)
d)
e)
h
f
e
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
5000
10000
15000
g
a
d
c
b
reloading
unloading
unloading
(
E
v
)
d

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
q (kgf/cm
2
)
v
=q+0.5 (kgf/cm
2
)
(E
v
)
d
for
v
=10
-5
from small unload/reload cycles.
Damage ?
A large decrease
in the second
reloading
The tangent modulus E
tan
in , reflecting in an
increase in E
v
with the
increase in .
v
-Drained TC tests on moist well-graded gravel having different

dry densities.
-With an increase in the compacted dry density, the stress-strain
curve exhibits a more increase in E
tan
with an increase in q.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
200
400
600
800

d
(g/cm
3
)
LisboaFig.3.17
Compated moist Chiba gravel
CD TC, '
h
= 19.6 kPa
TA9A 1.80
G-CASE4 1.872
G-CASE2 2.089
G-CASE6 2.213
q
=

'
v
-
'
h

(
k
P
a
)
v
(LDT) (%)
-Drained TC tests on moist well-graded gravel having different
dry densities.
-With an increase in the compacted dry density, the stress-strain
curve exhibits a more clear trend of increase in the tangent
modulus with an increase in the deviator stress.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700

d
(g/cm
3
)
TA9A 1.80
G-CASE4 1.872
G-CASE2 2.089
G-CASE6 2.213
q
=

'
v
-
'
h
(
k
P
a
)
v
(LDTs) (%)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1
0
100
200
300
400

d
(g/cm
3
)
TA9A 1.80
G-CASE4 1.872
G-CASE2 2.089
G-CASE6 2.213
E
t
a
n

(
M
P
a
)
v
(LDT) (%)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700

d
(g/cm
3
)
TA9A 1.80
G-CASE4 1.872
G-CASE2 2.089
G-CASE6 2.213
q
=

'
v
-
'
h
(
k
P
a
)
v
(LDTs) (%)
For a higher compacted dry density, a more
increase in E
tan
with an increase in the axial
strain (i.e., an increase in the deviator stress).
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700

d
(g/cm
3
)
TA9A 1.80
G-CASE4 1.872
G-CASE2 2.089
G-CASE6 2.213
q
=

'
v
-
'
h
(
k
P
a
)
v
(LDTs) (%)
For a higher compacted dry density, a more
increase in E
tan
with an increase in the axial
strain (i.e., an increase in the deviator stress).
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
100
200
300
400

d
(g/cm
3
)
TA9A 1.80
G-CASE4 1.872
G-CASE2 2.089
G-CASE6 2.213
E
t
a
n

(
M
P
a
)
q/q
max
Instantaneous elastic Youngs modulus E
v(s)
increases with
v
during drained TC, but to a lesser extent than during isotropic
compression, in particular as approaching the peak stress state.
10 100 1000
100
1000

d
(g/cm
3
)
TA9A (TC) 1.8
G-case4 (TC) 1.872
G-case2 (TC) 2.089
G-case6 (TC) 2.213
isotropic 1.8
isotropic 2.213
2000
2000
E
v
(
s
)

(
M
P
a
)
v
(kPa)
0 200 400 600 800
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400

d
(g/cm
3
)
TA9A(E
v(s)
) 1.8
G-case4(E
v(s)
) 1.872
G-case2(E
v(s)
) 2.089
G-case6(E
v(s)
) 2.213
Isotropic 1.8
Isotropic 2.213
TA9A(E
tan
)
G-case4(E
tan
)
G-case2(E
tan
)
G-case6(E
tan
)
LisboaFig.3-21a
E
v
(
s
)

a
n
d

E
t
a
n

(
M
P
a
)
'
v
(kPa)
E
tan
increases reflecting an increase in E
v(s)
with an increase in
v
during drained TC.
- As the shear stress level increases, E
tan
/E
v
(isotropic) decreases
for any density of gravel.
- E
tan
/E
v
(isotropic) q/q
max
relation is more representative of the
non-linear deformation property by shearing of gravel.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
E
tan
(TC)/E
v(s)
(isotropic)
E
v(s)
(TC)/E
v(s)
(isotropic)

TA9A
G-case4
G-case2
G-case6
TA9A
G-case4
G-case2
G-case6
E
v
(
s
)
(
T
C
)
/
E
v
(
s
)
(
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
i
c
)

a
n
d

E
t
a
n
(
T
C
)
/
E
v
(
s
)
(
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
i
c
)
SL= q/q
max
Another example showing damage to the elastic modulus by
shear-straining: drained TC of undisturbed sedimentary soft
siltstone for Tokyo Bay Mouth Bridge project under planning
(Kohata et al., 1997)
Nearly elastic behaviour
at strains smaller than about 0.01 %.
E
tan
increases with strain and with q:
Apparently not consistent with the conventional concept of
strain-non-linearity !
E
eq
=E
v
: instantaneous elastic Youngs modulus, damaged when sheared
E
e
=E
v
(isotropic); undamaged elastic Youngs modulus measured at the
- As the shear stress level increases, E
tan
/E
v
(isotropic) decreases.
- E
tan
/E
v
(isotropic) q/q
max
relation is more representative of
the non-linear deformation property by shearing of sedimentary
softrock.
E
eq
=E
v
E
e
=E
v
Sedimentary soft sandstone related to Akashi strait bridge
Sedimentary soft mudstone with a nearly zero value of m !
Cement-mixed sandy soil with a nearly zero of m !
E
eq
=E
v
: instantaneous elastic
Youngs modulus, damaged
when sheared
E
e
=E
v
(isotropic); undamaged elastic
Youngs modulus measured
at the isotropic stress state
E
0
0
E
v
=E
e
f(SL)
E
tan
=E
v
g(SL)
=E
e
h(SL)
E
e
(
v
)
(b)
(c)
1.0
1.0
f(SL)
g(SL)
h(SL)
1.0
SL =q/q
max
SL
Sedimentary soft rocks: more damage with a less coherent material
showing a more plasticity-susceptibility
E
eq
=E
v
E
e
=E
v
(isotropic)
More damage with less coherent materials having larger m values
E
eq
=E
v
E
e
=E
v
Strain-nonlinearity and pressure-nonlinearity
- summary -
The stress-strain relation becomes non-linear by both:
a) shearing (i.e., with an increase in the irreversible
shear strain); and
b) changes in the pressure, associated with changes
in the quasi-elastic stiffness with changes in stress
states.
Due to these two factors, the tangent modulus of the
axial stress (or the deviator stress) and axial strain
relation in drained TC may increase with an increase
in the axial stress (e.g., cyclic-prestrained sand, highly
compacted well-graded gravel and less-cemented
sedimentary soft rock).
non-linearity
4. Dilatancy
5. Case history
2-1. Shear yielding by shear loading
2-2. Volumetric yielding, most typically, by isotropic
compression loading
2-3. Interactions
2-4. Effects of viscous property
Tatsuoka & Ishihara (1974a)
- A break for 10 years -
Tatsuoka & Molenkamp (1983)
Nawir et al. (2003b)
Kiyota et al. (2005)
Volumetric yield locus
Shear yield locus
High stiffness zone developed, most
typically, by isotropic compression
High stiffness zone developed by
shearing at constant p
Which is, or both, another, is (are), relevant to granular materials?
Volumetric yield locus:
2: unloading; & 3: loading
Shear yield locus:
2: loading; & 3: unloading
Zones 2 & 3; different responses when loaded from point A
according to the two different yield locus types
Relative loose sand in drained TC
Shear yield locus
Shear yield point
Effect of pre-shearing A-B-C
on the stress-strain behaviour
during subsequent TC, such
as E-E?
(Tatsuoka & Molenkamp, 1983)
E
Shear yield point for large-scale shear yielding, defined as the stress state
where the irreversible shear strain rate suddenly increases.
Practically, the stress state of the maximum curvature of log(q)-log(
ir)
relation.
Shear yield locus
Shear yield point
TEST 2
TEST 1
TEST 3
TEST 4
Shear yield locus
Shear yield point
TEST 2
TEST 1
TEST 3
TEST 4
E
The behaviour is not totally elastic even when below the
shear yield point for large-scale shear yielding.
Shear yield locus
Shear yield point
TEST 2
TEST 1
TEST 3
TEST 4
E
Shear yield locus
Shear yield point
Effect of pre-shearing A-B-C:
- the development of a shear yield
locus passing through point B,
- but, the effect of the pre-
shearing gradually disappears
with isotropic compression
starting from point A.
It is likely that isotropic
compression alters and erases
the microstructure produced by
shearing.
Loading
system
External
axial strain
gauge
Load
cell
Vertical
LDT
Lateral
LDT
Back
pressure
Cell
pressure
Cell
water
drain
Servo
motor
Re-visit to the issue
after a break for 30 years
Full-automated
control of stress path
& loading history
and accurate strain
measurements
(Tatsuoka, 1988)
-Well-lubricated top and bottom ends
-Rectangular prismatic specimens (18
cm high x 11 cm x 11 cm): to use
lateral LDTs aiming at measuring
lateral strains free from membrane
penetration effects when changing
h
(Nawir et al., 2003b)
q
0
p
Maximum stress
point, m
Shear yield point; y ?
Segment of shear yield locus ?
Shear yield
point; y ?
Segment of volumetric
yield locus ?
Special drained TC tests on
medium dense Toyoura sand
Stress path to evaluate yielding property first employed
by Poorooshasb et al. (1967) & Poorooshasb (1971)
0 200 400 600 800
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Shear yield point
|Axial strain rate|=
0
=0.08 %/min.
Test 1:
e
0
=0.696
Initial stress-state:
'
v
=30 kPa
'
h
=30 kPa
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
Loading
sequence
17 16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Mean effective principal stress, p' (kPa)
.
Toyoura sand
To maintain the viscous
effects constant as much
as possible during the
loading history, the
absolute value of axial
strain rate was always
kept constant.
0 200 400 600 800
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Shear yield point
0
=0.08 %/min.
Test 1:
e
0
=0.696
'
v
=30 kPa
'
h
=30 kPa
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
Loading
sequence
17 16
15
14
13
12 11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Shear yield point
.
0
=0.08 %/min.
Test 1:
e
0
=0.696
Initial stress state:
'
v
=30 kPa
'
h
= 30 kPa
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
1716
15
14
13
1211
10
9
8
7 6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
(
k
P
a
)
Irreversible shear strain,
ir
(%)
Note that the stress-strain
behaviour is not perfectly
elastic even when below the
respective shear yield point
defined for large-scale shear
yielding.
The test results show:
q
0
p
Maximum stress
point, m
Shear yield point; y (yes)
Segment of shear yield locus (yes)
Shear yield
point; y (no)
yield locus (no)
However, we cannot ignore
another type of yielding (i.e.,
volumetric yielding)
0 200 400 600 800
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Shear yield point
0
=0.08 %/min.
Test 1:
e
0
=0.696
'
v
=30 kPa
'
h
=30 kPa
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
Loading
sequence
17 16
15
14
13
12 11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
.
-1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4
0
2
4
6
8
10
.
0
=0.08 %/min.
Test 1:
e
0
= 0.696
25
23-24-23
22
21
20
18-19-18
13-14
17
16
15
12
11
10
8-9-8
7
6
5
3-4-3
2 1
I
r
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

i
r

(
%
)
Irreversible volumetric strain,
ir
vol
(%)
Irreversible volumetric
compression by p' at q= 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Stress point from which
unloading was started
Shear yield pont
14
Test 11:
e
0
= 0.685
29
28
26
25
23
22
27
21
20
19
30
24
18
17
16
15
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean principal stress, p' (kPa)
A set of shear yield
locus segments
A test to reconfirm the shape of shear yield locus and
the significance of volumetric yielding
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Shear yield pont
14
Test 11:
e
0
=0.685
29
28
26
25
23
22
27
21
20
19
30
24
18
17
16
15
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
(
k
P
a
)
locus segments
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Continuous ML
at '
h
=100k Pa (e
0
=0.680)
Continuous ML
at '
h
=200k Pa
(e
0
=0.691)
Test 11 (e
0
=0.685)
2928
25,26
23 22
19,20
17
16
13,14
11 10
7,8
27
21
15
9
30
24
18
12
6
4,5
3
1,2
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
ir
(%)
More clear shear yield points
when sheared at a lower
confining pressure, perhaps
due to less detrimental effects
of volume yielding during
recent loading history.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Continuous ML
loading at
'
h
=100kPa
(e
0
=0.680)
Continuous ML loading at
'
h
=200kPa (e
0
=0.691)
Test 10: (e
0
=0.695)
32 31
30
29
28
27
2625
24
2322
21
20
19
18
1716
15
1413
12
11 10
9
8
7
6
5 4
3
2
1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
ir
(%)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Shear yield point
Test 10:
e
0
=0.695
27
21
15
30
24
18
12
9
6
5,7,11,13,17,19,23,25,29,31
3
2,4,8,10,14,16,20,
22,26,28,32
1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Eff. mean principal stress, p' (kPa)
locus segments
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
Test 5
Test 6
Test 7
Test 10
Test 11
Deduced shear yield loci
(without viscous effects)
Measured segments of
shear yield locus

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Mean principal stress, p' (MPa)
Summary of shear
yield locus segments
What is the relevant parameter for shear
yielding that is stress path-independent?
a) Irreversible shear strain?
b) Another ?
on dense Toyoura sand (e= 0.66 - 0.67)
16 cm
8 cm
20 cm
(Yasin &Tatsuoka, 2000)
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
p'
a
=98 kPa
Normalized horizontal stress, '
h
/p'
a
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
/
p
'
a

D
b
a
Z Y
X
W
V
U
T
S
R
Q
P
O
N
M
A
B
C
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
5
.
9
5
.
5
5
.
0
4
.
5
4
.
0
3
.
5
3
.
0
2
.
5
2
.
0
1
.0
R
c
=
6
.
1
0.33
chapter_5/ch_5_f01.opj/gr-4
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
p'
a
=98 kPa
L
S
N
A
'
h
/p'
a

'
v
/
p
'
a

'
v
+'
h
=8.p'
a
5
.
9
3
.
5
R
c
=1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
p'
a
=98 kPa
H
A
'
h
/p'
a
R
c
=
3
.
5
'
v
=14.p'
a
'
v
/
p
'
a

How the strain depends on stress path?
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
A
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v

/

'
h
Volumetric strain,
vol
=
v
[LDT]+
h
[GS] (%)
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
A
p'
a
=98 kPa
6
.
1 5
.
9
5
.
5
5
.
0
4
.
5
4
.
0
3
.
5
3
.
0
2
.5
R
c
=
2
.0
1.0
0.33
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
/
p
'
a

h
/p'
a
Volumetric strain depends on stress path,
becoming more dilative when traveling closer to the failure
envelop:
a) Void ratio is not a state parameter.
b) Inelastic (or irreversible) volumetric strain is not relevant as
the strain-hardening parameter.
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
A
p'
a
=98 kPa
6
.
1 5
.
9
5
.
5
5
.
0
4
.
5
4
.
0
3
.
5
3
.
0
2
.5
R
c
=
2
.0
1.0
0.33
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
/
p
'
a

h
/p'
a
-0.5 0.0 0.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Inelastic volumetric strain,
vol
p
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

'
v
/
'

h
A
chapter_5/ch_5_f03-1.opj/gr-6
Volumetric strain depends on stress path,
becoming more dilative when traveling closer to the failure
envelop:
a) Void ratio is not a state parameter.
b) Inelastic (or irreversible) volumetric strain is not relevant as
the strain-hardening parameter.
(Tatsuoka, 1972; Tatsuoka & Ishihara, 1973;
Yasin &Tatsuoka, 2000)
Equivalent effective stress paths for constant volume conditions
from an undrained TC test and drained TC tests along different
stress paths of sand are not unique, reflecting the fact that
the void ratio is not a
unique at a given
effective stress state
(non-Rendulic behaviour).
Shear strain depends on stress path,
larger when traveling closer to the failure envelop
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

'
v
/
'
h
A
Shear strain, =
v
[LDT]-
h
[LDT] (%)
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
A
p'
a
=98 kPa
6
.
1 5
.
9
5
.
5
5
.
0
4
.
5
4
.
0
3
.
5
3
.
0
2
.5
R
c
=
2
.0
1.0
0.33
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
/
p
'
a

h
/p'
a
Inelastic shear strain depends on stress path,
larger when traveling closer to the failure envelop
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
A
p'
a
=98 kPa
6
.
1 5
.
9
5
.
5
5
.
0
4
.
5
4
.
0
3
.
5
3
.
0
2
.5
R
c
=
2
.0
1.0
0.33
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
/
p
'
a

h
/p'
a
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Inelastic shear strain,
p
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

'
v
/
'

h
A
chapter_5/ch_5_f03-1.opj/gr-6
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
A

N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

t
/
p
a

[
t
=
(
'
v
-
'
h
)
/
2
]
ir
(%)
Relationships between the
stress ratio and inelastic
volumetric & shear strains
depend on stress path, being
not unique.
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
A

N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

t
/
p
a

[
t
=
(
'
v
-
'
h
)
/
2
]
vol
ir
(%)
What a type of stress-stain
relationis independent of
stress path ?
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
p'
a
=98 kPa
All the other tests
Test T302E
t = ('
v
-'
h
)/2
s = ('
v
+'
h
)/2
Hardening parameters:
n =0.9
s
f
=0.86
(
t
/
p
'
a
)
/
(
s
/
p
'
a
)
s
f
Normalised irreversible shear strain energy,
s
= (W
ir*
)
shear
/p'
a
(%)
ir
n compressio
ir
total
ir
shear
dW dW dW =
Rather unique
relation, not
depending on stress
path (except for test
T302E, including a
unload/reload cycle);
Shear hardening
parameter:
*
( '/ )
ir
ir
shear a
s shear a
n
a
dW p
W p
p p
= =
Based on the proposal by Moroto (1980)

2 2
' ' '
ir ir ir ir ir ir
total v v h h shear compression
dW d d d dW dW = + + = +
n compressio
ir
vol
ir
n compressio
d p dW ) .(
=
( a small fraction with dense sand)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
OC900
CP600r
n
l
k
j i
g
f
e
d c b
a
Test name e
0
---------------------
CC400 0.709
CR38 0.725
CR38r * 0.690
CP773 0.707
OC900 0.700
CC200 0.680
CR25 0.685
CP300 0.686
CP600r * 0.684
OC400 0.685
OC900
CP773
CC400
CR38&CR38r
CP300
CR25
OC400
CC200

m
h
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Also in drained TC:
Strain depends on stress path?
A unique stress-strain relationexists?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
CP600r (e
0
=0.684)
CR38r
(e
0
=0.690)
OC900 (e
0
=0.700)
CC400 (e
0
=0.709)
CP773 (e
0
=0.707)
CR38
(e
0
=0.725)
m
m
m
l
k
j
i
g
e
d
e
a

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
ir
(%)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
400
800
1200
1600

CP600r
n
p'
q
OC900
CP773
CR38&CR38r
CC400
m
l
k
j i
g
e
d
a

1. Strain at point m depends on stress path
2. Utterly non-unique stress-strain relations
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0
100
200
300
400
500
CP300 (e
0
=0.686)
CP300
(e
0
=0.686)
OC400
(e
0
=0.685)
CC200 (e
0
=0.680)
OC400 (e
0
=0.685)
CC200 (e
0
=0.680)
CR25 (e
0
=0.685)
h
h h
f

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
ir
(%)
d
c
ba
0 100 200 300 400 500
0
100
200
300
400
500

OC400
CP300
CR25
CC200
h
f
d
c
p'
q
b
a

1. Strain at point h depends on stress path
2. Utterly non-unique stress-strain relations
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
p
a
=98 kPa
Shear hardening parameters:
n =0.90;
s
f
= 0.84
X
s
t

=

(
q
/
p
a
)

/

(
p
'
/
p
a
)
s
f
s
= (W
ir*
)
shear
/p
a
(%)

0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400

CP600
p'
q
OC400
CP300
CR25
CC200
OC900
CP773
CR38&CR38r
CC400
Rather unique
relation not
depending on
stress path;
Shear hardening
parameter:
*
( '/ )
ir
ir
shear a
s shear a
n
a
dW p
W p
p p
= =

Complicated q
ir
relation
0 200 400 600 800
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Shear yield point
0
=0.08 %/min.
Test 1:
e
0
=0.696
'
v
=30 kPa
'
h
=30 kPa
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
Loading
sequence
17 16
15
14
13
12 11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Shear yield point
.
0
=0.08 %/min.
Test 1:
e
0
=0.696
Initial stress state:
'
v
=30 kPa
'
h
= 30 kPa
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
1716
15
14
13
1211
10
9
8
7 6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
(
k
P
a
)
ir
(%)
Non-unique and complicated stress-strain relations
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Continuous ML
at '
h
=100k Pa (e
0
=0.680)
Continuous ML
at '
h
=200k Pa
(e
0
=0.691)
Test 11 (e
0
=0.685)
2928
25,26
23 22
19,20
17
16
13,14
11 10
7,8
27
21
15
9
30
24
18
12
6
4,5
3
1,2
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
ir
(%)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Shear yield pont
14
Test 11:
e
0
=0.685
29
28
26
25
23
22
27
21
20
19
30
24
18
17
16
15
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
(
k
P
a
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Shear yield point
Test 10:
e
0
=0.695
27
21
15
30
24
18
12
9
6
5,7,11,13,17,19,23,25,29,31
3
2,4,8,10,14,16,20,
22,26,28,32
1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Continuous ML
loading at
'
h
=100kPa
(e
0
=0.680)
Continuous ML loading at
'
h
=200kPa (e
0
=0.691) Test 10: (e
0
=0.695)
32 31
30
29
28
27
2625
24
2322
21
20
19
18
1716
15
1413
12
11 10
9
8
7
6
5 4
3
2
1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
ir
(%)
Rather unique
relations, not
depending on
stress path;
Shear hardening
parameter:
*
( '/ )
ir
ir
shear a
s shear a
n
a
dW p
W p
p p
= =

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
p
a
=98 kPa

X
t
s

=

(
q
/
p
a
)
/
(
p
'
/
p
a
)
s
f

s
= (W
ir*
)
shear
/p
a
(%)
compression loading
2-3. Interactions
Shear yield
loci
Volumetric
yield loci
Failure line
Yield point
Pre-isotropic
comp. point
A
C
D
Effect of pre-isotropic
compression (A-C-A &
A-D-A) on the stress-
strain behaviour during the
subsequent TC (A-C-D) ?
A
D
C
Shear yield
loci
Volumetric
Yield loci
Failure line
Yield point
Pre-isotropic
comp. point
A
C
D
Shear yield
loci
Volumetric
Yield loci
Failure line
Yield point
Pre-isotropic
comp. point
A
C
D
A
D
C
Effect of pre-isotropic compression
(A-C-A & A-D-A):
- the development of volumetric
yield loci C-C & D-D
(consistent with the Cam clay
model).
- But, it seems that the volumetric
yield locus cannot extend into
the dilative zone (see yield
locus B-B-B)
Shear yield
loci
Volumetric
yield loci
Failure line
Yield point
Pre-isotropic
comp. point
A
C
D
D
C
Shear yield locus
Shear yield locus
Both are relevant to granular materials, but
Interactions!
Shearing can repeatedly alter the
micro-structure produced by
isotropic compression.
Isotropic compression
Drained TC (shearing)
The shape of yield locus for granular material in the
framework of classical elasto-plastic theories ?
1. Shear yielding by shear loading
2. Volumetric yielding, most typically, by isotropic
compression loading
3. Interactions
4. Effects of viscous property
30 years
q
0
p
Maximum stress
point, m
Shear yield point; y
Segment of shear yield locus
Shear yield
point; y
yield locus
Interactions?
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5
0
2
4
6
8
10
Shear yield point
Continuous ML
at '
h
=100k Pa
(e
0
=0.680)
Continuous ML
at '
h
=200k Pa
(e
0
=0.691)
Test 11:
e
0
=0.685
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11 10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

I
r
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

i
r

(
%
)
vol
ir
(%)
Irreversible volumetric
compression by p' at q=0
-0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
(test IC1; e
0
=0.707)
Test 11:
e
0
=0.685
Path 4 - 5
Path 10 - 11
Path 16 - 17
Path 22 - 23
Path 28 - 29

E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

m
e
a
n

p
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

p
'

(
k
P
a
)
Increment of irreversible volumetric strain,
ir
vol
(%)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Shear yield pont
14
Test 11:
e
0
=0.685
29
28
26
25
23
22
27
21
20
19
30
24
18
17
16
15
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
(
k
P
a
)
Again, we cannot ignore
volumetric yielding.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
14
10a
7a
4a
.
0
= 0.080 %/min.
(no stop when changing
the stress path direction)
h
' = 607 kPa
(0.607 MPa)
Test 8:
e
0
= 0.687
13 12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Effective mean principal stress, p' (MPa)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)

A test to evaluate the shape of volumetric yield locus
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
14
10a
7a
4a
.
0
=0.080 %/min.
h
' =607 kPa
(0.607 MPa)
Test 8:
e
0
=0.687
13 12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Volumetric yielding restarts
when p exceeds the
previous maximum p value,
perhaps due to relatively
low q/p values.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
10a
7a
4a
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Test 8:
e
0
= 0.687
E
f
f
.

m
e
a
n

p
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

p
'

(
k
P
a
)
ir
vol
(%)
At these points, the instantaneous p' value
exceeds the previous maximum value of p'.
Shear yielding becomes
significant when q
increases at constant p!
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
14
10a
7a
4a
.
0
=0.080 %/min.
h
' =607 kPa
(0.607 MPa)
Test 8:
e
0
=0.687
13 12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
4a 7a
10a
Test 8:
e
0
=0.687
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
I
r
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

i
r

(
%
)
ir
vol
(%)
However, insignificant but
noticeable shear yielding can
be observed when p
increases at constant q,
due to the viscous property.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
14
10a
7a
4a
.
0
=0.080 %/min.
h
' =607 kPa
(0.607 MPa)
Test 8:
e
0
=0.687
13 12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
4a 7a
10a
Test 8:
e
0
= 0.687
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
I
r
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

i
r

(
%
)
ir
vol
(%)
Shear yield locus
Shear yield locus
Both are relevant to granular materials (i.e., the double yielding,
e.g., Vermeer, 1978), but
Interactions!
and viscous effects!!!
compression loading
2-3. Interactions
q
v
q
Shear yield locus represented in
Shear yield locus
represented in the
inviscid stress,
p
q
f
p
v
p
f
Current stress state (q, p)
Current inviscid stress state (q

f
, p
f
)
Stress, : rate-dependent
Inviscid stress,
f
: rate-independent
Viscous stress,
v
: rate-dependent
(Di Benedetto et al., 2002; Tatsuoka et al., 2002)
0 200 400 600 800
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Smaller slope due to
a decreasedstrain rate
Shear yield point
0
= 0.08 %/min.
Stress path Axial strain rate
8-9 :
v
=(1/10)
0
2-3, 11-12 :
v
=
0
5-6, 14-15 :
v
=10
0
.
.
. .
.
.
Test 7
e
0
= 0.691
Creep 2
(5 hours)
Creep 1
(5 hours)
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Mean principal stress, p' (kPa)
.
Larger slope due to creep 1
and a increased strain rate
A test to evaluate the effects of recent history of irreversible
shear strain rate on the shear yield property.
0 200 400 600 800
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Smaller slope due to
a decreasedstrain rate
Shear yield point
0
=0.08 %/min.
8-9 :
v
=(1/10)
0
2-3, 11-12 :
v
=
0
5-6, 14-15 :
v
=10
0
.
.
. .
.
.
Test 7
e
0
=0.691
Creep 2
(5 hours)
Creep 1
(5 hours)
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Mean principal stress, p' (kPa)
.
Larger slope due to creep 1
and a increased strain rate
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Shear yield point,
made higher by
creep 1 and an increase
in the strain rate

0
=0.08 %/min.
. .
. .
.
.
8-9 :
v
=(1/10)
0
2-3, 11-12 :
v
=
0
5-6, 14-15 :
v
=10
0
Shear yield point,
made lower by a decrease
in the strain rate
Creep 2
(5 hours)
Creep 1
(5 hours)
15
14 13
12
11
10
9
8 7
6
5
4
3
1-2
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
ir
(%)
.
Test 7
e
0
=0.691
The recent history of
irreversible shear strain
rate affects the shear yield
property.
'
log( / )
log( ' / ' )
s
m y
s
m y
q c p
q q
p p
=
=
/
( , ) ( ) 0
( ' / )
f
s
f
f f f
a
s ij s s s
f
a
q p
F X
p p

= =
/
( , , , ) ( , , ) 0
( '/ )
s
t t
a
s ij s s s s s s s
a
q p
F h X h
p p

= =
& &
q
v
q
Shear yield locus represented in
Shear yield locus
represented in
p
q
f
p
v
p
f
(q, p)

s
: shear hardening
parameter
Assumed functions
'
log( / )
log( ' / ' )
s
m y
s
m y
q c p
q q
p p
=
=
Assumed shape of
shear yield locus
q
p
Observed segment of shear
yield locus represented in
s
= 1.0
Larger
s
s
<1.0
Probing
stress path
m
y
(p
m
+p
y
)/2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
With creep & strain
rate increasing
Constant strain rate
(reloading at a decreased '
c
)

s

=

l
n
(
q
y
/
q
m
)
/
l
n
(
p
'
y
/
p
'
m
)
Average mean principal stress, (p'
y
+p'
m
)/2 (kPa)
Strain rate decreasing,
from 12.5
0
to
0
With creep
Constant strain rate
(reloading at an
increased '
c
)

. .
.
.
Strain rate increasing,
from
0
to 12.5
0
More viscous effects at the start of shear yielding
non-linearity
4. Dilatancy
5. Case history
E
0
Linear
elastic
Elastic-
weak visco-plastic
Elastic-
E
sec
E
eq
How the non-linearity by strain changes by isotropic
over-compression?
Effects of isotropic over-compression on the non-
linearity of stress-strain behaviour in drained PSC
3
0
14.7 kPa
78.5 kPa
Does this isotropic
over-compression
have noticeable
effects?
OCR= 1.0
Over Compression Ratio:
OCR= 17.5/14.7= 5.33
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 200 400 600
Start of isotropic compression:
e
0
= 0.707
e
0
= - 0.0068
Saturated Toyoura sand
(test IC1)

I
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

v
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

i
r
v
o
l

(
%
)
Nawir et al., 2003)
Isotropic compression characteristics of Toyoura sand
obtained by local strain measurements:
- the strain during isotropic compression is relatively small.
But, significant effects on the stress-strain behaviour for the
order of strain range (
1
ir
0.03 %)during subsequent PSC
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 200 400 600
e
0
= 0.707
e
0
= - 0.0068
(test IC1)

I
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

v
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

i
r
v
o
l

(
%
)
Nawir et al., 2003)
End of local lateral
strain measurement
Peak stress
OCR, void ratio
3
= 14.7 kPa, = 90
o
Axial strain,
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,
Saturated Toyoura sand in drained PSC
Very small effects of such minute OC history on
the overall stress-strain relation.
1.0 0.661
5.33 0.668
3
= 14.7 kPa, = 90
o
Axial
strain,
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

: e= 0.661: OCR= 1.0
0
( )
PSC
E
Axial strain,
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

Primary loading
Unloading (U)
Reloading (R)
0
( )
PSC
E
e= 0.668: OCR= 5.33
3
= 14.7 k P a, = 90
o
But, the stress-strain
relation at small strains
becomes noticeably more
linear by such minute OC
history.
It seems therefore that
isotropic over-compression
develops also the yield
locus for shearing.
Axial strain,
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

Primary
loading
0
( )
PSC
E
Reloading
Unloading
e= 0.661: OCR= 1.0
Isotropic OC does not
increase the initial elastic
modulus, but it makes the
stress-strain relation at
small strains more linear.
Axial strain,
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

Primary loading
Unloading (U)
Reloading (R)
0
( )
PSC
E
e= 0.668: OCR= 5.33
e= 0.668:
OCR= 5.33
e= 0.661:
OCR= 1.0
3
= 14.7 k P a, = 90
o
Toyoura sand ( = 90
o
)
3
= 14.7 kPa

Axial strain,
S
e
c
a
n
t

Y
o
u
n
g
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

i
n

P
S
C
,

(
E
s
e
c
)
P
S
C
(
M
P
a
)
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
The stress-strain relation at small strains becomes more linear
by such minute OC history.
e= 0.668:
OCR= 5.33
e= 0.661:
OCR= 1.0
3
= 14.7 k P a, = 90
o
Shear strain,
S
e
c
a
n
t

S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

G
s
e
c
(
M
P
a
)
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Toyoura sand ( = 90
o
)
3
= 14.7 kPa

The stress-strain relation at small strains becomes more linear
by such minute OC history.
- Effects of isotropic over-compression
- Effects of isotropic sustained loading
- Shape of yield locus
Can isotropic sustained loading have significant effects on the
stress-strain behaviour during subsequent drained TC loading?
3
0
20 kPa
400 kPa
at a constant strain rate
Isotropic sustained
loading for 3 or 180
minutes
Drained TC at a
constant strain rate
Drained sustained
loading for 24 hours
(Kiyota et al., 2005; Kiyota &Tatsuoka, 2005)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

F
i
n
e
r

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

(
%
)
Particle diameter (mm)
Silica No.8 sand
Toyoura sand
D
50
=0.18 mm
U
c
=1.64
Silica No.8 sand
D
50
=0.077 mm
U
c
=2.43
RF Hostun sand
D
50
=0.31 mm
U
c
=1.94
Loose Silica No. 8
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
180 minutes
Start of isotropic sustained loading
at '
c
= 400 kPa
End of isotropic sustained loading &
start of drained TC loading at
v
= 0.0125 %/min
Start of sustained loading
I
r
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

v
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
i
r

(
%
)
ir
(%)
End of sustained loading
Start of isotropic compression
at
v
= 0.025 %/min from '
c
= 20 kPa
3 minutes
Noticeable deformation during continuous and sustained
isotropic loading
0 0 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 1 0 1 2 1 4
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
Drained creep
at q=200 kPa
for 24 hours

P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

v
'
/
h
'
Isotropic drained creep
No.15 e
i
=1.19 : for 3 min
No.16 e
i
=1.187 : for 180 min
Drained TC at
v
=0.0125 %/min
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Isotropic drained creep
No.15: for 3 min
No.16: for 180 min
I
r
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

v
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
i
r

(
%
)
ir
(%)
Drained TC at
v
=0.0125 %/min
Isotropic sustained loading
can have significant effects
on the stress-strain
behaviour during
subsequent drained TC
loading.
That is, the viscous
property should be taken
into account when
analysing the yield property.
Yield locus for granular material in the framework of
classical elasto-plastic theory summary- :
1. There are two different types, perhaps corresponding to
different micro-mechanisms;
a) shear yielding, most typically by shearing at constant p; and
b) volumetric yielding, most typically by isotropic compression.
2. The shear-hardening parameter that is independent of stress
path is:
(to continue)
ir
n compressio
ir
total
ir
shear
dW dW dW =
2 2
' ' '
ir ir ir ir ir ir
total v v h h shear compression
dW d d d dW dW = + + = +
n compressio
ir
vol
ir
n compressio
d p dW ) .(
=
*
( '/ )
ir
ir
shear a
s shear a
n
a
dW p
W p
p p
= =
summary (continued):
3. These two types of yielding Interact with each other in a
complicated way;
a) previously developed shear yield locus is erased by more
recent volumetric yielding;
b) previously developed volumetric yield locus is erased by
more recent shear yielding; and
c) isotropic compression develops the Cam clay type yield
locus, which may also control the subsequent shear yielding
property.
4. Effects of viscous property on the yield locus could not be
ignored.
5. For these reasons (3c & 4), isotropic over-compression and
isotropic sustained loading have effects on the stress-strain
behaviour during subsequent shearing.
III-2
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
non-linearity
4. Dilatancy
5. Case history
Dilatancy; irreversible volume change due to
irreversible shear deformation
Relatively loose zone Relatively dense zone
Direction of shear stress
Direction of shear stress
Observations of dilatancy
1. Primitive plane strain compression tests on a single steel
ball layer
2. Monotonic plane strain compression tests and stress-
dilatancy relation
3. Stress-dilatancy relations under cyclic loading conditions
Plane strain (or bi-axial) compression tests on a single layer of
equal-diameter steel balls placed between a pair of horizontal
glass platens: a very primitive experiment
(Tatsuoka, 1968; graduation thesis, not published)
Tatsuoka,F: Graduation thesis, 1968
When starting from the densest condition, .
In the pre-peak regime, overall shear bands suddenly start

developing. The thickness of single shear band is equal to three
particles.
When starting from a relatively loose condition, .
In the pre-peak regime, locally loose zones first collapse, the
specimen becoming denser and more homogeneous.
In the pre-peak regime, local shear bands also start developing.
In the post-peak regime, shear bands crossing the whole
specimen are developing, the specimen becoming looser and
less homogeneous.
ball layer
dilatancy relation
Toyoura sand
- pluviated through air (= 90
o
)
- fully saturated during drained PSC testing
1
0
.
5

c
m
4
c
m
8
c
m
'
v

PSC
' ' 1.0
v h
R = =

(not to scale)
Initial state
0 '
h
(kPa)
29 392
1
direction
1
direction
A typical stress-strain relation from a drained PSC test on Toyoura
sand (
3
= 392 kPa; void ratio when
3
= 5 kPae
5
= 0.714)
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

p
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,
R
=

1
/
3
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,
v
o
l
=
1
+

3
(
%
)
Shear strain, =
1

3
(%)
R -
v
-
A: d
v
/d= 0
d
v
/d= 0
sin(
d
)
max
=sin(13.5
o
)
R
max
= 5.64;
0
= 44.3
o
S
S
A
P
E (relation in the shear band)
E
R
R
R
R
P
A typical stress-dilatancyrelation from a drained PSC test on
Toyoura sand (
3
= 392 kPa; e
5
= 0.714)
R
=

1
/
3
D=-d
3
/d
1
Drained PSC
Toyoura sand
3
=392 kPa
e
5
= 0.714, =90
o
D
max
=
1.61
R
max
=
5.64
R=KD
(K= 3.5)
P
0
K
1
1
3
R

=
3
1
d
D
d
=
1
Dilatant
1 3
1
( )
vol
d d d
d

= +
0
Positive
Negative
Contractant
Rowes stress-dilatancy relation
(plane strain condition):
R=K D
Actual data
-1
0
K
1
1
3
R

=
3
1
d
D
d
=
1
Dilatant
0
Negative
Positive
Contractant
Rowes stress-dilatancy relation
(plane strain condition):
R=K D
Actual data
1 3
1 3
( )
sin
(1 ) 1
1 1
d
d d
d d
D D
D D

+
=

= =
+ +
1 3
1 3
sin
1
1
mob
R
R
=
+
=
+
1 3
1
( )
vol
d d d
d

= +
-1
m
o
b
a
n
d

d
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
Shear strain, =
1

3
(%)
mob
-
d
-
A:
d
= 0
d
= 0
(
d
)
max
=13.5
o
0
= 44.3
o
S
S:
d
= - 33.7
o
A
P
E
R
R
R
R
P
E
r
= 33.7
o
: measured
: calculated from measured R based on
R=KD (D=-d
3
/d
1
; K= 3.5)
A typical
mob
-
d
relation
m
o
b
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
(
d
)
max
=13.5
o
0
= 44.3
o
S:
d
=
-33.7
o
r
= 33.7
o
: data points
R=KD
(D=-d
3
/d
1
;
K= 3.5)
d
(in degree)
A, R & R:
d
= 0
m
o
b
=

d
(
K
=

1
.
0
)
P
Stress-dilatancy relation during a drained PSC test
Stress-dilatancy relation at peak in drained PSC
for a wide range of
3
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
(D=-d
3
/d
1
)
(
d
)
max
(in degree)
0
=

(
d
)
m
a
x
(
K
=

1
.
0
)
0
=

(
d
)
m
a
x
+

3
0
o
R
=
K
D
(
K
=

1
.
0
)
R
=
K
D
(
K
=

3
.
5
)
Drained PSC
Toyoura sand
e
5
= 0.65 0.82
3
= 4.9 392 kPa
= 0
o
R
m
a
x
=

(
1
/
3
)
m
a
x
(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

s
t
r
e
s
s
e
s
)
D=-d
3
/d
1
at peak stress state
K
o
: K
0
-consolidated
(isotropic consolidated in
the other tests)
Drained PSC
Toyoura sand
e
5
= 0.65 0.82
= 90
o
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Range of
the data
Range of
corrected R value
Stress-dilatancy relation
at peak in drained PSC
for a wide range of
3
PSC
TC
PSC
TC
Drained PSC & TC
Toyoura sand, = 90
o
R
m
a
x
=

(
1
/
3
)
m
a
x
D
max
R=KD
(K= 3.5)
R=KD
(K= 3.1)
Stress-dilatancy relations
in drained PSC and TC with
different values of K
1
direction
1
direction
R=KD (R=
1
/
3
; D=-d
3
/d
1
):
the value of K is affected
by the angle .
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(
o
) e
4.9
vol
1
/
3
3
= 392 kPa, loose
(
o
) e
4.9
1
/
3
vol
3
= 392 kPa, dense
Effects of on the SD relation are insignificant.
(
d
)
max
(in degree)
Drained PSC, Toyoura sand
e
5
= 0.659 0.847
3
= 4.9 392 kPa
(
o
)
3
(kPa)
4.9 9.8 49 98 392
Lower bound
when 30
o
Average
when = 90
o
0 5 10 15 20
50
45
40
35
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
90
67
45
34
23
11
0
(T ,F. (1987)
1
direction
1
direction
ball layer
dilatancy relation
Cyclic drained simple shear test
Toyoura sand
Most contractant
immediately after load
reversal
Dilatant
Stress-dilatancy relation under cyclic loading conditions
Dilatant Dilatant
dv
d
: irreversible volumetric strain
increment due to dilatancy and
contactancy
J ump in the dilatancy (or contractancy) ratio upon load reversal
1
2
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
8
5
1
Sliding block theory

Dual plastic potentials based on the SD relation under
cyclic loading conditions
Cyclic drained triaxial test (p=constant), Toyoura sand
Similar behaviour in cyclic drained triaxial test at p=constant
Modified Rowes stress-dilatancy relation is relevent
Similar behaviour in cyclic drained triaxial test at p=constant
Modified Rowes stress-dilatancy relation is relevent
Observations of dilatancy:
1. In the primitive plane strain compression tests on a
single steel ball layer, the specimen becomes:
a) more homogenous due to the collapse of locally loose
zone in the pre-peak regime; and
b) then becomes less homogenous due to the
development of shear bands crossing the whole
specimen in the post-peak regime.
2. In the plane strain compression tests on sand, the stress-
dilatancy relation is relevant, but the relation is affected
by not only the magnitude of the intermediate principal
stress but also inherent anisotropy.
3. The stress-dilatancy relation relevant to monotonic
loading is also relevant to cyclic loading when
appropriately modified.
III-3
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
non-linearity
4. Dilatancy
5. Case history
Case history:
Recent Geotechnical Investigation
for a new long suspension bridge
at Kitan Strait
Akashi
Strait
Bridge
Yura-seto
Bridge
Akashi
Strait
Bridge
Yura-seto
Bridge
Akashi strait bridge
Topography at the sea bottom
Yura Seto channel
General plan of Yura-Seto Bridge and general ground conditions.
Total bridge length: 3,920 m
Central span: 2,150
Awaji Island
1,000 m
770 m
Okinoshima
Iskand
1A
2P 3P
4A
Central span: 2,150
Awaji Island
1,000 m
770 m
Okinoshima
Iskand
1A
2P 3P
4A
Awaji
Island
Holocene deposit
Holocene deposit
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Uncemented Holocene and Pleistocene deposits
Terrace deposit
Osaka group
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Okino
Shima
Island
Awaji
Island
Holocene deposit
Holocene deposit
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Terrace deposit
Osaka group
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Awaji
Island
Awaji
Island
Holocene deposit
Holocene deposit
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Terrace deposit
Osaka group
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Okino
Shima
Island
Okino
Shima
Island
General geological conditions at at the Yura Seto channel
Awaji
Island
Holocene deposit
Holocene deposit
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Terrace deposit
Osaka group
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Okino
Shima
Island
Ground conditions
Piers 2P & 3P: hard rock (basically no problem)
Anchorage 4A: alternative layers of sandstone and mudstone (hard rock)
(bearing capacity of tunnel anchorage; no serious problem)
Anchorage 1A: alternative layers of uncemented gravel, sand and clay
(as the foundation becomes shallower, the construction cost
decreases, but the estimated settlement of the footing increases)
Izumi group (hard rock)
Pleistocene
Terrace deposit
Upper Osaka group
Lower Osaka group
Holocene
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

(
T
.
P
.
)

(
m
)
Where is the relevant compromise between a lower cost (by a
shallower foundation) and a smaller residual settlement (by a
deeper foundation) ?
Anchorage 1A (route B)
Holocene deposits
Pleistocene
deposits
Terrace deposit
TP 71 m
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
Diaphragm walls
Diaphragm walls
Currently considered design
Some characteristic geotechnical
engineering issues:
1. Uncemented clay layers exist below a foundation for
a long suspension bridge; the first experience in
J apan.
2. The feasibility of the construction of Anchorage A1,
allowing a limited amount of residual settlement,
depends on the reliability of settlement prediction.
3. A relevant compromise between a lower cost (by a
shallower foundation) and a smaller residual
settlement (by a deeper foundation) should be found.
Detailed site investigation and sampling, 1999
2000, at A1 site for route B
Investigation in
1998
Investigation in
1999 & 2000
No.1; 1999 (dia.= 200 mm)
No. 3;
2000
(dia.= 66 mm)
No. 2:
2000
(dia.= 116 mm)
Yura Seto channel
Investigation in
1998
Investigation in
1999 & 2000
No.1; 1999 (dia.= 200 mm)
No. 3;
2000
(dia.= 66 mm)
No. 2:
2000
(dia.= 116 mm)
Investigation in
1998
Investigation in
1999 & 2000
No.1; 1999 (dia.= 200 mm)
No. 3;
2000
(dia.= 66 mm)
No. 2:
2000
(dia.= 116 mm)
Yura Seto channel
Boring logs
at 1A site,
route B
About 2 million
years (m.y.)
at the top
Holocene
Pleistocene
Hard rock
2000 (dia.= 66 mm) 1999 (dia.= 200 mm) 2000 (dia.= 116
mm)
Boring logs
at 1A site,
route B Hard rock
2000 (dia.= 66 mm) 1999 (dia.= 200 mm) 2000 (dia.= 116
mm)
Osaka group
(upper)
About 0.27 0.87
million years
Osaka group
(lower)
About 1.6 million
years at the top:
about 2.64 +- 0.57
million years at
a depth of 160 m
Pleistocen
e
About 20,000
years
at the top
Terrace
deposit
Silty sand to sand & gravel
Clay to silt
Issues with the Pleistocene deposit - 1
Reliable evaluation of the compressibility (including
consolidation property and viscous property), in
particular, of thin clay layers
a) Very complicated layering, consisting of a number of
alternative relatively thin clay, sand and gravel layers
- How to model the site ?
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Awaji
Okino
Shima
Island
1A 2P
3P
4A
b) Compressibility of clay layers controls the footing
settlement
- The compressibility of sand & gravel layers; similar* to the
one of the gravel layer supporting pier P2 of Akashi bridge,
which exhibited allowable settlements,
*judged based on the shear wave velocity, dry density and
drained TC stress-strain behaviour.
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Awaji
Okino
Shima
Island
1A 2P
3P
4A
c) Small strain problem, unlike compression of soft clay
- Stiffness from shear wave velocity; useful ?
d)Undisturbed sampling
- Very difficult with both gravel and clay samples
due to complicated layering
e)Significant bedding error on oedometer tests on stiff clay:
Anisotropic triaxial compression tests using LDTs
f) Usefulness of conventional PMTs ?
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Awaji
Okino
Shima
Island
1A 2P
3P
4A
I
z
u
m
i

g
r
o
u
p
L
o
w
e
e
s
t

O
s
a
k
a

g
r
o
u
p
Total unit weight
t
(t/m
3
)
Layer
name
U
p
p
p
e
r

O
s
a
k
a
Sand
Clay
Sand
T
e
r
r
a
c
e
Hardrock
(sandstone
&
gavelstone
)
Sand
Clay
Sand
Clay
Clay
Clay
Sand
Gravel
Sand
Sand
Gravel
Sand-
gravel
Sand
Sand-
gravel
with
cobbles
Sand-
gravel
with
cobbles
H
o
l
o
c
e
n
e
Clay
Sand-
gravel
BoringNo.
Altitude Depth
2000
(66mm)
2000
(116mm)
Sand
Sand-
gravel
with
cobbles
1999
(200mm)
Gravel
Cla
Clay
Sampling
Clay
Sand-
gravel
with
cobbles
Sand-
gravel
with
cobbles
Sand
Clay
Finesand
Sampling
Sand
SPTblowcount
Watercontnet, w
n
(%)
Fieldtests
Gravel
Gravel
Clay
Clay
Sand
Clay
Clay
Sand
Gravel S-gwith
cobbles
Sand
w
n
(%)
In-situlogginwith
bamma ray
Undisturbed
samples
Elastic wave velocity (m/sec)
V
s
V
P
(1)Suspension (2000)
(2)Down hole (2000)
(3)Down hole (1999)
(4)Suspension (V
P
)
(5)Suspension (V
S
)
(5)
(1)
(4)
(3)
(3)
(2)
(2)
Field
density
logging
Very complicated layering,
consisting of a number of
alternative relatively thin
clay, sand and gravel
layers
Undisturbedsampling along route B
SAND & gravel: dia.= 20 mm
Clay: dia.= 116 mm
A sufficient amount of sample could not been retrieved from
many thin clay layers by 200 mm-dia. RCT sampling, while
sand and gravel samples were difficult to retrieve by 116
mm-dia. thin wall tube sampling.
L L : A 1| ?1&/ '
| 1 i
l L c
(m/sec)
/ ,0
T
_
Cc- 1 3,. k ? '
i
F / 0=
44k k
H h n
| h H
F / / =
0. . k k
H h n
| h H
1 \
L
F / 0=
/ / 4k k
Total unit weight
(gf/cm
3
)
Boring log (1)
Water content (%)
and SPT blow counts
Water content (%)
Blow
count
s
Gamma
ray
Undisturbe
d samples
Elastic wave velocity
(m/sec)
Average for suspension
(2000)
Down hole (2000)
Down hole (1999)
P wave by suspension (2000)
S wave by suspension (2000)
Osaka group
(lower)
About 1.6 million
years at the top:
Clay to silt
About 20,000 years
at the top
Terrace
deposit
Osaka group
(upper)
About 0.27 0.87
million years
L L : A 1| ?1&/ '
| 1 i
l L c
(m/sec)
/ ,0
T
_
Cc- 1 3,. k ? '
i
F / 0=
44k k
H h n
| h H
F / / =
0. . k k
H h n
| h H
1 \
L
F / 0=
/ / 4k k
Total unit weight
(gf/cm
3
)
Boring log (1)
Water content (%)
and SPT blow counts
Water content (%)
Blow
count
s
Gamma
ray
Undisturbe
d samples
Elastic wave velocity
(m/sec)
Average for suspension
(2000)
Down hole (2000)
Down hole (1999)
P wave by suspension (2000)
S wave by suspension (2000)
Osaka group
(lower)
About 1.6 million
years at the top:
Clay to silt
About 20,000 years
at the top
Terrace
deposit
Osaka group
(upper)
About 0.27 0.87
million years
The density and V
s
generally increase with depth,
but no clear discontinuity at a depth of 82 m,
despite a clear discontinuity in the geological age.
^ N (kN/m
2
)
^ ^ ; (MN/m
2
)
Oedometer yield stress (kPa)
Youngs modulus stress (MPa)
E
f
: Suspension seismic survey
E
PMT.PB
: Pre-bored PMTs (monotonic loading)
E
PMT.SB
: Self-bored PMTs (cyclic loading)
E
0
: Triaxial tests using LDTs
(at axial strains less than 0.001 %)
CRS oedometer (strain rate=
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
(strain rate= 0.002 %/min.)
In-situ effective overburden
pressure
OCR= 1.2
OCR= 2.2
OCR= 8.0
Lowest Osaka group:
about 1.6 million years at the top and
more that 2.60 million years at the bottom
Terrace deposit:
about 20,000 years at the top
Upper Osaka group;
about 0.27
0.87 million years
62.5 m
81.5 m
48.7 m
119.1 m
^ N (kN/m
2
)
^ ^ ; (MN/m
2
)
E
f
E
PMT.PB
E
PMT.SB
E
0
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
pressure
OCR= 1.2
OCR= 2.2
OCR= 8.0
Lowest Osaka group:
Terrace deposit:
Upper Osaka group;
about 0.27
0.87 million years
62.5 m
81.5 m
48.7 m
119.1 m
1) E
0
from triaxial tests using LDTs; consistent with E
f
from V
s
.
2) Pre-bored PMTs tests; very low stiffness and no discontinuity at a depth of
82 m (not very useful in this project).
3) Self-bored PMTs: much larger stiffness, but too time-consuming test !
^ N (kN/m
2
)
^ ^ ; (MN/m
2
)
E
f
E
PMT.PB
E
PMT.SB
E
0
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
pressure
OCR= 1.2
OCR= 2.2
OCR= 8.0
Lowest Osaka group:
Terrace deposit:
Upper Osaka group;
about 0.27
0.87 million years
62.5 m
81.5 m
48.7 m
119.1 m
^ N (kN/m
2
)
^ ^ ; (MN/m
2
)
E
f
E
PMT.PB
E
PMT.SB
E
0
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
pressure
OCR= 1.2
OCR= 2.2
OCR= 8.0
Lowest Osaka group:
Terrace deposit:
Upper Osaka group;
about 0.27
0.87 million years
62.5 m
81.5 m
48.7 m
119.1 m
A very clear discontinuity at a depth of 82 m in the yield pressure
from1D compression tests and K
0
-triaxial compression tests.
- consistent with a clear discontinuity in the geological age;
- inconsistent with the distribution of density and V
s
with depth.
+' | O h \ P Q
/ ,0
T
_
Cc - 1 3 ,. k ? '
i
F / 0 =
4 4 k k
H h n
| h H
F / / =
0 . . k k
H h n
| h H
1 \
L
F / 0 =
/ / 4 k k
Pc /
0.3 5.0 2.2
About 20,000 years
at the top
Terrace
deposit
Data points:
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
One-dimensional CRS compression tests
and K
0
TC tests
TC (strain rate=
0.002 %/min.)
/
v
u
= 0.3 5 % around the
yield stress
Vertical stress (kPa)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Significant effects of BE in
oedometer tests
+' | O { UO
/ ,0
H h n
| h H
F / / =
0 . . k k
H h n
| h H
1 \
L
F / 0 =
/ / 4 k k
T
_
Cc - 1 3 ,. k ? '
i
F / 0 =
4 4 k k
Pc /
1.1 7.4 3.5
Data points:
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
/
v
u
= 1.1 7.4 % around
the yield stress
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Osaka group
(upper)
About 0.27 0.87
million years
TC (strain rate=
0.002 %/min.)
One-dimensional CRS compression tests and
K
0
TC tests
+' | O { Uf x - O '
/ ,0
H h n
| h H
F / / =
0 . . k k
H h n
| h H
1 \
L
F / 0 =
/ / 4 k k
T
_
Cc - 1 3 ,. k ? '
i
F / 0 =
4 4 k k
Pc
/
0.0 4.2
1.5 4
Data points:
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
/
v
u
= 0.0 4.2 % around
the yield stress
Upper layers of
Osaka group
(lower)
About 1.6 million
years at the top:
TC (strain rate=
0.002 %/min.)
One-dimensional CRS compression tests and
K
0
TC tests
+' | O { Uf x - x '
/ ,0
H h n
| h H
F / / =
0 . . k k
H h n
| h H
1 \
L
F / 0 =
/ / 4 k k
T
_
Cc - 1 3 ,. k ? '
i
F / 0 =
4 4 k k
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Lower layers of
Osaka group
(lower)
About 1.6 million
years at the top:
TC (strain rate=
0.002 %/min.)
Data points:
0.01 0.05 %/min.)
One-dimensional CRS compression tests and K
0
TC tests
+' | O ==n }- | BR'
/ ,0
H h n
| h H
F / / =
0 . . k k
H h n
| h H
1 \
L
F / 0 =
/ / 4 k k
T
_
Cc - 1 3 ,. k ? '
i
F / 0 =
4 4 k k
Anisotropic triaxial compression tests using LDTs
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Depth (m)
-51: Terrace deposit
-64.2: Osaka group (upper)
-75.2: -
-87.8: Osaka group (lower)
-103.5: -
p
y
(kN/m
2
)
E
o

(
M
N
/
m
2
)
: measured E
0
and inter-polated p
y
: inter-polated E
0
and measured p
y
Correlation between E
0
from TC tests
and p
y
from the oedometer tests
a) A good correlation inside the upper Osaka group
b) A clear discontinuous between the data for upper and lower
Osaka groups.
c I [ ] UD Q - F '
Measured p
y
(kN/m
2
)
I
n
t
e
r
-
p
o
l
a
t
e
d

E
f

(
M
N
/
m
2
)
Relation for
depth= -75.2 m or less
Depth= 84.5 m or more
depth= -75.2 m
Correlation between E
f
from field shear wave velocity and
p
y
from the oedometer tests
a) A good correlation inside the upper Osaka group
b) A clear discontinuous between the data for upper and lower
Osaka groups.
Oedometer yield stress, p
y
(kPa)
l
/
C
c
b
e
f
o
r
e

y
i
e
l
d
i
n
g

f
r
o
m

T
C

t
e
s
t
s

u
s
i
n
g

L
D
T
s
Terrace deposit
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
The Osaka group (lower):
1) No particularly large pre-yield stiffness
2) A high yield stress
Stress
Strain
0
Elastic deformation property:
no distinct discontinuity between
Osaka groups upper and lower
Yield stress
Yield stress: increased by mechanical
over-consolidation ?
Osaka group (lower)
Osaka group (upper)
Schematic diagram
Triaxial compression tests on
undisturbed samples of clay
Depth of clay samples
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100m
200m
0m
sandbar
Alluvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100m
200m
0m
sandbar
Alluvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0
100
200
300
400
500
10?
5

1/5
Creep (12h)
Creep
(24h)
Creep
(12h)
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/10
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.82)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0042 %/m
Undistrubend (e
c
= 1.03)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0076 %/m
Kitan Clay No.19
CD TC
Depth= 64.9m
'
h
= 340 kPa
Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
2
1
0

v
o
l
u
m
e

(
%
)
4
3
2
1
0

v
o
l

(
%
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
20
1/5
5
10
5
1/100
100
The other changes in the strain rate:
10 times & 1/10 times
100
1/100
1/5
1/10
1/50
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.79)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0037 %/m
Undisturbed (e
c
= 0.61)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0033 %/m
Kitan Clay No.44
CDTC Test
Depth= 88 m
'
h
= 470 kPa
D
a
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100m
200m
0m
sandbar
Alluvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100m
200m
0m
sandbar
Alluvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
Difference in the stress-strain
behaviour between the undisturbed
sample and reconstituted specimen;
-increases with the sampling depth,
in particular, suddenly at d= 82 m,
due to largely increased ageing
effects.
Summary
Between the upper and lower Osaka group deposits:
1) A large discontinuity in the geological age (0.87 versus 1.6
million years).
2) No clear discontinuity in V
s
(by both down-hole and
suspension methods) and E
0
.
3) No clear discontinuity in the stiffness from pre-bored PMTs*.
*: very low compared to the small strain stiffness.
4) A clear discontinuity in the yield pressure from oedometer
tests and anisotropic TC tests.
- A discontinuity in the linearity in the stress-strain relations.
5) Large BE in the strains in oedometer tests
Viscous property of clay
Summary
Between upper and lower Osaka group deposits:
1) A large discontinuity in the geological age (0.87 versus 1.6
million years).
2) No clear discontinuity in V
s
(by both down-hole and
suspension methods) and E
0
.
3) No clear discontinuity in the stiffness from pre-bored PMTs*.
*: very low compared to the small strain stiffness.
4) A clear discontinuity in the yield pressure from oedometer
tests and anisotropic TC tests.
- A discontinuity in the linearity in the stress-strain relations.
5) Large BE in the strains in oedometer tests
Viscous property of clay
Preliminary estimate of the settlement of A1
One-dimensional accounting for pressure spreading
1) Sand and gravel layers: drainage layers
2) Estimate using the coefficients of secondary consolidation
(ignoring the effects of stress history)
Holocene deposits
Pleistocene
deposits
Terrace deposit
TP 71 m
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
Diaphragm walls
Diaphragm walls
Holocene deposits
Pleistocene
deposits
Terrace deposit
TP 71 m
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
Diaphragm walls
Diaphragm walls Diaphragm walls
Elapsed time, t (min)
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

v
'

(
k
N
/
m
2
)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,
v

(
%
)
Anisotropic TC (LDT)
Specimen No.54-2 (TP -103.48 m)
v
'
a
(LDT)
Anisotropic TC tests
with intermediate drained
creep loading stages
Upper Osaka group
Lowest Osaka group
Terrace deposit
Effective vertical stress,
v
' k /m
2
)
C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

o
f

s
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y

c
o
n
s
o
l
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
,

C

(
%
)
10 0
log ( / )
creep
C t t
=
Coefficient of secondary consolidation:
t
0
: time at the end of primary consolidation in
the standard oedometer test.
Holocene deposits
Pleistocene
deposits
Terrace deposit
TP 71 m
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
Diaphragm walls
Diaphragm walls
Holocene deposits
Pleistocene
deposits
Terrace deposit
TP 71 m
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
Diaphragm walls
Diaphragm walls Diaphragm walls
Summary of
settlement prediction
Secondary
Primary
= 30 yrs t= 50 yrs
1.33 cm
6.8
8.1
0.6 cm
2.4
3.0
Upper Osaka
group
1.27 cm
Total 7.6
Lower Osaka
group
6.3
Time history of settlement by preliminary analysis
Primary settlement
Total settlement:
primary + secondary
Anticipated average contact pressure
at the bottom of foundation
Elapsed time (years)
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
k
N
/
m
2
)
Not very large settlement, due to:
a) a smaller contact pressure, relative to the Akashi strait
bridge; and
b) relatively thin and old clay deposits.
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
3P
The 1995 Hyogo-ken Nambu
earthquake

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
,

S

(
m
m
)
Elasped time (days)
0
2
4
6
8
10
b)
26th Jan. 1990

A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
Time-dependent settlement behaviour
of the foundations for Akashi Strait
Bridge
2P

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
,

S
(
m
m
)
Elasped time (days)
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
a)
14th Oct. 1989

A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)

Anchorage 1A
(route B)
Holocene
Pleistocene
Terrace deposit
TP 71 m
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
Diaphragm walls
Then, how shallower the
foundation could be made ?
IV-1
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
0.001 %
Angle of internal friction
0
at relatively low pressure
Motivation
Drained triaxial compression (TC) tests
Drained plane strain compression (PSC) tests
Drained torsional shear (TS) tests
Drained torsional simple shear (TSS) tests
Mohrs circle of stress at peak
Void ratio measured
at 0.05 kg/cm
2
(5 kPa)
e
0.05
= 0.70
The value of
0
decreases with an
increase in the
pressure level.
Pressure-dependency of the angle of internal friction
0
=
arcsin{(
1
-
3
)/(
1
+
3
)}
max
of Toyoura sand in drained PSC (=
90
o
)
Dense (e
0.05
= 0.70)
Dense (e
0.05
= 0.70)
Loose (e
0.05
= 0.90)
Toyoura sand
TC
Dense (Miura and
Yamanouchi, 1977)
(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
Pressure-dependency of
0
=arcsin{(
1
-
3
)/(
1
+
3
)}
max
of
Toyoura sand for a wide range of confining pressure
The angle of internal friction
0
of sand consisting of stiff and strong particles:
1) is essentially constant at pressure lower than some limit;
2) decreases with an increase in the confining pressure associated with
particle crushing; and
3) is rather constant (with a slight increase with an increase in the confining
pressure at very high pressures).
Dense (e
0.05
= 0.70)
Dense (e
0.05
= 0.70)
Loose (e
0.05
= 0.90)
Toyoura sand
TC
Dense (Miura and
Yamanouchi, 1977)
(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
0
=arcsin{(
1
-
3
)/(
1
+
3
)}
max
of
Toyoura sand for a wide range of confining pressure
A detailed investigation on
the angle of internal friction
0
of sand at low pressure
Motivation of the research: to evaluate the stress-strain behaviour at relatively
low pressures that are to be used in numerical analysis of 1g small-scale
physical model tests, in which the pressure level is relatively low.
e.g., Plane strain bearing capacity tests of strip footing on air-dried Toyoura sand
A
Lubricatedarea(34cmx180cm)
Observationthrough
reinforcedacryl plate
D=49cm
Rigidstripfooting
(B=10.0cm, L=39.9cm)
B
B'
P
Model sand bed
(Air-pluviated, air-dried Toyourasand)
Rigidsandbox
W=40cm
L=183cm
B
=

1
0

c
m
(Tatsuoka et al. 1991)
Shear band
Air-dried sand particles pluviated through air
Sand bed made moistened and excavated after the test
The pressure level is generally very low in 1 g small-scale
model tests.
0
Motivation
Drained triaxial compression (TC) tests at
3
down to 1 kPa:
- several specific efforts necessary to obtain reliable results
- Use of an accurate and sensitive pressure-independent load cell placed
inside the triaxial cell
- Accurate and sensitive measurement of the effective confining pressure with a
high-precision differential pressure meter (DPT)
- Correction of stresses for membrane force
- Precise control of stress and strain paths from during specimen preparation
- Rigorous control of specimen density
(Fukushima & Tatsuoka, 1984; Tatsuoka et al. 1986b)
Drained triaxial compression (TC) tests at
3
down to 1 kPa:
- several specific efforts necessary to obtain reliable results
1) The effective confining pressure: essentially uniform with respect to the
height with saturated sand.
2) The effective axial stress: larger at lower levels within the specimen due to
the weight of sand particles.
Due to the effects of the gravity force, there is a lower limit in the effective
confining pressure for meaningful element tests.
(Fukushima & Tatsuoka, 1984; Tatsuoka et al. 1986b)
A typical specimen of saturated Toyoura sand standing by
a negative pore water pressure after a drained TC test
using a very thin latex rubber membrane (t
m
= 0.1 mm)
The latex rubber membrane buckled
during triaxial compression due to a
very low confining pressure.
(Fukushima & Tatsuoka, 1984
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 200 400 600
e
0
=0.707
e
0
=- 0.0068
(test IC1)

I
r
e
v
e
r
s
i
b
l
e

v
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

i
r
v
o
l

(
%
)
Nawir et al., 2003)
Isotropic compression characteristics of Toyoura sand
obtained by local axial and lateral strain measurements:
- relatively small strain during isotropic compression,
in particular when p is lower than about 50 kPa.
1
/
3
a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
,

u
n
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
3
(kPa) e
29
9.8 0.650
19.6 0.658
49 0.658
98 0.671
196 0.677
392 0.679
9.8
49
98
19.6
196
392
9.8
49 98
19.6
196
392
t
m
= 0.3 mm
t
m
= 0.3 mm
3
(kPa) e
29
1.96 0.679
4.9 0.681
9.8 0.687
9.8 4.9
1.96
9.8
4.9
1.96
Even without stress correction for membrane forces, the
1
/
3
-
1
relation and the
vol
-
1
relation (in particular, the latter) tend to
become independent of
3
as
3
becomes very low.
1
/
3
a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
Axial strain,
1
(%)
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n

Void ratio measured at
3
= 2 kPa
Stress correction for membrane force by the elasticity theory (w/o & w/
buckling of membrane; methods I & III) are relevant, confirmed by the same
results from the tests using membranes having different thicknesses.
1
/
3
a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
,

u
n
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
3
(kPa) e
29
9.8 0.650
19.6 0.658
49 0.658
98 0.671
196 0.677
392 0.679
9.8
49
98
19.6
196
392
9.8
49 98
19.6
196
392
t
m
= 0.3 mm
t
m
= 0.3 mm
3
(kPa) e
29
1.96 0.679
4.9 0.681
9.8 0.687
9.8 4.9
1.96
9.8
4.9
1.96
This increase in R is due likely to membrane force.
When the stresses are corrected for membrane force, the
1
/
3
-
1
relation tends to become independent of
3
as
3
becomes
very low.
0

(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
,
u
n
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e
Void ratio, e (converted to the value
measured at
3
= 29 kPa)
When the stresses are not
corrected, the
0
value increases as
3
approaches zero.
(Fukushima & Tatsuoka, 1984)
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
,
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

measured at
3
= 29 kPa)
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
,
u
n
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e
measured at
3
= 29 kPa)
When the stresses are corrected,
the
0
value does not increase as
3
approaches zero.
When the stresses are not
corrected, the
0
value increases as
3
approaches zero.
3
(kPa) when
1
/
3
= max.
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
Membrane thickness, t
0
, = 0.3 mm,
uncorrected for MF
t
0
, = 0.1 mm,
uncorrected for MF
t
0
, = 0.1 mm 0.3 mm, corrected for MF
t
0
, = 0.1 mm,
corrected based on the stress-
dilatancy relation at failure
tends to become constant as
3
approaches zero.
(
1
/
3
)
m
a
x
a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e
Dilatancy ratio, -2d
1
/d
3
at peak stress
Range for (
3
)
f
=
50 396 kPa
Range for (
3
)
f
=
2.8 5.9 kPa
2.8 - 5.9
6.0 - 7.1
10.5 -12.3
(
3
)
f
, corrected
for MF (method I) (kPa)
The stress-dilatancy relation at failure, rather independent of
3
0
Motivation
1
0
.
5

c
m
4
c
m
8
c
m
'
v

PSC
' ' 1.0
v h
R = =

(not to scale)
Initial state
0 '
h
(kPa)
29 Constant
Toyoura sand
o
)
- fully saturated during PSC testing
1
direction
1
direction
Accurate PSC tests at low
3
; more difficult than TC tests at low
3
- due to friction on the
2
planes. Therefore,
1) high-level lubrication required;
2) measurement of side friction indispensable; and
3) relevant stress correction (must).
1
0
.
5

c
m
4
c
m
8
c
m
A pair of load cells to measure
the side friction
Some details
Lubrication
membrane
Front
Confining
Platen
(Acryle)
Specimen
membrane
Tie rod
Specimen
Cap
Pedestal
Steel platen
2
load cell
Back confining platen (steel)
Nut
High quality
lubrication using
silicone grease*
*) Tatsuoka et al. (1984);
Tatsuoka & Haibara (1985);
Goto et al. (1993)
The effects of
3
on the R-
1
-
vol
relation tends to disappear as
3
becomes smaller than about 10 kPa.
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
3
(kPa) e
5
4.9 0.755
9.8 0.746
49 0.741
98 0.748
392 0.752
= 90
o
3
(kPa)= 4.9
9.8
49
98
392
vol
1
/
3
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Shear strain, =
1

3
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
= 90
o
3
(kPa)
= 4.9
9.8
49
98
392
vol
1
/
3
3
(kPa) e
5
4.9 0.755
9.8 0.746
49 0.741
98 0.748
392 0.752
1
The effects of
3
on the R--
vol
relation tends to disappear as
3
becomes smaller than about 10 kPa.
Very small effects of
3
on R= KD at failure
R
=

(
1
/
3
)
m
a
x
(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

s
t
r
e
s
s
e
s
)
D=-d
3
/d
1
at peak stress state
K
o
: K
0
-consolidated
(isotropic consolidated in
the other tests)
Drained PSC
Toyoura sand
e
5
= 0.65 0.82
= 90
o
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Range of
the data
Range of
corrected R value
0
(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

&

l
a
t
e
r
a
l

f
a
c
e

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
Range,
3
=
4.9 49 kPa
Average,
3
= 392 kPa
Drained PSC, isotropically
consolidated saturated Toyoura sand
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Average,
Range,
3
= 4.9 49 kPa
98 kPa
55
50
=
90
o
45
Average,
3
= 392 kPa
40
35
= 23
o
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0
when = 90
o
and 23
o
When the stresses are
corrected, the
0
value
does not increase as
3
decreases towards zero.
1
direction
1
direction
3
(kPa)
Dense,
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa)
= 0.70
Loose,
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa)
= 0.80
PSC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
50
45
40
35
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
30
45
40
35
Saturated Toyoura sand (air-pluviated)
PSC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
TC, = 90
o
TC, = 90
o
(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e
&

l
a
t
e
r
a
l

s
u
r
f
a
c
e

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

When the stresses are corrected, the
0
value does not
increase as
3
decreases towards zero in both PSC (= 90
o
and 23
o
) and TC (= 90
o
).
0
Motivation
Torsional shear on isotropically consolidated Toyoura sand
o
; & b= 0.5)
- fully saturated during torsional shearing
(Tatsuoka et al., 1986c)
b
Pure shear
= 45
o
at
3
Initially isotropic stress state:
2
=
a
=
r
=
t
; and = 45
o,
b=0.5
Accurate torsional shear tests at
low
3
; more difficult than
PSC tests at low
3
- due to larger membrane
force effects (because of the
use of two membranes and
a thin specimen wall);
-
3
drops associated with an
increase in the shear stress
1
/
3

Shear distortion,
at
(%)
Uncorrected
Corrected
Dense,
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa)
= 0.697
c
(kPa)= 98 kPa
Loose,
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa) = 0.796
Large effects of membrane force on the R -
vh
relation even
when the initial effective confining pressure
c
is 98 kPa.
When the stresses are
corrected, the
0
value
does not increase as
3
decreases toward zero in
the torsional shear tests
(= 45
o
; b= 0.5).
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
c
(kPa)
29
49
98
196
55
50
45
40
35
Corrected
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Top
Mid-height
Bottom
of specimen
98 kPa
Average,
3
= 196 kPa
Drained Torsional, isotropically
= 45
o
Uncorrected,
c
= 98 kPa
1
direction
1
direction
The effects of
3
on the R -
vh
-
vol
relation are very small:
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Shear distortion,
at
(%)
c
(
3
)
f
e
4.9
29 10 0.759
49 15 0.755
98 30 0.750
196 63 0.754
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa)
~0.75
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
A deviation from the
average relation at
large strains is due
to the development
of shear band
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

a
t

t
h
e

m
i
d
-
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
3
(kPa) at failure (kPa)
e (when
3
= 4.9
kPa) = 0.75
50
1 2 5 10 20 50 100
45
40
60
55
Uncorrected
49
29
when uncorrected
1
/
3
= max
when corrected
1
/
3
= max
98
49
29
Corrected
Torsional shear,
saturated Toyoura sand (air-
pluviated), = 45
o
, b= 0.5,
membrane (t
m
= 0.3 mm, E
m
=
1.5 MPa)
98

c
(kPa)
= 196
3
(kPa) at failure
-A significant effects of membrane force at low
3
values.
-When the stresses are corrected, the
0
3
decreases toward zero in TS tests (= 45
o
; b= 0.5).
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

3
(kPa)
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
50
45
40
35
30
45
40
35
Top
mid-height
of specimen
PSC, = 90
o
TC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
TS, = 45
o
, b= 0.5
PSC, = 90
o
TC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
TS, = 45
o
, b= 0.5
Loose, e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa) = 0.80
Dense,
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa) = 0.70
0
3
decreases toward zero in PSC (= 90
o
and 23
o
), TC (= 90
o
) and TC (= 45
o
;
b= 0.5).
0
Motivation
S
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Shear distortion,
at
(%)
area
One-dimensional compression and drained simple shear
- the pressures, p
o
and p
i
, are continuously controlled in an
automated way so that the shape and area of the cross-
sections are always kept constant (i.e., d
r
=d
t
= 0).
(Pradhan et al., 1986, 1988a)
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Shear distortion,
at
(%)
vol
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
a
t
/
a

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
c
(kPa)=
98
49
29
196
49
196
c
(kPa)=
1
/
3
Dense, e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa) ~0.67
29
98
The effects of
3
relations are very
small.
(Pradhan et al., 1988a, b)
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Shear distortion,
at
(%)
vol
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
a
t
/
a

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
c
(kPa)=
98
49
29
196
49
196
c
(kPa)=
1
/
3
Loose, e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa) ~0.80
29
98
The effects of
3
relations are very
small.
measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
30
50
40
35
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Average,
a
= 98 kPa
max
3 1
3 1
0
}
) ' ' (
) ' ' (
arcsin{

=
max
) ' / arctan(
a at ss
=

c
(kPa)
, 29
, 49
, 98
, 196
0
o
r

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

45
a
= 226 kPa
Drained simple torional,
isotropically consolidated
saturated Toyoura sand
Again, very small
effects
3
on the
0
value also in
TSS tests
Differences
between
0
and
ss
:
discussed later in
relation to strength
anisotropy
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

3
(kPa)
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
50
45
40
35
45
40
35
top
mid-height
of specimen
TC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
PSC, = 90
o
TC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
TS, = 45
o
, b= 0.5
Loose, e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa) = 0.80
Dense, e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa) = 0.70
30
Torsional simple shear
Torsional simple shear
PSC, = 90
o
TS, = 45
o
, b= 0.5
0
3
decrease toward zero in all of the PSC, TC, TC (= 45
o
) and TSS tests.
Summary:
To evaluate the stress-strain behaviour of granular
material at very low pressures, say lower than 10 kPa;
1)extremely careful evaluations of stresses; and
2)careful stress path control of specimen from the start
of preparation of the specimen,
become necessary.
The results from a series of drained shear tests (TC,
PSC, TS & TSS) on Toyoura sand showed that the
stress ratio - shear strain volumetric strain relations
become essentially independent of
3
as
3
decreases toward zero.
IV-2
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
Coffee break
Strength and deformation characteristics of crushed
concrete aggregate
in triaxial compression
- Background
- Compaction tests
- Triaxial compression tests
a) Strength & deformation characteristics of crushed
concrete aggregate in comparison with those of
other typical geomaterials
b) Effects of confining pressure, moulding water
content & saturation under confined conditions
- Viscous property and creep deformation
- Conclusions
Background
A large amount of concrete scrap from demolished
reinforced concrete structures, resulting in:
- a shortage of dumping sites; and
- associated environmental violations.
More serious in the near future
Then, how to recycle concrete ?
Background
Production of crushed concrete aggregate in plants;
now an established cycle in J apan.
But.
Background
Crushed concrete aggregate:
Thin mortar layers adhering to sand & gravel particles
To be re-used as aggregate for concrete:
an unacceptably large amount of energy is necessary to
remove surface mortar sufficiently to recover the original
strength of concrete.
Background
crushed concrete aggregate:
- the use as the backfill of soil structures: so far, mostly
the secondary use (such as road base), mainly
because the strength & deformation characteristics
are not well understood (usually assumed to be
considerably worse than selected backfill soil: i.e.,
well-graded gravely soil).
Background
Crushed concrete aggregate:
- the use as the backfill of soil structures: so far, mostly
the secondary use (such as road base), mainly
because the strength & deformation characteristics
are not well understood (usually assumed to be
considerably worse than selected backfill soil: i.e.,
well-graded natural gravely soil).
Is this correct?
Strength ratio
Removing percentage of mortar
from coarse particles
Crushed concrete
aggregate (D
max
= 37.5 mm)
100%
C: q
u
of concrete
.0
Compressive strength by drained
TC of crushed concrete as the
backfill; A, B, C?
B
A
0%
Recycled concrete aggregate
after perfectly removed mortal;
or original coarse aggregate
Question!
Can crushed concrete aggregate be used as the
backfill of permanent soil structures that need a high
seismic stability while allowing a limited amount of
long-term residual deformation, such as geogrid-
reinforced soil retaining walls supporting highway
and railway?
Actually, railway soil retaining walls having a full-height
rigid facing of geogrid-reinforced crushed concrete
aggregate have been constructed in Tokyo.
Geogrid
(T
f
= 6 tonf/m)
RC bridge girder
(All unit in mm)
F
a
c
i
n
g
Backfill of crushed concrete
Geogrid
(T
f
= 6 tonf/m)
RC bridge girder
(All unit in mm)
F
a
c
i
n
g
Backfill of crushed concrete
But, so far very limited use like this case.
A systematic understanding of the strength and
deformation characteristics of crushed concrete
aggregate is necessary for its wide use as the
standard backfill soil !
But, so far very limited use like this case:
A systematic understanding of the strength and
deformation characteristics of crushed concrete
aggregate is necessary for its wide use as the
standard backfill soil !
Compaction tests; and
triaxial compression tests
(Aqil et al., 2005; Tatsuoka et al., 2005)
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RFRA)

Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
A typical one
A finer fraction of RREA
5 cm
Particles of crushed concrete aggregate REPA
(before sieving)
Compaction by tamping (E= 2480 kNm/m
3
)
Mold
Rammer
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
RFRA
w
opt
= 24 %
d, max
= 1.56 g/cm
3
G
s
= 2.69
d, max
= 1.78 g/cm
3
G
s
= 2.65
Z
e
r
o

a
i
r

v
o
i
d

c
u
r
v
e
s
w
opt
= 16.9 %
D
r
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

d

(
g
/
c
m
3
)
Molding water content, w (%)
RREA
Compaction energy=2480 kNm/m
3
TC specimen
TC specimen
Relatively low
dry density:
one of the
reasons for
assumed low
quality.
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RFRA)

Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
A typical one
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RFRA)

Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
A typical one
Triaxial specimens (10 cm in diameter times 20 cm
high): self-supporting by small suction
Specimen
Clip Gauges
Longitudinal LDTs
Top Cap
Pedestal
LVDT
Loading Piston
Bearing House
Linear Motion
Bearing
Reaction Frame
B
u
r
e
t
t
e
P
o
r
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

T
r
a
n
s
d
u
c
e
r
C
e
l
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

T
r
a
n
s
d
u
c
e
r
Base Plate
Load Cell
O-Ring
Polyflon Filter
Top Drainage Line
To Bottom
Drainage Line

Off-delay
timer
Speed Control
Unit
Loading Control
System
LDT*
Clip gauges
Triaxial apparatus
Local strain measurement is must for
reliable and sensitive strain evaluation.
* Local Deformation Transducer (Goto et al., 1982)
Specimen
Clip Gauges
Longitudinal LDTs
Top Cap
Pedestal
LVDT
Loading Piston
Bearing House
Linear Motion
Bearing
Reaction Frame
B
u
r
e
t
t
e
P
o
r
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

T
r
a
n
s
d
u
c
e
r
C
e
l
l

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

T
r
a
n
s
d
u
c
e
r
Base Plate
Load Cell
O-Ring
Polyflon Filter
Top Drainage Line
To Bottom
Drainage Line

Off-delay
timer
Speed Control
Unit
Loading Control
System
LDT*
Clip gauges
Triaxial apparatus
Local strain measurement is must for
reliable and sensitive strain evaluation.
* Local Deformation Transducer (Goto et al., 1982)
Precision-gear system:
controlling 1 m or less.
0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RFRA)
Well-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
Toyoura sand
Well-graded
Kyushu gravel
Well-graded
Chiba gravel
Particle size (mm)
%

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
A typical crushed
concrete
A finer fraction of
RREA
Crushed concrete aggregate
in comparison with other typical geomaterials
Crushed concrete aggregates (Nos. 1 & 2) have strengths:
-similar to those of the best gravel backfill (Nos. 3 & 4):
-much larger than poorly-graded or spherical materials
(Nos. 5, 6 & 7).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
5
4
3
2
1
CD TC '
c
=20 kPa)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
1. RREA
2. RFRA
3. Model Chiba gravel
4. Model
Kyushu gravel
5. Toyoura sand
6. PG glass beads
7. WG glass beads
(a)

v
=0.03 %/min
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
-4
-2
0
7
6

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RFRA)
Well-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
Toyoura sand
Well-graded
Kyushu gravel
Well-graded
Chiba gravel
Particle size (mm)
%

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
Did you predict the
relative strengths of
these materials?
Soft & weak surface
layer covering stiff
and strong core
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Property of
particle
Well-graded Well-
graded
Poorly
graded
Poor or
well-graded
Grading
Angular Angular Angular Spherical Particle shape
Recycled concrete
aggregate
Gravel Toyoura
sand
Glass
beads
Material
Soft & weak surface
and strong core
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Property of
particle
Well-graded Well-
graded
Poorly
graded
Poor or
well-graded
Grading
Recycled concrete
aggregate
Gravel Toyoura
sand
Glass
beads
Material
(q
max
ratio) 0.29/0.38 1.0 3.5/5.0 4.1/4.4
0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RFRA)
Well-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
Toyoura sand
Well-graded
Kyushu gravel
Well-graded
Chiba gravel
Particle size (mm)
%

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
Can you predict the
relative strengths of
these materials?
Soft & weak surface
and strong core
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Property of
particle
Well-graded Well-
graded
Poorly
graded
Poor or
well-graded
Grading
Recycled concrete
aggregate
Gravel Toyoura
sand
Glass
beads
Material
Soft & weak surface
and strong core
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Stiff &
strong
Property of
particle
Well-graded Well-
graded
Poorly
graded
Poor or
well-graded
Grading
Recycled concrete
aggregate
Gravel Toyoura
sand
Glass
beads
Material
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
(b)
2. RFRA
1. RREA
3. Model Chiba gravel
4. Model Kyushu gravel
5. Toyoura sand
6. PG glass beads
7. WG glass beads
Crushed concrete aggregates (Nos. 1 & 2) have initial
stiffness at small strains similar to other geomaterials
0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RFRA)
Well-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
Toyoura sand
Well-graded
Kyushu gravel
Well-graded
Chiba gravel
Particle size (mm)
%

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
Summary of CD TC tests
(
c
= 20 kPa)
Material type G
s
D
max
(mm)
D
50
(mm)
U
c
F
c
(%)
d
(g/cm
3
)
w
(%)
q
max
(kPa)
RREA 2.65 19 5.84
18.7
6
1.32
1.76 17.0 549
RFRA 2.69 2 0.64 5.91 4.95
1.36 17.0 588
Chiba gravel 2.74 9.50 2.46 13.2 3.1
2.21 5.45 667
Kyushu gravel 3.11 9.50 1.22 18 6.4
2.41 5.41 475
Toyoura sand 2.65 0.375 0.209 1.46 -
1.55 Air dried 134
Poorly graded
glass beads
2.50 0.30 0.253 1.18 -
1.54 Air dried 38.8
Well graded
glass beads
2.50 4.80 2.48 36.6 8.50
1.99 Air dried 50.6
Crushed concrete
aggregate
Best natural
backfill soil
Research sand
Glass beads
Likely inter-particle mechanism in
crushed concrete aggregate
Core aggregate
Soft & weak mortar layer
Before crushing After crushing
Compressive force
Core aggregate
Compressive force
Negligible detrimental
effects of surface mortar
layer on the stability of
inter-particle contact
After crushing by good compaction
and TC loading
Before crushing of thin
surface mortar layer
A low stiffness and a
low strength
Likely inter-particle mechanism in
crushed concrete aggregate
Core aggregate
Compressive force
Core aggregate
Compressive force
Negligible detrimental
effects of surface mortar
layer on the stability of
inter-particle contact
After crushing by good compaction or
TC loading or both
Before crushing of thin
surface mortar layer
A high strength
Effects of confining pressure on peak and
residual strengths:
- significant as ordinary gravely soil.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6

v
=0.03 %/min

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Externally measured axial strain (LVDT),
v
(%)
/
c
=60 kPa
/
c
=90 kPa
/
c
=40 kPa
/
c
=30 kPa
/
c
=20 kPa
CD TC tests
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600

c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
Mohr coulomb strength parameters
c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
q
res
(kPa)=69.43 +6.29(
c
')
(
c
' in kPa)
Peak strength:
q
m
a
x

a
n
d

q
r
e
s

(
k
P
a
)
Residual strength:
q
max
(kPa)=
109.54 +23.93(
/
c
) - 0.097(
c
')
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
25
50
75
100
125
Confining pressure,
c
' (kPa)
E
5
0

(
M
P
a
)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6

v
=0.03 %/min

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
v
(%)
/
c
=60 kPa
/
c
=90 kPa
/
c
=40 kPa
/
c
=30 kPa
/
c
=20 kPa
CD TC tests
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600

c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
q
res
(kPa)=69.43 +6.29(
c
')
(
c
' in kPa)
Peak strength:
q
m
a
x

a
n
d

q
r
e
s

(
k
P
a
)
Residual strength:
q
max
(kPa)=
109.54 +23.93(
/
c
) - 0.097(
c
')
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
25
50
75
100
125
Confining pressure,
c
' (kPa)
E
5
0

(
M
P
a
)
Significant effects of confining pressure on peak
and residual strengths
c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
High friction angles !
Insignificant effects of confining pressure on E
50
,
unlike ordinary gravely soils
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6

v
=0.03 %/min

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
v
(%)
/
c
=60 kPa
/
c
=90 kPa
/
c
=40 kPa
/
c
=30 kPa
/
c
=20 kPa
CD TC tests
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600

c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
c
res
(kPa)
res
c
peak
(kPa)
peak
Residual Peak
q
res
(kPa)=69.43 +6.29(
c
')
(
c
' in kPa)
Peak strength:
q
m
a
x

a
n
d

q
r
e
s

(
k
P
a
)
Residual strength:
q
max
(kPa)=
109.54 +23.93(
/
c
) - 0.097(
c
')
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
25
50
75
100
125
Confining pressure,
c
' (kPa)
E
5
0

(
M
P
a
)
Then, how about the effects of moulding water content ?
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
RFRA
w
opt
= 24 %
d, max
= 1.56 g/cm
3
G
s
= 2.69
d, max
= 1.78 g/cm
3
G
s
= 2.65
Z
e
r
o

a
i
r

v
o
i
d

c
u
r
v
e
s
w
opt
= 16.9 %
D
r
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

d

(
g
/
c
m
3
)
RREA
3
TC specimen
TC specimen
Noticeable but relatively small effects
of molding water content
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
w=17.20%
Drier
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)

w=17.20%
Wet side of w
opt
Close to w
opt
w=13.4 %
w=14.2 %
w=15.3 %
Dry side of w
opt
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
-3
-2
-1
0
w=13.4 %
w=14.2 %
w=15.3 %
w=18.7 %

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)

400
450
500
1.65
1.70
1.75
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
30
40
50
60
d

q
m
a
x

(
k
P
a
)
Dry Side of w
opt
w
opt
=16.9 %
d

g
/
c
m
3
c
e
Wet Side of w
opt
E
5
0

(
M
P
a
)

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
RFRA
w
opt
=24 %
d, max
=1.56 g/cm
3
G
s
=2.69
d, max
=1.78 g/cm
3
G
s
=2.65
Z
e
r
o

a
i
r

v
o
i
d

c
u
r
v
e
s
w
opt
=16.9 %
D
r
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

d

(
g
/
c
m
3
)
Molding ater content (%)
RREA
3
TC specimen
TC specimen
Highest strength when w= w
opt
& softer when wetter, but
generally small effects.
Then, the water content control in the field becomes
relatively simple.
Effects of compaction energy on the stiffness and strength of
REPA and model Chiba gravel A, having the same grading curve
and a similar angular particle shape!
0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
*) Cruhsed concrete
aggregate
REPA* and
model Chiba gravel A
Well-graded
glass beads
Poorly-graded
glass beads
Toyoura sand
Model
Kyushu
gravel
Model Chiba
gravel

Particle size (mm)
%

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
RREA*
The dry density
d
of model Chiba gravel A is
much higher than
d
of REPA.
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
13
08
06
07
09
05
04
E2'=5.06 Nm/cm
3
E1'=2.53 Nm/cm
3
E0'=0.506 Nm/cm
3
E2'
E1'
E0'
E0'
E1'
REPA
ZAV line for G
s
=2.74
(model Chiba gravel A)
ZAV line for G
s
=2.65
(REPA)
C
o
m
p
a
c
t
e
d

d
r
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

,

d

(
g
/
c
m
3
)

Water content , w (%)
Model Chiba
gravel A
E2'
For the same compaction energy level, the peak strength of REPA
is higher than that of model Chiba gravel A.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-2.0
-1.6
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.0
Model Chiba gravel A
E1' E0'
E0'
E2'
E2'
c
'=30 kPa
v
=0.03 %/min
REPA, w =7.9 - 8.2 %

Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
E1'
E0'
E0'
E2'
E2'
E1'
E1'
Model Chiba gravel A, w =5.0 - 5.3 %

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
E0'
E1'
E1'
E2'
E2'
E0'
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
E0'
E1'
E2'

0
20
40
60
80
100
E2'
E1'
E0'
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Model Chiba gravel A, w =5.0 - 5.3 %
REPA, w =7.9 - 8.2 %

The small strain stiffness of model Chiba gravel A decreases with
an increase in the compaction energy level, but this peculiar trend
is not visible with REPA.
For the same compaction energy, q
max
of the respective
material tends to become the maximum when compacted at
w around w
opt
.
4 6 8 10 12 14
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
Water content, w (%)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
M
P
a
)

REPA
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
4 6 8 10 12 14
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13

Water content , w (%)
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
5
0

(
M
P
a
)
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
REPA
For the same compaction energy, E
50
of the respective
material tends to become the maximum when compacted at
w around w
opt
.
The q
max
-
d
relation;
a) REPA; rather unique, independent of compaction energy
and moulding water content, w;
b) model Chiba gravel A; affected largely by w.
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Increasing
water content
w =3.9 - 4.1 %
w =3.8 %
w =3.8 %
w =5.0 -5.3 %

REPA
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
k
P
a
)

Dry density,
d
(g/cm
3
)
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
Test Nos. 04-09 & 13
The q
max
of REPA; very sensitive to
d
,
high compaction is important to have a high q
max
.
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Increasing
water content
w =3.9 - 4.1 %
w =3.8 %
w =3.8 %
w =5.0 -5.3 %

REPA
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
k
P
a
)

Dry density,
d
(g/cm
3
)
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
Test Nos. 04-09 & 13
The q
max
- D
c
relation;
a) REPA; rather unique and independent of compaction
energy and moulding water content, w;
b) model Chiba gravel A; obviously affected by w.
85 90 95 100
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
Degree of compaction, D
c
(%)

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
M
P
a
)

REPA
D
c
=
d
/
d.max
when compaction energy= E1
The q
max
of REPA;
very sensitive to D
c
, more than model Chiba
gravel A
85 90 95 100
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
c
(%)

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
M
P
a
)

REPA
D
c
=
d
/
d.max
when compaction energy= E1
REPA; q
max
when D
c
= 90 %is only about 30 % of q
max
when D
c
=100 %. The minimum required D
c
should
be more than 95 %.
85 90 95 100
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
c
(%)

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
M
P
a
)

REPA
When D
c
=100 %,
q
max
of REPA is higher than q
max
of model Chiba
gravel A.
85 90 95 100
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
c
(%)

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
M
P
a
)

REPA
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
E2'
E1'
E0'
Model Chiba
gravel A
REPA

Compaction energy, E (N-m/cm
3
)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
M
P
a
)

At the same compaction energy, q
max
of REPA is
higher than q
max
of model Chiba gravel A, in particular
at higher compaction energy.
d
of crushed concrete aggregate (REPA) is smaller
than
d
of model natural well-graded gravel (model
Chiba gravel A); mostly due to higher void ratio e.
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
REPA
w =5.0 - 5.3 %
w =3.9 - 4.1 %
Compacted void ratio, e
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

,

q
m
a
x

(
k
P
a
)

Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
Despite higher void ratio e, q
max
of REPA is similar to,
or higher than, q
max
of model Chiba gravel A.
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
REPA
w =5.0 - 5.3 %
w =3.9 - 4.1 %
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

,

q
m
a
x

(
k
P
a
)

Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
With crushed concrete aggregate, low dry density &
high void ratio does not mean low strength.
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
REPA
w =5.0 - 5.3 %
w =3.9 - 4.1 %

Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Increasing
water content
w =3.9 - 4.1 %
w =3.8 %
w =3.8 %
w =5.0 -5.3 %

REPA
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
k
P
a
)

Dry density,
d
(g/cm
3
)
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
Test Nos. 04-09 & 13
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
w =3.9 - 4.1 %
w =3.8 %
w =5.0 - 5.3 %
Dry density ,
d
(g/cm
3
)

Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
5
0
(
M
P
a
)
REPA
Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
The E
50
-
d
relation;
a) REPA; rather unique, independent of compaction energy
and moulding water content, w;
b) model Chiba gravel A; affected very largely by w.
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
5
0

(
G
P
a
)
E2'
E1'
E0'
Model Chiba
gravel A
REPA

Compaction energy, E (N-m/cm
3
)

At the same compaction energy, E
50
of REPA is higher
than E
50
of model Chiba gravel A, in particular at
higher compaction energy.
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

M
o
d
u
l
u
s

,

E
5
0
(
M
P
a
)

Compaction
energy level
E2'
E1'
E0'
Test Nos.
04-09 & 13
REPA
w =5.0 - 5.3 %
w =3.9 - 4.1 %
Despite higher void ratio e, E
50
of REPA is similar to,
or higher than, E
50
of model Chiba gravel A.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Saturated
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
c
'
=20 kPa

w=13.4 %
w=17.2 %
w=18.7 %
w=13.27 %
w=17.48 %
w=18.35 %
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
Un-saturated
Saturated

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)

Un-saturated (moist as compacted)
w=18.7 %
w=17.2 %
w=13.4 %
w=13.27 %
w=18.35 %
w=17.48 %
Very low effects of saturation under confined
conditions
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
450
500
550
1.68
1.70
1.72
1.74
b

Close to w
opt
(=16.9 %)
Un-saturated
Dry side
of w
opt
Saturated
Wet side
of w
opt
Wet side
of w
opt
Dry side
of w
opt
Close to w
opt
(=16.9 %)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

q
m
a
x

(
k
P
a
)
Saturated

D
r
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

d

g
/
c
m
3
Un-saturated
a
Very low effects of saturation under confined conditions,
then, no worry about the effects of saturation during
service time.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
v
=0.01 %/min
v
=0.1 %/min
v
=0.001 %/min
CD TC tests
'
c
=20 kPa

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain rate decreasing
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-6
-4
-2
0
v
=0.1 %/min
v
=0.01 %/min
v
=0.001 %/min

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
Effects of strain rate on stiffness and peak
strength ?
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
v
=0.01 %/min
v
=0.1 %/min
v
=0.001 %/min
CD TC tests
'
c
=20 kPa

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-6
-4
-2
0
v
=0.1 %/min
v
=0.01 %/min
v
=0.001 %/min

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
Noticeable effects of strain rate on stiffness and peak strength:
a) higher pre-peak stiffness at lower strain rates*
(unlike ordinary granular materials)
b) lower peak strength at lower strain rates*
(like ordinary granular materials).
*Mechanism behind:
not well-understood.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
v
=0.01 %/min
v
=0.1 %/min
v
=0.001 %/min
CD TC tests
'
c
=20 kPa

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-6
-4
-2
0
v
=0.1 %/min
v
=0.01 %/min
v
=0.001 %/min

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
Generally insignificant effects of strain rate on
stiffness and peak strength
Sharp changes in the stress step changes in the strain rate
with decay in the viscous stress component with an
increase in the strain (peculiar but the same trend with natural
granular materials)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
=0.01 %min

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
a-b; e-f; i-j; m-n; & p-q:
v
=
0
c-d; g-h; k-l; & o-p: 10
0
b-c; d-e; f-g; h-i; j-k; l-m; & n-o:
0
/10
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
Start of TC loading
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
'
c
=20 kPa
CD TC test ICDU-003 Deduced for a constant strain rate
Rate-sensitivity coefficient ,
representing the viscosity of soil

-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
-0.20
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
Irreversible axial strian, (%)
R
R
R
R
/10
v
&
10
v
&
v
&

R
/
R
(a)
=0.05362
log (
.
v
after /
.
v
before)
1
(b)
1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.20
25
26
27
28
CD TC test ICDU-003
v
/10
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
Irreversible vertical strain,
v
ir
(%)
R
R
a)
0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Recycled concrete
aggregate (RREA)
Silica sand
No.8
Jamuna River sand
: Drained PSC
: Drained TC
Hostun sand
Chiba gravel
Toyoura sand

R
a
t
e
-
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

D
50
(mm)
of crushed concreter aggregate, slightly higher than those of
other ordinary granular materials.
Relatively insignificant creep deformation
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
s
s
v
(%)
s
s
s
s
Sustained
loading
for 3 hours
s
s

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
CD TC test ICDU-001 ('
c
=20 kPa
v
=0.01%/min
s
Ten small unload
-reload cycles
Start of
TC loading
0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
14
16
18
20
R
s
v
(%)

0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00
10
15
20
25
s
s
R

Negative creep deformation at unloaded stress states,
suggesting a significant reduction of creep deformation by
preloading!
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
s
s
v
(%)
s
s
s
s
Sustained
loading
for 3 hours
s
s

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
CD TC test ICDU-001 ('
c
=20 kPa
v
=0.01%/min
s
Ten small unload
-reload cycles
Start of
TC loading
0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
14
16
18
20
R
s
v
(%)

0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00
10
15
20
25
s
s
R

Similar residual strain by sustained loading
and cyclic loading
.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
0
200
400
600
Test ICDU-001
(sustained loading:
3 hrs/stage)
Test ICDU-004
(cyclic loading:
50 cycles/stage
amplitude of q=50 kPa)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
CD TC tests ('
c
=20 kPa)
v
=0.01%/min
150
160
170
180
190
200
210

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
A
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
-0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
Cyclic loading
(strain-controlled)

R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

i
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
,

v

(
%
)
Elapsed time, t (sec)
Sustained loading
A
Time histories of deviator stress and axial strain increment at typical sustained
and cyclic loading stages, RREA (Aqil et al., 2005b)
0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00 1.02
0
200
400
600
Test ICDU-001
(sustained loading:
3 hrs/stage)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
CD TC tests ('
c
=20 kPa)
v
=0.01%/min
1.40 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.50
0
200
400
600
Test ICDU-004
(cyclic loading:
50 cycles/stage
amplitude of q=50 kPa)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
CD TC loading ('
c
=20 kPa;
v
=0.01%/min)
Similar residual strain by sustained loading
and cyclic loading
.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Crushed concrete aggregate exhibits high
compressive strength, q
max
, similar to, or even
higher than, that of ordinarily used best backfill soil
(i.e., well-graded natural gravely soil).
- q
max
of crushed concrete aggregate is much higher
than those of uniform soil and soil having round
particle shapes.
CONCLUSIONS (continued)
2. q
max
becomes largest when compacted at w= w
opt
,
but, the stress-strain behavior is not very sensitive
to:
a) moulding water content;
b) saturation under confined conditions; and
c) loading rate (with insignificant creep deformation).
These properties are appropriate when used as the
backfill material for important permanent soil
structures.
5 cm
When well-compacted, crushed concrete
aggregate is among the highest-class backfill
materials.
V
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
0.001 %
Motivation of the research
Plane strain bearing capacity tests of strip footing on air-dried
Toyoura sand
A
Observationthrough
D=49cm
Rigidstripfooting
(B=10.0cm, L=39.9cm)
B
B'
P
Model sand bed
Rigidsandbox
W=40cm
L=183cm
B
=

1
0

c
m
Shear band
Air-dried Toyoura sand
particles pluviated through air
The central cross-section of the model sand bed that was
made moistened and excavated after loading to S/B
0
= 0/7.
Model footing
By the footing loading, the
direction of
1
rotates along
the major shear bands that
control the bearing capacity of
a footing.
So, inclined specimens for
plane strain compression
testing become necessary.
1
2
0 =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=8 cm
L=16 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of
air-pluviation
1
2
0 =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=8 cm
L=16 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of
air-pluviation
1
Model footing
Inherent anisotropy
1. Air-pluviated sand in drained PSC (general trend)
1-1. Effects of sand type (various types of research sand)
1-2. Effects of confining pressure and specimen density
(air-pluviatedToyoura sand)
2. Anisotropy with other types of geomaterial
2-1. Gravels in large drained PSC
2-2. Compacted volcanic sandy gravel in drained TC
2-3. Undisturbed samples of secondarily sedimented volcanic sand in
drained PSC
3. Anisotropy under different stress conditions
3-1. Air-pluviated Toyoura sand in drained TC, TE and PSC
3-2. Air-pluviated Toyoura sand in drained PSC and direct simple shear
The two pioneers: Arthur,J .R.F. (UK) and Oda,M. (J apan)
e.g., Arthur & Menzies (1972); Oda (1972)
Preparation of
inclined sand specimens
1
direction
Air-dried sand
16 cm
8 cm
20 cm
Freezing
Negligible effects of a sequence of
freezing and thawing were
confirmed (Tatsuoka et al.,1986b)
Thawing
under partial vacuuming
1
H
=

2
0

c
m
B= 8 cm
L= 16 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of
air-pluviation
2
0 =
A series of drained PSC tests
on a wide variety of poorly graded research sand
used in many leading soil mechanics laboratories
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
(Park & Tatsuoka, 1994)
Negligible effects of inherent anisotropy at
the residual state.
1
direction
1
direction
3
= 78.5 kPa
OCR= 1.0
Drained PSC tests,
SLB sand
Effects of inherent anisotropy
are not noticeable at very small
strains, but they increase with
an increase in the strain. Why?
Drained PSC tests,
Ticino sand
Negligible effects of inherent anisotropy at
the residual state.
3
= 78.5 kPa
OCR= 1.0
(Tatsuoka et al, 1999a)
Principal stress ratio,
R=
1
/
3
=2.5
Effects of inherent
anisotropy are not
noticeable at very small
strains, but they increase
with an increase in the
strain. Why?
Rather isotropic initial
shear modulus at very
small strains
Angle, (degree)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d
i
n
i
t
i
a
l

s
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,
1
direction
1
direction
Reversible stress-strain
behaviour at very small
strains
Angle, (in degree)
Drained PSC
3
= 78.4 kPa
OCR=1.0
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
1

1
Toyoura sand
S.L.B.
Silica
Karlsruhe
Monterey
Ticino
Hostun
Glass beads
A similar trend,
with and without
a minimum
at = 20
o
30
o
,
where the shear
band direction
coincides with the
bedding plane
direction.
Poorly graded granular materials prepared by air-pluviation
Angle, (in degree)
Drained PSC
3
= 78.4 kPa
OCR=1.0
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
1

1
Toyoura sand
S.L.B.
Silica
Karlsruhe
Monterey
Ticino
Hostun
Glass beads
A similar trend,
with and without a
minimum
at = 20
o
30
o,
despite different
languages and
cultures with these
sands !
Poorly graded granular materials prepared by air-pluviation
Isotropic over-compression history may not change
the inherent anisotropy noticeably.
Angle, (in degree)
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
Drained PSC
dense Toyoura sand
3
= 78.4 kPa
OCR=1.0,
e= 0.66
3
= 14.7 kPa
OCR=5.33
e= 0.66
Average;
3
=
4.9 392 kPa
OCR=1.0
(Tatsuoka
et al., 1986)
Inherent anisotropy
drained PSC
- Do the effects of inherent anisotropy decrease significantly when
isotropically compressed to higher pressures, 392 kPa?
- How about effects of density?
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
3
(kPa) e
5
4.9 0.755
9.8 0.746
49 0.741
98 0.748
392 0.752
= 90
o
3
(kPa)= 4.9
9.8
49
98
392
vol
1
/
3
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(
o
) e
4.9
vol
1
/
3
3
= 392 kPa, loose
(
o
) e
4.9
1
/
3
vol
3
= 392 kPa, dense
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(
o
) e
4.9
vol
1
/
3
3
= 4.9 kPa, dense
2
/
3
3
= 4.9 kPa, loose
(
o
) e
4.9
1
/
3
vol
Drained PSC, saturated Toyoura
sand, isotropically consolidated
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(
o
) e
4.9
vol
1
/
3
3
= 392 kPa, loose
(
o
) e
4.9
1
/
3
vol
3
= 392 kPa, dense
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(
o
) e
4.9
vol
1
/
3
3
= 4.9 kPa, dense
2
/
3
3
= 4.9 kPa, loose
(
o
) e
4.9
1
/
3
vol
The effects of inherent anisotropy
are similar for the different
3
s
and sand dry densities examined.
0
(
d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

3
(kPa)
Dense,
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa)
= 0.70
Loose,
e (when
3
= 4.9 kPa)
= 0.80
PSC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
50
45
40
35
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
30
45
40
35
PSC, = 90
o
PSC, = 23
o
TC, = 90
o
TC, = 90
o
The effects of inherent anisotropy are rather independent of
pressure level and sand density within the limit examined.
The effects of inherent
anisotropic are rather
independent of
3
and
sand dry density within the
limit examined.
The effects of inherent
anisotropy are equivalent
to those of void ratio.
1
direction
1
direction
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
,

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

f
o
r

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

f
o
r
c
e

measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
Range,
3
=
4.9 49 kPa
Average,
3
= 392 kPa
Drained PSC, isotropically
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Average,
Range,
3
= 4.9 49 kPa
98 kPa
55
50
=
90
o
45
Average,
3
= 392 kPa
40
35
= 23
o
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Angle, (in degree)
Dense
e
4.9
= 0.685 0.714
(except a with 0.666)
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
1

1
1
Loose
e
4.9
= 0.770 0.805
except b (0.839)
& c (0.836)
Average (D)
Average (D)
Average for loose specimens
Average
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
The effects of
inherent
anisotropy are
rather
independent of
3
and sand dry
density within the
limit examined.
Insignificant effects of
3
on the S-D relation (= 90
o
)
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
(D=-d
3
/d
1
)
(
d
)
max
(in degree)
0
=

(
d
)
m
a
x
(
K
=

1
.
0
)
0
=

(
d
)
m
a
x
+

3
0
o
R
=
K
D
(
K
=

1
.
0
)
R
=
K
D
(
K
=

3
.
5
)
Drained PSC
Toyoura sand
e
5
= 0.65 0.82
3
= 4.9 392 kPa
= 90
o
Significant effects of on the S-D relation
(
d
)
max
(in degree)
Drained PSC, Toyoura sand
e
5
= 0.659 0.847
3
= 4.9 392 kPa
(
o
)
3
(kPa)
4.9 9.8 49 98 392
Lower bound
when 30
o
Average
when = 90
o
0 5 10 15 20
50
45
40
35
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
90
67
45
34
23
11
0
(T ,F., 1987)
1
direction
1
direction
1
direction
1
direction
K

a
t
(
1
/
3
)
m
a
x
(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

s
t
r
e
s
s
e
s
)
Angle (in degree)
Average in PSC
Average in PSC
TC (=0
o
)
Estimated relation in TC
Average
in TC (=90
o
)
Estimated relation in TC
Data points: PSC,
dense (e
5
= 0.653 0.716)
Data points: PSC, loose (e
5
= 0.770 0.836)
: Averaged value

3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
R=KD (R=
1
/
3
; D=-d
3
/d
1
):
significant effects of the angle on the value of K
Inherent anisotropy
drained PSC
Hime; sub-round to round
particle; air-pluviated
Isomi; sub-round to round
particle; compacted by vibration
in several sub-layers
Hime
Koushu
Isomi
Koushu (Andesite): angular;
compacted by vibration in several
sub-layers
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
(Dong & Nakamura., 1997)
1
2
*
3
2
0* =
H
=

5
6

c
m
B= 21 cm
L= 24 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of air-
pluviation
or compaction
by vibration
Large specimen for drained PSC and TC tests
*:
2
=
3
&
2
= non-zero
in drained TC
Hime
Koushu
Isomi
Drained PSC at
3
= 78.4 kPa
(air-dried specimens)
Hime
Koushu
Isomi
sub-layers
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Hime
Koushu
Isomi
sub-layers
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Similar trend of anisotropy as sand
Hime
Koushu
Angle, (in degree)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
Air-dried gravel
Isomi
(
3
=78.5 kPa)
Drained TC
Drained
PSC
Koushu
Isomi
Drained TC
Vibro-compacted angular gravel exhibits the largest
degree of anisotropy
Generally a similar trend of inherent anisotropy with air-
pluviated sandand air-pluviated and vibro-compacted gravel
Air-pluviated Toyoura sand
Air-pluviated
or vibro-compacted gravel
Angle, (in degree)
Dense
e
4.9
=0.685 0.714
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
1

1
1
Loose
e
4.9
=0.770 0.805
except b (0.839)
& c (0.836)
Average (D)
Average (D)
Average
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Angle, (in degree)
Dense
e
4.9
=0.685 0.714
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
1

1
1
Loose
e
4.9
=0.770 0.805
except b (0.839)
& c (0.836)
Average (D)
Average (D)
Average
Angle, (in degree)
Dense
e
4.9
=0.685 0.714
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
1

1
1
Loose
e
4.9
=0.770 0.805
except b (0.839)
& c (0.836)
Average (D)
Average (D)
Average
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Hime
Koushu
Angle, (in degree)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
Air-dried gravel
Isomi
(
3
=78.5 kPa)
Drained TC
Drained
PSC
Koushu
Isomi
Drained TC
Hime
Koushu
Angle, (in degree)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
Air-dried gravel
Isomi
(
3
=78.5 kPa)
Drained TC
Drained
PSC
Koushu
Isomi
Drained TC
Inherent anisotropy
2-3. Natural secondarily sedimented volcanic-origin sand in drained
PSC
Drained TC (cylindrical specimens;
D/H= 100 mm/200 mm)
Rammer-compacted to D
c
=95 %
(w=9.3 %)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

3
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(Fukushima et al.)
c= 0.0
=46.4
o
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Normal stress, (kgf/cm
2
)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Volcanic sandy
gravel (Higashi Fuji)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

3
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
Drained TC (cubic specimens with
lubricated ends;
3
=1.0 kg/cm
2
)
= 0
o
= 90
o
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=

3
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
- Significant effects of inherent anisotropy on the pre-peak stress-strain
relations and peak strength for respective specimen density
- Insignificant effects of inherent anisotropy on the residual strength
Inherent anisotropy
drained PSC
Undisturbed samples of underwater-resedimented volcanic-
origin sand having very flaky particles in drained PSC
Local sand in Kyushu, called
Shirasu
90
o
f
=
Even more significant inherent anisotropy with undisturbed
samples of underwater-resedimented volcanic soil, Shirasu
Even more significant inherent anisotropy with undisturbed
samples of underwater-resedimented volcanic soil, Shirasu
Angle, (in degree)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
3
(kPa)
19
49
88
Drained PSC on Shirasu
(strength corrected to
d
=1.0 g/cm
3
)
The data scatter is large, but the trend is clear.
A similar trend of inherent anisotropy with air-pluviated sand
and underwater-resedimented sand
Angle, (in degree)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
3
(kPa)
19
49
88
d
=1.0 g/cm
3
)
Angle, (in degree)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
0.0 30 60 90
3
(kPa)
19
49
88
d
=1.0 g/cm
3
)
Angle, (in degree)
Dense
e
4.9
=0.685 0.714
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
1

1
1
Loose
e
4.9
=0.770 0.805
except b (0.839)
& c (0.836)
Average (D)
Average (D)
Average
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Angle, (in degree)
Dense
e
4.9
=0.685 0.714
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
1

1
1
Loose
e
4.9
=0.770 0.805
except b (0.839)
& c (0.836)
Average (D)
Average (D)
Average
Angle, (in degree)
Dense
e
4.9
=0.685 0.714
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
1

1
1
Loose
e
4.9
=0.770 0.805
except b (0.839)
& c (0.836)
Average (D)
Average (D)
Average
3
(kPa)
4.9
9.8
49
98
392
Underwater-resedimented sand
Summary
The results from a series of drained and TC PSC tests on
air-pluviated sands, an air-pluviated gravel, vibro-
compacted gravels, a compacted volcanic sandy gravel
as well as undisturbed samples of underwater-
resedimented volcanic sand showed:
1) the effects of inherent anisotropy increase with an
increase in the strain, showing marked effects on the
peak strength; and disappear until reaching the residual
state; and
2) the effects of confining pressure, sand density and sand
type on the trend of inherent anisotropy in the stress-
strain behaviour are insignificant within the limit of test
conditions examined.
Inherent anisotropy
drained PSC
Effects of inherent anisotropy on the peak strength of air-
pluviated sand for different principal stress directions that are
orthogonal or in parallel to the bedding plane.
z
x
y
z
Bedding plane
( , , )
x y z

can be any combination of
1 2 3
( , , )
or
or
or
2 1 3
( , , )
1 3 2
( , , )
1 z
=
2 y
=
3 x
=
1 z
=
3 y
=
2 x
=
2 z
=
3 y
=
1 x
=
2 z
=
1 y
=
3 x
=
3 z
=
1 y
=
2 x
=
3 z
=
2 y
=
1 x
=
1 z
=
3 y
=
3 x
=
TC
3 z
=
3 y
=
1 x
=
TC
3 z
=
1 y
=
3 x
=
TC
1 z
=
3 y
=
1 x
=
TE
3 z
=
1 y
=
1 x
=
TE
1 z
=
1 y
=
3 x
=
TE
z
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
The failure envelop on a plane:

- symmetric about the = 0 axis
- not symmetric about the = 60
axis and = 120 axis due to
the effects of inherent
anisotropy.
The TE strength is controlled
significantly by the failure
mode..
(Lam &Tatsuoka,1988a, b)
3
igid
Flexible
H
W
Effects of inherent anisotropy on the peak strength of air-
pluviated sand when the principal stress directions are
orthogonal or in parallel to or inclined to the bedding plane
z
x
y
z
Bedding plane
z
x
y
z
Bedding plane
0.0 30 60 90
Angle, (in degree)
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
Drained PSC
Void ratio, e
4.9
3
= 98 kPa:
OCR= 1.0
e
4.9
=0.8
e
4.9
=0.7
Tatsuoka et
al. (1986a)
Inferred based on
curve A
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.785 0.801
0.696 0.713
X e=0.670.68
(Oda et al., 1978)
Drained TC
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.7
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.8
30
35
40
35
40
45
1
2
*
3
2
0* =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=21 cm
L=56 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of air-
pluviation
or compaction
by vibration
1
2
*
3
2
0* =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=21 cm
L=56 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of air-
pluviation
or compaction
by vibration
*:
2
=
3
&
2
=non-zero
in drained TC
Effects of inherent anisotropy:
- larger in PSC than in TC
why? perhaps smaller
strains at peak in PSC
3
3
0.0 30 60 90
Angle, (in degree)
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
Drained PSC
Void ratio, e
4.9
3
= 98 kPa:
OCR= 1.0
e
4.9
=0.8
e
4.9
=0.7
Tatsuoka et
al. (1986a)
Inferred based on
curve A
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.785 0.801
0.696 0.713
X e=0.670.68
(Oda et al., 1978)
Drained TC
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.7
o
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.8
30
35
40
35
40
45
1
2
*
3
2
0* =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=21 cm
L=56 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of air-
pluviation
or compaction
by vibration
1
2
*
3
2
0* =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=21 cm
L=56 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of air-
pluviation
or compaction
by vibration
*:
2
=
3
&
2
=non-zero
in drained TC
Nearly no effects of inherent
anisotropy when = about 35
o
why?
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
Strength anisotropy of air-pluviated Toyoura sand

under the general three-dimensional stress conditions
Largest effects of inherent anisotropy
Definition of the direction of the bedding plane by two
angles, and
1
3
4
5
6
3
7
5
4
5
9
0
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
Toyoura sand, air-pluviated
3
= 98 kPa, void ratio, e
29
= 0.70
3 1
3 2
' '
' '

= b
(Lam &Tatsuoka,1988a, b
0
1
2
*
3
2
0* =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=21 cm
L=56 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of air-
pluviation
or compaction
by vibration
1
2
*
3
2
0* =
H
=

2
0

c
m
B=21 cm
L=56 cm
Bedding plane
Angle
Direction of air-
pluviation
or compaction
by vibration
*:
2
=
3
&
2
=non-zero
in drained TC
3
0
=40
o
1
3
4
5
3
7
5
4
5
6
9
0
Toyoura sand
air-pluviated
3
= 98 kPa
void ratio, e
29
= 0.70
0
=40
o
3
Effects of b depend
on the angles,
largest when ;
and smallest
when .
90
o
=
20 30
o
=
1
3
4
5
3
7
3
5
4
5
6
9
0
Toyoura sand
air-pluviated
3
=98 kPa
void ratio, e
29
=0.70
1
3
4
5
3
7
3
5
4
5
6
9
0
Toyoura sand
air-pluviated
3
=98 kPa
void ratio, e
29
=0.70
Cross-sections seen from A-direction
A
1
3
4
5
6
3
7
5
4
5
9
0
3
2
History of the study
on the strength of sand
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
1
- direction
1
- direction
n: normal to BP
Bedding plane
2-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
3
-
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
Toyoura sand
air-pluviated
3
= 98 kPa
void ratio, e
29
= 0.7
(Lam &Tatsuoka,1988a, b)
0
3 1
3 2
' '
' '

= b
0
=40
o
1. TC
2. TE
3. PSC
1-2-3: effects of b
1-5: anisotropy in TC
2-6: anisotropy in PSC
3-7: anisotropy in TE
Inherent anisotropy
drained PSC
z
zx
xz
0
x
=
2
0 =
Simple shear
Simple shear
z
zx
Shear band
Direct shear
Direct shear
1

1
Shear strength from simple shear & direct shear tests can be
properly interpreted only when accounting for strength anisotropy.
zx
zx
45 /2
o

1
direction
Z
X
1
plane
45 /2
o
+
(not ) 45 /2
o

'
a
at
at

'
t
2
'
0
n
=
2
0 =
The simple shear conditions achieved by
controlling the internal and external
pressures.
Simple shear tests= one specific type of
plane strain test !
2
0

c
m
Torsional simple shear test on Toyoura sand
Unlike the conventional simple and direct shear tests,
all the principal stresses can be evaluated
a
t
/
a
t
/
1
/
3
=
1
-
3
(%)
v
o
l
=
1
+
3
(
%
)
(Pradhan et al.,1988a, b)
Unlike the conventional
simple and direct shear tests,
all the principal stresses can
be evaluated.
'
a
at
at

'
t
2
'
0
n
=
2
0 =
1
' 3
'
Typical simple shear test on Toyoura sand
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
SS
1
directions
=
1
-
3
(%)
Directions when (
1
/
3
)
max
at
d
n
=0
d
1
a
/=
max
Increasing normal
stress in the shear
direction,
t
Constant axial
stress,
a
Effective normal stress, (kgf/cm
2
)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

a
t
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Normal stress
t
in the
shear direction; increasing
with shearing
Direction of
1
;
continuously rotating
'
a
at
at

'
t
2
'
0
n
=
2
0 =
1
' 3
'
A
n
g
l
e
s

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
h
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
d
1
=
1
-
3
(%)
d
1
1
Difference between the
1
& d
1
directions
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
e
s

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
3
At failure, the directions
of
1
and d
1
(~d
1
p
) are
essentially the same.
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
SS
1
directions
=
1
-
3
(%)
Directions when (
1
/
3
)
max
at
d
n
=0
d
1
a
/=
max
Increasing normal
stress in the shear
direction,
t
Constant axial
stress,
a
2
)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

a
t
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
SS
1
directions
=
1
-
3
(%)
Directions when (
1
/
3
)
max
at
d
n
=0
d
1
a
/=
max
Increasing normal
stress in the shear
direction,
t
Constant axial
stress,
a
2
)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

a
t
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
A
n
g
l
e

o
f

1
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
f
r
o
m

t
h
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
=
1
-
3
(%)=
1
2
3
4
5
6
=
1
-
3

(
%
)
1
/
3
10
5
1
0
3
0
6
0
9
0
1 5: Drained PSC
6: Torsional simple shear
Void ratio e
29
~ 0.7
Start of PSC
Strains corrected for
bedding error & membrane
penetration in PSC
Start of
TSS
At the failure state, simple shear test=
PSC test at an inclined
1
direction
'
a
at
at

'
t
2
'
0
n
=
2
0 =
1
' 3
'
A
n
g
l
e

o
f

1
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
f
r
o
m

t
h
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
1
2
3
4
10
5
1
0
3
0
6
0
9
0
Start of
TSS
=
1
-
3
(%)=
Strains corrected for bedding error &
membrane penetration in PSC
=
1
-
3

(
%
)
1 5: Drained PSC
6: Torsional simple shear
Void ratio e
29
~ 0.8
Start of PSC
6
1
/
3
5
At the failure state, simple shear test=
PSC test at an inclined
1
direction
'
a
at
at

'
t
2
'
0
n
=
2
0 =
1
' 3
'
0
(
)
/
0
(
=
9
0
o
,
P
S
C
)

Angle, (in degree)
Dense
Loose
1

1
1
Dense
Loose
Tosional simple shear, air-pluviated
Toyoura sand, s
3
=35 44 kPa
Plane strain compression,
3
= 4.9 392 kPa
No contradiction among the
0
values from PSC and TSS tests
when taking into account the effects of inherent anisotropy
(Tatsuoka et al.,1991)
No contradiction among the stress-dilatancy relations at peak
from PSC and TSS tests when taking into account the effects of
inherent anisotropy
(
d
)
max
(in degree)
3
(kPa)
29
49
98
196
227
Lower bound in
PSC ( 30
o
)
0 5 10 15 20
45
40
35
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
TSS
Average in
PSC (= 90
o
)
No contradiction among the
0
values from TC, PSC, TE tests
and the TSS tests when taking into account the effects of
inherent anisotropy and the b parameter.
Torsional shear
on an isotropically
consolidated
specimen; b= 0.5
& =45
o
.
PSC
TC
TE
Toyoura sand
air-pluviated
3
= 98 kPa
void ratio e
29
= 0.70
TSS
9
0
o
6
0
o
3
0
o
0
o
0
.
0
3 1
3 2
' '
' '

= b
0
measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
50
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
30
0
(PSC,
=40
o
-50
o
)
0
a
n
d

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

35
40
45
0
(TSS,
a
=49 kPa)
0
0
sin cos
arctan
1 sin sin
d
ss
d

=

Theoretical value
Measured
ss
=arctan(
at
/
a
)
max
(TSS,
a
= 98kPa)
when
at
/
a
=max
when
1
/
3
=max
0
(PSC,
3
= 49 kPa, =90
o
)
0
(TC,
3
= 49
kPa, =90
o
)
0
=arcsin(
1
/
3
)
max
from the torsional shear
tests: similar to the
value from TC (= 90
o
)
and PSC (= 40 50
o
)
R
max
-D at failure relation
from the torsional shear
tests: similar to those from
TC (= 90
o
) and PSC (= 40
50
o
)
measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
50
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
30
0
(PSC,
=40
o
-50
o
)
0
a
n
d

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

35
40
45
0
(TSS,
a
=49 kPa)
0
0
sin cos
arctan
1 sin sin
d
ss
d

=

Theoretical value
Measured
ss
=arctan(
at
/
a
)
max
(TSS,
a
= 98kPa)
when
at
/
a
=max
when
1
/
3
=max
0
(PSC,
3
= 49 kPa, =90
o
)
0
(TC,
3
= 49
kPa, =90
o
)
What is the relationship between
and
?
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
1 3
0
1 3
max
' '
arcsin
' '

=

+

In the conventional DS and SS
tests, only
is measured.
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
and
?
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
1 3
0
1 3
max
' '
arcsin
' '

=

+

max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
SS
1
directions
=
1
-
3
(%)
Directions when (
1
/
3
)
max
at
d
n
=0
d
1
a
/=
max
Increasing normal
stress in the shear
direction,
t
Constant axial
stress,
a
2
)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

a
t
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
SS
1
directions
=
1
-
3
(%)
Directions when (
1
/
3
)
max
at
d
n
=0
d
1
a
/=
max
Increasing normal
stress in the shear
direction,
t
Constant axial
stress,
a
2
)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

a
t
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
a
t
/
a
t
/
1
/
3
=
1
-
3
(%)
v
o
l
=
1
+
3
(
%
)
The value of
ss
is always
smaller than
0
in the
respective simple shear test.
measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
a
= 226 kPa
(pre-matured failure)
50
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
1 3
0
1 3
max
' '
arcsin
' '

=

+

30
a
(kPa)
29
49
98
196
0
a
n
d

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

40
35
45
Average,
3
= 98 kPa
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
R
O
N
M
ss
-direction
P
d
45 /2
o

( , )
n
H
R
O
N
M
ss
-direction
1
-direction
P
d
45 /2
o

( , )
n
H
The value of
ss
is always
smaller than
0
in the
respective simple shear test.
Why?
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
(in degree)
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
13
13
max
''
arcsin
''

3
at failure=
10 92 kPa
e
4.9
= 0.659 0.847
Air-pluviated
Toyoura sand
13
0
13
max
''
arcsin
''
[Three key points]

1) Zero-normal strain in the
horizontal planes in the
simple shear test.
2) At failure, the directions of
1
and d
1
(~d
1
p
) are
essentially the same.
3)
0
>>
d
at failure.
45 /2
o

1
ir
&
-direction
Vertical
Horizontal
Strain conditions at
failure in the simple
shear test
1) Zero-normal strain in
horizontal shear planes in
simple shear.
: the angle of dilatancy
at the peak stress state
1 3
1 3
sin
at peak stress

+
=

/2
n
&
-direction
( 0, /2)
h hv
H =
& &
( , /2)
v vh
H
& &
P
d
45 /2
o

/2
n
1
ir
&
-direction
( 0, /2)
h hv
H =
& &
( , /2)
v vh
H
& &
P
d
45 /2
o

45 /2
o

1
-direction
1
ir
&
-direction
and
Vertical
Horizontal
Direction of at failure in the
simple shear test
1
2) At failure, the directions of

1
& d
1
(~ d
1
ir
) are essentially
the same with each other.
Note: the directions of d
1
and
d
1
e
are essentially the same
with each other.
/2
n
1
ir
&
-direction
( 0, /2)
h hv
H =
& &
( , /2)
v vh
H
& &
P
d
45 /2
o

45 /2
o

1
-direction
1
ir
& -direction
and
Vertical
Horizontal
Direction of
at failure in simple shear
1
R
O
N
M
ss
1
-direction
P
d
45 /2
o

( , )
n
H
0
0
0
cos
, , sin
sin tan
sin cos
tan
1 sin sin
ss
ss
OM ON NM
R R
OM ON NM R

= +
= = =
=

R
O
N
M
ss
1
-direction
P
d
45 /2
o

( , )
n
H
0 0 ss
as p pp
3) The angle of internal
friction is much larger
than the dilatancy angle
at failure.
Stress-dilatancy relation at peak stress states in drained PSC
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
(D=-d
3
/d
1
)
(
d
)
max
(in degree)
0
=

(
d
)
m
a
x
(
K
=

1
.
0
)
0
=

(
d
)
m
a
x
+

3
0
o
R
=
K
D
(
K
=

1
.
0
)
R
=
K
D
(
K
=

3
.
5
)
Drained PSC
Toyoura sand
e
5
= 0.65 0.82
3
= 4.9 392 kPa
= 0
o
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
(in degree)
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
3
at failure=
10 92 kPa
e
4.9
= 0.659 0.847
Air-pluviated
Toyoura sand
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
(in degree)
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
3
at failure=
10 92 kPa
e
4.9
= 0.659 0.847
Air-pluviated
Toyoura sand
0
0
sin cos
tan
1 sin sin
ss

=

0
tan tan
ss
=
only when , which
is not possible with soils.
0
=
R
O
N
M
ss
1
-direction
P
d
45 /2
o

( , )
n
H
0 0 ss
as p pp
The theoretical relation:
fits the data very well.
0
0
sin cos
tan
1 sin sin
ss

=

measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
50
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
30
0
(PSC,
=40
o
-50
o
)
0
a
n
d

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

35
40
45
0
(TSS,
a
=49 kPa)
0
0
sin cos
arctan
1 sin sin
d
ss
d

=

Theoretical value
Measured
ss
=arctan(
at
/
a
)
max
(TSS,
a
= 98kPa)
when
at
/
a
=max
when
1
/
3
=max
0
(PSC,
3
= 49 kPa, =90
o
)
0
(TC,
3
= 49
kPa, =90
o
)
Direct shear tests: basically the same
testing conditions as simple shear
tests (Shibuya et al., 1997; Qui et al.,
2000)
Measured
ss
=arctan(
at
/
a
)
max
from the direct shear tests are
usually significantly lower lower
than
0
from TC test (= 90
o
). If
not, those direct shear tests may
not be relevant.
measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
50
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
30
0
(PSC,
=40
o
-50
o
)
0
a
n
d

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

35
40
45
0
(TSS,
a
=49 kPa)
0
0
sin cos
arctan
1 sin sin
d
ss
d

=

Theoretical value
Measured
ss
=arctan(
at
/
a
)
max
(TSS,
a
= 98kPa)
when
at
/
a
=max
when
1
/
3
=max
0
(PSC,
3
= 49 kPa, =90
o
)
0
(TC,
3
= 49
kPa, =90
o
)
Usually very difficult to obtain reliable strength from direct
shear box tests.
measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
50
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
30
0
(PSC,
=40
o
-50
o
)
a
n
d

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

35
40
45
0
(TSS,
a
=49 kPa)
0
0
sin cos
arctan
1 sin sin
d
ss
d

=

Theoretical value
Measured
ss
=arctan(
at
/
a
)
max
(TSS,
a
= 98kPa)
when
at
/
a
=max
when
1
/
3
=max
0
(PSC,
3
= 49 kPa, =90
o
)
0
(TC,
3
= 49
kPa, =90
o
)
ss
obtained by carefully
designed and performed direct
shear tests using a large shear
box (30 cm cubic, Qui et al.,
2000)
The values of
ss
obtained by
carefully designed and
performed direct shear tests
using a large shear box (30 cm
cubic, Qui et al., 2000) are
consistent with the values from the
TSS tests when the specimen is
relatively dense.
measured at
3
= 4.9 kPa)
50
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
30
0
(PSC,
=40
o
-50
o
)
a
n
d

s
s
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)

35
40
45
0
(TSS,
a
=49 kPa)
sin cos
arctan
1 sin sin
d
ss
d

=

Theoretical value
Measured
ss
=arctan(
at
/
a
)
max
(TSS,
a
= 98kPa)
when
at
/
a
=max
when
1
/
3
=max
0
(PSC,
3
= 49 kPa, =90
o
)
0
(TC,
3
= 49
kPa, =90
o
)
Summary
1. Commonly with a number of different types
of granular material, the strength and pre-
peak deformation properties could be
markedly inherently anisotropic.
Some engineering implications of strength anisotropy
1
Plane strain conditions

1
Summary
1. Commonly with a number of different types
of granular material, the strength and pre-
peak deformation properties could be
markedly inherently anisotropic.
2. The stress-strain behaviour in different shear
modes can be related to each other only
when the effects of inherent anisotropy, in
addition to other relevant factors, are taken
into account.
Inherent anisotropy is important,
but there are other important factors when
dealing with geotechnical boundary value
problems, which include:
1) pressure level;
2) shear mode (effects of b) and definition of
friction angle; and
3) progressive failure.
Anisotropy
Non-unique friction angles for a given mass of sand under given
stress conditions !
Pressure level-dependency
Dependency on shear mode &
the definition of friction angle
the TC strength ( ), which
is usually employed in design,
and the strength operated in the
field under plane strain
conditions ?
90
o
=
1

1
The TC strength ( ) could

similar to, or slightly smaller
than, the average of the plane
strain strengths along a failure
plane.
90
o
=
0.0 30 60 90
Angle, (in degree)
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
Drained PSC
Void ratio, e
4.9
3
=98 kPa:
OCR=1.0
e
4.9
=0.8
e
4.9
=0.7
Tatsuoka et
al. (1986a) Inferred based on
curve A
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.785 0.801
0.696 0.713
X e=0.670.68
(Oda et al., 1978)
Drained TC
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.7
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.8
30
35
40
35
40
45
0.0 30 60 90
Angle, (in degree)
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
Drained PSC
Void ratio, e
4.9
3
=98 kPa:
OCR=1.0
e
4.9
=0.8
e
4.9
=0.7
Tatsuoka et
curve A
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.785 0.801
0.696 0.713
X e=0.670.68
(Oda et al., 1978)
Drained TC
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.7
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.8
30
35
40
35
40
45
1
Shear band
0.0 30 60 90
Angle, (in degree)
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
Drained PSC
Void ratio, e
4.9
3
=98 kPa:
OCR=1.0
e
4.9
=0.8
e
4.9
=0.7
Tatsuoka et
curve A
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.785 0.801
0.696 0.713
X e=0.670.68
(Oda et al., 1978)
Drained TC
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.7
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.8
30
35
40
35
40
45
0.0 30 60 90
Angle, (in degree)
0
(
)
/
0
(
=

9
0
o
)
P
S
C
Drained PSC
Void ratio, e
4.9
3
=98 kPa:
OCR=1.0
e
4.9
=0.8
e
4.9
=0.7
Tatsuoka et
curve A
1.0
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.785 0.801
0.696 0.713
X e=0.670.68
(Oda et al., 1978)
Drained TC
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.7
0
(
o
) when e
4.9
=0.8
30
35
40
35
40
45
1
Shear band
Effects of not only
anisotropy and the b-value
but also progressive
failure* should be
considered.
* The peak strength is not
simultaneously mobilized
along the potential failure
plane.
Strain softening in the post-peak regime
R
peak
R
residual
1.0
Brittleness= 0.0 with perfectly plastic material;
leading to no progressive failure with the peak strength mobilized
simultaneously along a potential failure plane.
Brittleness (in terms of R)=
1.0
peak residual
peak
R R
R
The manner of progressive failure is controlled by:

a) boundary conditions (the total angle of rotation of shear
band);
b) deformability of soil mass; and
c) the shear banding characteristics, including the brittleness
in strain softening and the effects of particle size.
1
Shear band
Important (but irritating) questions:
In most of geotechnical numerical
analysis and design; e.g., earth pressure,
slope stability and bearing capacity, ..
Important (but irritating) questions:
In most of geotechnical numerical analysis and
design; e.g., earth pressure, slope stability and
bearing capacity, isotropic perfectly-plastic soil
property is assumed.
Linear elasticity*
Rigid perfectly plastic*
Actual soil behaviour
* usually isotropic
1) What is the meaning of using isotropic shear
strength ( values for sands and gravels) in design ?
2) What is the meaning of the classical limit
equilibrium stability analysis assuming isotropic
perfectly-plastic soil properties ?
Linear elasticity*
Rigid perfectly plastic*
Actual soil behaviour
* usually isotropic
Actual soil behaviour:
-anisotropic;
-strain-softening; and
-effects of shear mode
Vl-1
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
0.001 %
of stress history
peak strength (effects of confining pressure):
Shear banding: mainly related to particle size effects
Rate effects: mainly viscous property and partly ageing effects
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
Shear banding characteristics, including;
a) the brittleness in post-peak strain-softening; and
b) the effects of particle size.
Shear banding
1. Geotechnical engineering background
2. Shear band in Toyoura sand subjected to drained
torsional simple shear
3. Shear band in poorly-graded sands subjected to drained
4. Shear band in poorly-graded and well-graded sands and
gravels subjected to drained plane strain compression
5. Particle size effects in shear banding
6. Shear band direction
7. Some geotechnical implications of particle size effects in
shear banding
Engineering background
Conventional design: usually assuming isotropic
rigid-perfectly plastic stress-strain behaviour with a
shear band (or bands) having zero thickness
0
Mobilized shear strength
is constant irrespective of .
resulting into the same peak angle of friction
mobilised simultaneously along the whole length of the
shear band(s) that control(s) the collapse load when
the soil mass is homogeneous with c= 0.
Shear band
Shear band
Shear band
Shear
band
Conventional design: usually assuming isotropic rigid-perfectly
plastic stress-strain behaviour with a shear band (or bands)
having zero thickness.
Larger rotation of shear
band direction
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(
o
) e
4.9
vol
1
/
3
3
= 392 kPa, loose
(
o
) e
4.9
1
/
3
vol
3
= 392 kPa, dense
1
/
3

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
Axial strain,
1
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
(
o
) e
4.9
vol
1
/
3
3
= 4.9 kPa, dense
2
/
3
3
= 4.9 kPa, loose
(
o
) e
4.9
1
/
3
vol
Drained PSC, saturated Toyoura
sand, isotropically consolidated
R
res
= 3.6
Shear band
Shear band
Actual behaviour: anisotropic strain-hardening & softening with a
shear band (or bands) having a thickness proportional to the
particle size .
resulting into progressive failure such that the same
peak angle of friction is not mobilised simultaneously
along the whole length of the shear band(s) that
control(s) the collapse load even when the soil mass is
homogeneous (with c=0).
Shear band
Shear
band
band direction
Shear bands are formed
progressively:
The peak footing load is
attained at some moment
during the process of
shear band development
as a b c d
Rigid rough
surface footing
resulting into progressive failure, which becomes
more significant for:
a) a larger total rotation angle of shear band direction;
b) a longer shear band relative to the particle size; and
c) higher compressibility.
Shear band
Shear band
Shear band
Shear
band
Actual behaviour: anisotropic strain-hardening & softening with a
shear band (or bands) having a thickness proportional to the
particle size .
band direction
An example showing a significant difference in the stress-strain
behaviour between the conventional design shear strength and
the actual soil behaviour:
Ogata et al. (2003)
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
c
1
(%)
;
1
-
;
3
(
k
N
/
m
2
)
-24
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
c
v
o
l
(
%
)
d
(g/cm
3
) =2.0
;
c
(kPa)= 58.9
' L
^ | O L
Axial strain, c
1
(%)
Plane strain compression (large size)
Triaixal compression (large size)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

;
1
;
3
(
k
P
a
)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

c
v
o
l
(
%
)
o
0
=40 degree- design value)
Reconstituted gravel (river terrace deposit) used
to construct highway an embankment
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
c
1
(%)
;
1
-
;
3
(
k
N
/
m
2
)
-24
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
c
v
o
l
(
%
)
d
(g/cm
3
) =2.0
;
c
(kPa)= 58.9
' L
^ | O L
Axial strain, c
1
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

;
1
;
3
(
k
P
a
)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

c
v
o
l
(
%
)
o
0
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
c
1
(%)
;
1
-
;
3
(
k
N
/
m
2
)
-24
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
c
v
o
l
(
%
)
d
(g/cm
3
) =2.0
;
c
(kPa)= 58.9
' L
^ | O L
Axial strain, c
1
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

;
1
;
3
(
k
P
a
)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

c
v
o
l
(
%
)
o
0
Conventional design:
e.g.) Often recommended angle of friction
0
;^ ^
sand: 35
o
; & gravel: 40
o
(close to the residual values)
The use of residual shear strength in design is recommended
in some countries. But, this value is essentially independent
of initial dry density, therefore, compaction efforts cannot be
taken into account.
Shear strain =
1
-
3
(%)
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

1
/
3
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l
(
%
)
Drained PSC
Toyoura sand, = 90
o,
3
= 392 kPa
Void ratio
relation
Rigid-, or linear elastic-,
perfectly plastic assumption
Denser
Residual state
The residual shear strength of Toyoura sand is
essentially independent of initial dry density.
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
c
1
(%)
;
1
-
;
3
(
k
N
/
m
2
)
-24
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
c
v
o
l
(
%
)
d
(g/cm
3
) =2.0
;
c
(kPa)= 58.9
' L
^ | O L
Axial strain, c
1
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

;
1
;
3
(
k
P
a
)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

c
v
o
l
(
%
)
o
0
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
c
1
(%)
;
1
-
;
3
(
k
N
/
m
2
)
-24
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
c
v
o
l
(
%
)
d
(g/cm
3
) =2.0
;
c
(kPa)= 58.9
' L
^ | O L
Axial strain, c
1
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

;
1
;
3
(
k
P
a
)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

c
v
o
l
(
%
)
o
0
On the other hand,
the peak shear strength
increases with an increase in
the compacted dry density, in
particular when U
c
is large.
But, the use of peak shear strength in the limit equilibrium
analysis is on the unsafe side.
A new design method using both peak and residual shear
strengths while taking into account the rate of strain softening
and associated effects of progressive failure is needed.
Shear banding characteristics
Shear banding
2. Shear band in Toyoura sand subjected to torsional simple
shear
3. Shear band in poorly-graded sands subjected to plane
strain compression
gravels subjected to plane strain compression
shear banding
One-dimensional compression and simple shear with
constant shape and area of cross-section
Shear band in Toyoura sand subjected to torsional
simple shear
Typical shear bands seen in a Toyoura sand specimen
subjected to torsional simple shear
Shear band
Stress-strain relation in the shear band
Average for the whole specimen
Shear strain, (%)
vh
Stress-strain behaviour outside the shear

band
Local shear strain
local
1
/
3
Outside of the
shear band
Local shear strain
local
1
/
3
We can observe shear banding in drained TSS, but
drained PSC tests are much simpler to perform.
Shear banding
shear banding
16 cm
8 cm
20 cm
2
= 0
Observation of shear banding in sand in drained PSC
starting from early 90s
2
= 0
2
surface seen through the transparent
confining platen;
1. Grids drawn on the lateral rubber membrane
were made of latex rubber.
2. A number of pictures were taken in each test.
3. Displacements at the nodes were read to an
accuracy of the order of 0.01 mm.
A shear band seen at an
axial strain of 11.8 % in a
PSC test on Toyoura sand
(D
50
= 0.206 mm;
3
= 78 kPa)
(Yoshida et al., 1995:
Yoshida & Tatsuoka 1997).
Particle diameter, D (mm)
Uniform granular
materials
(Yoshida et al., 1995;
Yoshida & Tatsuoka, 1997)
Karlsruhe sand Karlsruhe sand
A: immediately before the peak
B: immediately after the peak
C: at the start of residual state
Karlsruhe sand
Contours of
local shear
strain, =
1

3
,
defined for a 5
mm x 5 mm
square
A B C
A B C
SLB sand
A: immediately before the peak
B: immediately after the peak
C: at the start of residual state
Contours of local shear strain,
=
1

3
, defined for a 5 mm
x 5 mm square
Shear stress level:
residual peak
residual
n
R R
R R
R
=
peak n
R R when R = = 0 . 1
residual n
R R when R = = 0 . 0
u
s
Peak
Residual
Particle diameter, D (mm)
u
s
: shear displacement
along a shear band
Measured u
s
values at the peak
stress are not exactly zero, but
some small value (u
s
*) is often
obtained.
(Yoshida et al., 1995;
Yoshida & Tatsuoka, 1997)
Larger with larger , despite that the relation is
not perfectly proportional.
Particle size effects in the failure of soil mass !
( *)
s res
u
50
D
( *)
s res
u
1:1
(Yoshida et al., 1995; Yoshida & Tatsuoka, 1997)
Shear banding
shear banding
Important factors than may affect the stress- shear
deformation characteristics of shear band
include:
a) particle size ( for a large range);
b) grading;
c) strain rate (or shear deformation rate) and its
changes; and
d) dry density.
Second series of research
Effects of grading:
- D
50
is enough to represent the grading characteristics of
a given type of soil?
- Effects of U
c
are also important ?
More tests using well-graded materials
0.1 1 10
0
50
100
Chert
/CL
Particle size (mm)
P
a
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

i
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
Andesite 2
Andesite 1
Green
rock/
CL
Chert
/CH
Isomi*
Hime*
Hasaki*
S.L.B.*
Ticino*
Glass ballotini*
Hostun*
Monterey*
Karlsruhe*
Toyoura*
Wakasa*
Ottawa*

57cm
Andesite
(D
50
= 2.49 mm & U
c
= 4.1),
at
1
= 4.25 %,
3
= 314 kPa
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
3
= 314 kPa;
t
= 1.92 g/cm
3
3
= 78 kPa;
t
= 1.92 g/cm
3
3
=157 kPa;
t
= 1.92 g/cm
3
3
= 78 kPa;
t
= 1.80 g/cm
3
Andesite 2 (D
50
=2.49 mm)

P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
1
/
3
Axial strain,
1
(%)
0.1 1 10
0
50
100
Green
rock
Particle size (mm)
P
a
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

i
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
Andesite 2
Andesite 1
Chert
CL
Cheat
/CH
Isomi*
Hime*
Hasaki*
S.L.B.*
Ticino*
Glass ballotini*
Hostun*
Monterey*
Karlsruhe*
Toyoura*
Wakasa*
Ottawa*

57cm
Andesite
(D
50
= 2.49 mm & U
c
= 4.1),
at
1
= 4.25 %,
3
= 314 kPa
Widely different relations
for a wide range of particle size
0.1 1 10
0
50
100
Particle size (mm)
P
a
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

i
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
Andesite 2
Andesite 1
TOK
NIU
Isomi*
Hime*
Hasaki*
S.L.B.*
Ticino*
Glass ballotini*
Hostun*
Monterey*
Karlsruhe*
Toyoura*
Wakasa*
Ottawa*
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Poorly graded
granular materials
(Yoshida and
Tatsuoka 1997)
Test name
NIU6
NIU7
NIU8
NIU9
an2-1
an2-2
an2-3
an2-4
toku1
toku2
toku3
toku4
NIU1
NIU2
NIU3
NIU4
u
s
*= u
s
-(u
s
)
peak
(mm)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n

(Okuyama et al., 2003; Oie et al., 2003)
Material: Chart (CH) from a dam site, modelled to D
max
= 2 mm D
50
= 0.68
mm and U
c
= 7.8 to accommodate the specimens size: H= 200 mm,
L= 160 mm and W= 80 mm
Effects of strain rate and its sudden change:
- One of the factors to be considered in seismic design.
(Oie et al., 2003)
0.1 1 10
0
50
100
Chert
/CL
Particle size (mm)
P
a
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

i
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
Andesite 2
Andesite 1
Green
rock/
CL
Chert
/CH
Isomi*
Hime*
Hasaki*
S.L.B.*
Ticino*
Glass ballotini*
Hostun*
Monterey*
Karlsruhe*
Toyoura*
Wakasa*
Ottawa*

Small effects of strain rate and its sudden change
(Oie et al., 2003)
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
=
1
-
3
(%)
R
=
'
1
/
'
3
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
v
o
l
=
1
+
3

(
%
)
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.01
d
1
/dt=0.01 %/min
0.1
0.1
PSC,NIU-R7 CH(Chert) , air-dried
3
'=196kPa,
t
=1.85 g/cm
3
Material: Chart (CH) from a dam site, modelled to D
max
= 2 mm D
50
= 0.68
mm and U
c
= 7.8 to accommodate the specimens size: H= 200 mm,
L= 160 mm and W= 80 mm
Small effects of strain rate and its sudden change
(Oie et al., 2003)
(u
s
-(u
s
)
peak
)/D
50
0.66
(u
s
and D
50
in mm)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
Fitted equation:
Rn=1-V{1+(k/x)
n
},(0<Rn<1)
V=1.14,n=1.75,k=3.15
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

(
u
n
-
u
n
.
p
e
a
k
)
/
D
5
0
0
.
6
6
(u
s
-u
s.peak
)/D
50
0.66
(u
s
& D
50
in mm)
toku1
toku2
toku3
toku4
NIU1
NIU2
NIU3
NIU4
NIU6
NIU7
NIU8
NIU9
an2-1
an2-2
an2-3
an2-4
The dilatancy characteristics of shear band:
- the maximum rate at the peak;
- essentially zero rate at the residual (measurements are
not so reliable in some tests)
- maximum dilatancy, controlled by not only particle size
but also specimen density
(Oie et al., 2003)
Shear banding
shear banding
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Poorly graded
granular materials
(Yoshida and
Tatsuoka 1997)
Test name
NIU6
NIU7
NIU8
NIU9
an2-1
an2-2
an2-3
an2-4
toku1
toku2
toku3
toku4
NIU1
NIU2
NIU3
NIU4
u
s
*= u
s
-(u
s
)
peak
(mm)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n

(u
s
*)
res
0.05
Widely different relations for a wide range of particle size, why ?
The shear deformation until the start of residual state (u
s
*)
res
increases with an increase in particle size, D
50
.
Why ?
0 1 2 3
0
5
10
15
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
h
e
a
r

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
,

(
u
s
*
)
r
e
s
Particle mean diameter, D
50
(mm)
Regression curve
y = ax
0.66
R
2
=0.89

Yoshida & Tatsuoka (1997)
Okuyama et al. (2003)
Average
Why (u
s
*)
res
increases with D
50
? Because:
- (u
s
*)
res
increases with the shear band thickness
(t
r
: the thickness at the start of residual state)
The shear strain in the shear band at the start of residual state: about 80 %.
0 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
15

: Poorly graded
(Yoshida and Tatsuoka 1997)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
h
e
a
r

d
e
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
,

(
u
s
*
)
r
e
s

(
m
m
)
Thickness of shear band, t
r
(mm)
: Well-graded
(Okuyama et al. 2003)
Linear fitting:
y = 0.7989 x
R
2
= 0.7288
Non-linear fitting
y=1.44*X
0.760
(R
2
= 0.803)

(u
s*
)
res
t
r
At the start of
residual state
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
(u
s
*)
res
/t
r
: an2-2,
t
=1.80 g/cm
3
,
3
'=78 kPa
: an2-1,
t
=1.92 g/cm
3
,
3
'=78 kPa
: an2-3,
t
=1.92 g/cm
3
,
3
'=157 kPa
: an2-4,
t
=1.92 g/cm
3
,
3
'=314 kPa
Andesite 2 (D
50
= 2.494mm)
Average for poorly graded materials

Why (u
s
*)
res
increases with D
50
? Because:
- (u
s
*)
res
increases with the shear band thickness
(t
r
: the thickness at the start of residual state)
The shear strain in the shear band at the start of residual state: about 80 %.
. and, the shear band thickness at the start of residual state,
t
r
increases with D
50
0.1 1 10
0.5
1
10
1
:
5
1
:
1
0
1
:
2
0
S
h
e
a
r

b
a
n
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
,

t
r

(
m
m
)
Particle size, D
50
(mm)

Poorly graded
(Yoshida and Tatsuoka, 1997)
An2 (well-graded)
Chert (NIU: well-graded)
Green rock (Tokuyama; well-graded)
(Desrues and Viggiani, 2004)
50
Hostun sand
t
r
= c(D
50
)
0.66
1
4
8

c
m
60 cm
1
4
8

c
m
60 cm
Large triaxial compression test:
D
50
= 55 mm (D= 30-85 mm) and
U
c
=1.45 (Kaynia, 2003)
D
50
= 55 mm (D= 30-
85 mm) and U
c
=1.45
60 cm
60 cm
~11D
50
Effects of grading:
- the normalization using only D
50
is acceptable
for the first approximation; and
- no systematic effects of U
c
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.5
1.0
Curves with symbols: the present study
Poorly graded sands & gravels
Toku1
Toku2
Toku3
Toku4
NIU1
NIU2
NIU3
NIU4
NIU6
NIU7
NIU8
NIU9
an2-1
an2-2
an2-3
an2-4

S
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
u
s
*/D
50
But, the shear deformation until the start of residual state (u
s
*)
res
increases in a non-linear fashion with an increase in particle size.
0 1 2 3
0
5
10
15
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

s
h
e
a
r

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
,

(
u
s
*
)
r
e
s
Particle mean diameter, D
50
(mm)
Regression curve
y = ax
0.66
R
2
=0.89

Yoshida & Tatsuoka (1997)
Okuyama et al. (2003)
Average
Particle size effects:
a better normalisation when using u
s
/(D
50
)
0.66
no systematic effects of U
c
, confining pressure, density, strain
rate, ..
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Poorly graded sands & gravels
Curves with symbols:
Well graded gravels
(Okuyama et al., 2003)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
(u
s
-u
s.peak
)/D
50
0.66
(u
s
and D
50
in mm)


Dam core material, having much smaller diameter particles
(a research program underway)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
Sieved material
(used in the PSC
tests)
Original material
Drained PSC test (
1
= 4.9 %
Grid: 5 mm x 5 mm
Shear band thickness ~12 mm ~60D
50
(D
50
= 0.18 )
(Soda et al., 2005)
0 200 400 600
0
200
400
600
OK-CC1 D
max
=4mm & D
50
=0.18mm

1
=0.02%/min
g/cm
3
(kPa) (kPa)
1.80 196 98 Undrained
1.85 196 98 Drained
q

(
k
P
a
)
p' (kPa)
0 2 4 6 8
0
2
4
6
8
OK-CC1 D
max
=4mm & D
50
=0.18mm

1
=0.02%/min
g/cm
3
(kPa) (kPa)
1.85 196 98 Drained
(Soda et al., 2005)
0 10 20
0.0
0.5
1.0
Similar relations
as the other sands and gravels
{u
s
-(u
s
)
peak
}/D
50
0.66
OK-CC1 D
max
=4mm & D
50
=0.18mm

1
=0.02%/min
g/cm
3
(kPa) (kPa)
1.85 196 98 Drained
Average for sands and gravels
R
n
=1-V{1+(k/x)
n
} (0<Rn<1)
V=1.14,n=1.75,k=3.15
R
n
'
R
n
= (R-R
res
)/(R
peak
-R
res
)
R=
1
/
3
0 10 20
0.0
0.5
1.0
R
n
{u
s
-(u
s
)
peak
}/D
50
0.66
Average for sands and gravels
R
n
=1-V{1+(k/x)
n
} (0<Rn<1)
V=1.14,n=1.75,k=3.15
OK-CC1 D
max
=4mm & D
50
=0.18mm

1
=0.02%/min
g/cm
3
(kPa) (kPa)
1.85 196 98 Drained
R
n
= (R-R
res
)/(R
peak
-R
res
) = (q-q
res
)/ (q
peak
-q
res
)
R
t
=
1
/
3
=(
1
-
3
)/
3
-1.0= q/
hc
-1.0
(Soda et al., 2005)
Shear banding
1. Geotechnical ngineering background
shear banding
Shear band direction:
- relative to the directions of maximum stress obliquity
(Coulomb failure plane) and zero-extension (Roscoe failure
plane), affected by:
a) the direction of bedding plane relative to the direction of
zero-extension and; and
b) the specimen largeness relative to the particle size
PSC (= 90
o
)
Torsional shear
(pure shear)
Torsional
simple shear
Y=1: shear band direction =
direction of the plane of
maximum stress obliquity
(so called Coulomb
assumption)
Y=0: direction of shear band
direction= direction of zero-
extension (i.e., d
n
= 0) (so
called Roscoe assumption)
X=0: bedding plane direction = direction of
zero-extension (i.e., d
n
= 0)
Air-pluviated dense
Toyoura sand (e<0.75)
3
= 10 392 kPa
(so called Coulomb
assumption)
direction= zero-extension
(i.e., d
n
= 0) (so called
Roscoe assumption)
n
= 0)
Air-pluviated dense
3
= 10 392 kPa
X<<0 then Y1.0:
global shear band
direction = direction
of plane of maximum
stress obliquity in
relatively large PSC
specimens
Global direction of shear band in drained PSC (= 90
o
):
- close to the direction of maximum stress obliquity, when the
bedding plane direction is far different from the direction of
zero-extension
Highly lubricated base of
footing (confirmed with
local normal & shear
stresses using 11 local
load cells
Directions of maximum obliquity at the footing base
Shear band
A
Observationthrough
D=49cm
Rigidstripfooting
(B=10.0cm, L=39.9cm)
B
B'
P
Model sand bed
Rigidsandbox
W=40cm
L=183cm
B
=
1
0
c
m
A
Observationthrough
D=49cm
Rigidstripfooting
(B=10.0cm, L=39.9cm)
B
B'
P
Model sand bed
Rigidsandbox
W=40cm
L=183cm
B
=
1
0
c
m
Picture
Bearing capacity test of
smooth footing on air-dried
Toyoura sand (plane strain)
Directions of maximum obliquity at the footing base
Shear band
A
Observationthrough
D=49cm
Rigidstripfooting
(B=10.0cm, L=39.9cm)
B
B'
P
Model sand bed
Rigidsandbox
W=40cm
L=183cm
B
=
1
0
c
m
A
Observationthrough
D=49cm
Rigidstripfooting
(B=10.0cm, L=39.9cm)
B
B'
P
Model sand bed
Rigidsandbox
W=40cm
L=183cm
B
=
1
0
c
m
Picture
Bearing capacity test of
smooth footing on air-dried
Toyoura sand (plane strain)
Shear bands develop in
the direction of maximum
stress obliquity in this
case (x<<0)
plane of maximum stress
obliquity (so called
Coulomb assumption)
(i.e., d
n
= 0) (so called
Roscoe assumption)
n
= 0)
Air-pluviated dense
3
= 10 392 kPa
X= 0 then Y= 0:
shear band
direction =bedding
plane direction=
direction of zero
extension
Shear band
particles pluviated through air
Sand bed made that was moistened and excavated after
loading to S/B
0
= 0.7
Model footing
X=0
X=0
But, no means to confirm whether Y=0 when X=0 in this
model test, as local stresses in sand could not be measured.
Shear band direction in drained torsional simple shear:
- nearly the same as the directions of zero-extension and
bedding plane, both significantly different from the direction of
maximum stress obliquity.
Typical simple shear test on Toyoura sand
max
arctan( / ' )
SS at a
=
SS
1
directions
=
1
-
3
(%)
Directions when (
1
/
3
)
max
at
d
n
=0
d
1
a
/=
max
Increasing normal
stress in the shear
direction,
t
Constant axial
stress,
a
2
)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

a
t
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Normal stress in the shear
direction; increasing
Direction of
1
;
continuously rotating
'
a
at
at

'
t
2
'
0
n
=
2
0 =
1
' 3
'
(so called Coulomb
assumption)
(i.e., d
n
= 0) (so called
Roscoe assumption)
n
= 0)
Air-pluviated dense
3
= 10 392 kPa
Y>1.0:
local shear bands in
relatively PSC
specimens
Direction of local shear bands in drained PSC (= 90
o
):
- even more vertical than the direction of maximum stress obliquity
(so called Coulomb
assumption)
(i.e., d
n
= 0) (so called
Roscoe assumption)
n
= 0)
Air-pluviated dense
3
= 10 392 kPa
1.0>Y>0:
global shear bands
in relatively small
PSC specimens
Summary:
1) The global direction of shear band is generally in between the
directions of maximum stress obliquity and zero-extension.
2) The shear band direction is not unique, but affected by:
a) the bedding plane direction relative to the direction of ZE
plane; i.e.,
i) when the BP direction is far different from the direction of ZE
plane, the shear band direction tends to become the same as
the direction of MSO plane (i.e., the Coulomb assumption);
and
ii) when the BP direction is close to the direction of ZE plane,
the shear band direction tends to become the same as the
direction of ZE plane (i.e., the Roscoe assumption); and
b) The direction of local shear band in a relatively large PSC
specimen tends to become more vertical than the Coulomb
failure plane.
Shear banding
shear banding
How can we better determine the design shear
strength by taking into account the effects of:
1) compacted dry density;
2) strain softening;
3) particle size,
4) progressive failure;
5) inherent anisotropy; and
6) shear model (b-value).
related to each other
One of the currently important design issues of
rockfill dam in Japan:
1) Use of a relatively low design strength in the conventional
seismic design, not taking into account potential advantages
of using large diameter granular materials.
2) Recent increasingly strong demand for ensuring of a higher
seismic stability and a more cost-effective design
(by the courtesy of Koseki, J.)
How we can take advantages of particle size effects in
the design of rockfill dam ?
Question: Does the peak shear strength increase with an
increase in the particle diameter under otherwise the same
condition in drained TC?
The angle of internal friction decreases with an increase
in the particle size in drained TC !
A
n
g
l
e

o
f

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

t
h
e

o
r
i
g
i
n
,
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
Crushed Basalt (U
c
= 10)
3
= 2.1 kgf/cm
2
3
= 10.0 kgf/cm
2
3
= 30.0 kgf/cm
2
3
= 46.4 kgf/cm
2
Maximum particle size (inch)
Specimen size;
7.1 cm d
x 17.8 cm h
30.5 cm d
x 76 cm h
91.5 cm d
x 228 cm h
University of California, Berkeley (Marachi et al., 1969)
Pyramid dam material (U
c
= 8)
3
= 2.1 kgf/cm
2
3
= 10.0 kgf/cm
2
3
= 46.4 kgf/cm
2
A
n
g
l
e

o
f

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

t
h
e

o
r
i
g
i
n
,
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
3
= 30.0 kgf/cm
2
Oroville dam material (U
c
= 40)
3
= 2.1 kgf/cm
2
3
= 10.0 kgf/cm
2
3
= 30.0 kgf/cm
2
3
= 46.4 kgf/cm
2
A
n
g
l
e

o
f

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

t
h
e

o
r
i
g
i
n
,

0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
Drained TC tests to evaluate the strength of gravel used to
construct mounds for breakwater structures in Japan (Shoji,
1983)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

f
i
n
e
r

i
n

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
80
60
40
20
0
5 10 20 50 100 200
Particle size (mm)
Cg III-I
+
Cr IV*
Cg III- I*
Modeled materials
Cg I-I
+
Cg I-II
+
Cg III*
Cg I-III*
Triaxial specimens;
+)
30 cm in dia. x 60 cm high
*
)
120 cm in dia. x 240 cm high
A
n
g
l
e

o
f

i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l

f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

t
h
e

o
r
i
g
i
n
,
0
(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
0
3
(kgf/cm
2
)
I-I (D
50
= 15 mm)
I-II (D
50
= 35 mm)
I-III (D
50
= 120 mm)
Crushed
gravel
Air-dried
(the others;
saturated)
Range of
0
when D
r
=
100 % at
3
= 2 - 4
kgf/cm
2
of a fine sand
with D
50
= 0.16 mm
(Toyoura sand)
These data also show that
the friction angle does not
increase with particle size.
The angle of internal friction does not increase, but
decreases, with an increase in the particle size !
?
Then, what are actual advantages of using a larger
particle size material ?
The angle of internal friction does not increase, but
decreases, with an increase in the particle size !
One solution (even though not the final): a design procedure
based on earthquake-induced displacements of fill dam
evaluated considering the strain-softening properties along a
shear band
?
The proposed method: not ideal but much better the convensional
design:
The conventional method The proposed new method:
1. Residual strength from drained TC --- modified
2. Safety factor based on the limit equilibrium-based
stability analysis ----- Deformation evaluated by the modified
Newmark method compared
with a specified allowable value.
Rockfill
Central core
Reservoir
Typically 1:3
Typically 1:2.5
Proposed new method:
Influencing factors to be considered in relation to the
conventional design strength:
1) Factors that may increase the design strength:
use of curved peak strength envelop as measured;
the intermediate principal stress (TC vs PSC)*; and
particle size effect+
2) Factors that may decrease the design strength:
anisotropy*; and
progressive failure*
* It is assumed that the effects of these factors can be balanced.
+ The factor that should be considered separately
other than the other factors.
Proposed new method; based on
- peak strength by drained triaxial compression tests
( ) 90
o
=
f
Lower bound of
measured envelops
for peak strength
Design failure envelop
0
' tan
design n
=
0 max 10 0
' log ( ' / )
n
=
1
2
0 =
PSC;
Simulating field plane strain condition
3
TC
TC strength always smaller than PSC strength
Ogata et al., 2003)
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
c
1
(%)
;
1
-
;
3
(
k
N
/
m
2
)
-24
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
c
v
o
l
(
%
)
d
(g/cm
3
) =2.0
;
c
(kPa)= 58.9
' L
^ | O L
Axial strain, c
1
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

;
1
;
3
(
k
P
a
)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

c
v
o
l
(
%
)
o
0
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25
c
1
(%)
;
1
-
;
3
(
k
N
/
m
2
)
-24
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
c
v
o
l
(
%
)
d
(g/cm
3
) =2.0
;
c
(kPa)= 58.9
' L
^ | O L
Axial strain, c
1
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

;
1
;
3
(
k
P
a
)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

c
v
o
l
(
%
)
o
0
0
f
r
o
m

P
S
C

(
i
n

d
e
g
r
e
e
)
0
from TC (in degree)

0
from PSC =

0
from TC

0
from PSC =

0
from TC + 5
o
Comparison of PSC and TC
strengths of coarse backfill
materials for highway
embankments in Japan
Design based on the deformation of rockfill dam:
- Temporary peak stress condition is allowed,
if the residual deformation is within a limit allowable
to maintain the safe dam function.
- The evaluation of dam deformation based on
the modified Newmark method !
Originally for rigid-perfectly plastic materials:
Modified for strain-softening materials.
Shear displacment, u
s
Increase in the density for the same particle size
Increase in the particle size
(the same peak and residual
strengths for different particle sizes
are assumed) Area A
Curve a
Shear stress
Peak
Residual
Basic concept:
More failure energy required with an
increase in area A.
Area A increases not only with dry
density but also with particle size.
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
Critical failure plane elected for the shear displacement calculation
P
1
:
2
.9
1
:

2
.
1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
:
2
.9
1
:

2
.
1
F
Assumed material properties for a rockfill dam model
=
res
= 35
o
for rock zones A & B and filter zone in the conventional design
Working example
t
(g/cm
3
)
max
' (deg.)
(the value of in deg.)
Zone
name
Moist Satura
ted
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
Rock
A
2.13 2.34 62.1
(10.3)
55.3
(5.15)
48.6
(5.15)
41.8
(2.57)
Rock
B
2.033 2.21 57.7
(6.88)
46.4
(4.59)
46.4
(4.59)
40.7
(2.29)
Filter 2.06 2.23 46.5
(2.79)
40.8
(1.40)
40.8
(1.40)
37.9
(0.70)
Core 1.99 2.06
max
' = '
res
= 34.5 deg.

( ) kPa peak
n
4 . 29 ' , ' ' log ' ) (
0 0 max
= =
D
50
(mm)
C M F
200 60 20
25 10 80
Case 1: most realistic design strength (from TC tests)
1. Earthquake response
analysis (equivalent linear
method taking into account
the strain-non-linearity of
stiffness and damping)

(to continue)
0 5 10 15 20
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

(
g
a
l
)
Kasho dam site
(2000 Tottori Seibu Earthquake)
Time (s)

The input seismic load: the acceleration level
increased (the maximum acceleration = 734
gals) by a factor of 1.7 from an actual record.
Okuyama et al., 2003)
Working example:
2. Limit equilibrium analysis using obtained
time histories of stress distribution within
the dam
(to continue)
3. Search for the critical
plane that exhibits first a
safety factor equal to 1.0.
It is assumed that major
residual slippage takes
place hereafter along
this plane.
(to continue)
Working example:
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

=
=
=
+
=
121 . 2
016 . 3
073 . 1
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
3
P
P
P
X
P
P
R
P n
Normalised post-peak shear displacement;
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
X = (u
s
-u
s.peak
)/D
50
0.66
Average relation
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
:
2
.9
1
:

2
.
1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
:
2
.9
1
:

2
.
1
F
3. It is assumed that major residual slippage takes place
hereafter along the critical plane that exhibits first a safety
factor equal to 1.0:
a) If the material is perfectly plastic, the location of the critical
failure plane would change by changes in the seismic load
in the course of random seismic loading.
b) On the other hand, when the material exhibits strong strain-
softening, the strength in the first-failed failure plane would
become much smaller than the peak strength that is still
maintained in the other zones.
4. Calculate residual shear
displacement along the
failure plane by the modified
Newmark method using the
average R
n
-X relation.
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

=
=
=
+
=
121 . 2
016 . 3
073 . 1
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
3
P
P
P
X
P
P
R
P n
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
X = (u
s
-u
s.peak
)/D
50
0.66
Average relation
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
:
2
.9
1
:

2
.
1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
:
2
.9
1
:

2
.
1
F
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

=
=
=
+
=
121 . 2
016 . 3
073 . 1
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
3
P
P
P
X
P
P
R
P
n
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
X = (u
s
-u
s.peak
)/D
50
0.66
Average relation
4. Calculate residual shear displacement along the failure
plane by the modified Newmark method using the average
R
n
-X relation.

Method of slice
Slip circle method
Critical circle
r d
M M =
Under static conditions (when F
s
=1.0):
r G d
M M R M + =
&&
Equation of motion:
{ ( )}
{ ( )}
r fi i
d wi i
M R l
M R l
=
=
.
tan
fi i n i i
wi
c
= +
from the force equilibrium
of slice I from the results of
response analysis
Resistance by inertia
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-500
0
500

-0.05
0.00

0.000
0.001
0.002

0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15

time(s)
A
c
c
(
g
a
l
)
d
2
/
d
t
2
(
r
a
d
/
s
2
)
d
/
d
t
(
r
a
d
/
s
)

(
m
)
uR =
r G d
M M R M + =
&&
d r
G
M M
M R
&&
Effects of shear strength
level (or effects of
compaction level)
0 50 100 150 200 250
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
*: medium particle size
Always
mob
=
res
:
(u
s
)
max
= 203 mm
Case 4* (u
s
)
max
= 159 mm
Case 2: (u
s
)
max
= 62 mm
Case 1*: (u
s
)
max
= 27 mm
m
o
b

(
d
e
g
)

Shear displacement, u
s
(mm)
Case 3: (u
s
)
max
= 112 mm

A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0
0
40
80
120
160
200
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
*: medium
particle size
Always
mob
=
res
Case 4*
Case 3*
Case 2*
Case 1*
Elaplsed time (second)

Start of sliding in conventional method
(always
mob
=
res
)
Start of sliding in case 1
(type 2 with medium particle size)
S
h
e
a
r

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
,

u
s

(
m
m
)
I
n
p
u
t

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
a
l
)

Effects of shear strength
level (or effects of
compaction level)
Effects of particle size: under
otherwise the same conditions,
the strain-softening becomes
weaker with particle size.
0 50 100 150 200 250
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
Fine particle size*:
(u
s
)
max
= 34 mm
Medium particle size*:
(u
s
)
max
= 27 mm
Always
mob
=
res
:
(u
s
)
max
= 203 mm
*:
mob
changes
from
peak
to
res
Zero particle size*:
(u
s
)
max
=128 mm
Coarse particle size*: (u
s
)
max
= 26 mm
m
o
b

(
d
e
g
)

Always
mob
=
peak
: (u
s
)
max
= 25 mm

Shear displacement, u
s
(mm)
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0
0
40
80
120
160
200
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
*: medium
particle size
Always
mob
=
res
Case 4*
Case 3*
Case 2*
Case 1*
Elaplsed time (second)

Start of sliding in conventional method
(always
mob
=
res
)
Start of sliding in case 1
(type 2 with medium particle size)
S
h
e
a
r

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
,

u
s

(
m
m
)
I
n
p
u
t

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
a
l
)

5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0
0
40
80
120
160
200
Sudden drop
from
peak
to
res
Always
mob
=
res
S
h
e
a
r

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
,

u
s

(
m
m
)
Strain softening type
: always
mob
=
peak

: fine particle size)
: medium particle size)
: coarse particle size)
Elapsed time (second)

Effects of particle size: under
otherwise the same conditions,
the strain-softening becomes
weaker with particle size.
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
A
B
A
B
C
Assumed water level
100 m
P
1
: 2
.9
1
: 2
.1
F
Shear banding: summary
1. The classical soil mechanics theories for stability analysis
generally over-simplify the actual stress-strain behaviour of
geomaterial, including granular material, and therefore
inconsistent, in particular because the shear banding
phenomenon is not properly dealt with.
2. Shear banding in Toyoura sand subjected to drained torsional
simple shear showed that rebound takes place outside the
shear band while yielding proceeds in the shear band.
3. The relationships between the shear stress level and the
shear deformation of shear band of a wide variety of poorly-
graded and well-graded sand and gravel can be normalised
based on the mean diameter D
50
.
(to continue)
Shear banding: summary (continued)
4. The direction of shear band in the relation to the directions of
maximum stress obliquity and zero-extension is controlled by
the direction of bedding plane relative to the zero-extension
direction.
5. Some important geotechnical implications of particle size
effects in shear banding were demonstrated.
Vl-2
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
0.001 %
of stress history
peak strength (effects of confining pressure):
Shear banding: mainly related to particle size effects
Rate effects: mainly viscous property and partly ageing effects
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
Nearly all the factors are related to the issue of
bearing capacity of footing
Bearing capacity of strip footing in sand
(basic configurations)
Rigid strip footing
without a depth
Vertical and central loading
Settlement, S
= 90
o
1
= 0
o
Acceleration level, n (g)
Footing load, P
B
0
W
A A
B B
C C
Sand
(unit weight, )
S/B
0
0
=
2q
B
0
n
q =
P
Area
max
= N
q
~ N
Area=
B
0
x W
Bearing capacity of strip footing in sand:
1. What is the problem?
2. 1g plane strain model tests on air-dried Toyoura
sand (footing width= 10 cm): observations of
progressive failure
sand (footing width= 23 cm & 50 cm): 1g tests
versus centrifuge tests
4. FEM analysis
5. Particle size effects in 1g and centrifuge tests
6. Footing on slope; observation of progressive
failure and FEM analysis
Actual behaviour
Classical theories
Isotropic & perfectly plastic
Simultaneous mobilization
of peak strength
Bedding plane
: sand
unit weight
Peak footing load
Rigid footing Rough
Simplify
(perhaps overly)
Inherently anisotropic and
strain-softening
No simultaneous mobilization
of peak strength
Another good example showing the importance of the
effects on of :
1.strength anisotropy;
2.compacted dry density of soil;
3.effects of confining pressure;
4.effects of the intermediate principal stress; and
5.progressive failure, controlled by;
(1) deformability of soil (including elasticity);
(2) failure mode (or the total length and the total
rotation angle of failure plane) &
(3) shear banding characteristics (i.e., the degree of
strain softening or the brittleness; & particle size
effects).
N
e
a
r
l
y

e
v
e
r
y
t
h
i
n
g

h
e
r
e
!
N
e
a
r
l
y

e
v
e
r
y
t
h
i
n
g

h
e
r
e
!
Non-unique friction angles for a given mass of sand
Anisotropy
Pressure level-dependency
Dependency on testing methods
& the definition of friction angle
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N
Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Rigid, rough, surface strip footing
Stress characteristics method
Limit equilibrium method
Limit analysis
commonly not taking into
account in particular,
- strength anisotropy and
- progressive failure
(and so particle size
effects).
(Tatsuoka et al., 1989a, b, 1991, 1992)
Isotropic perfectly plastic classical solutions:
commonly not taking into
account in particular,
- strength anisotropy and
- progressive failure
(and so particle size
effects).
(Tatsuoka et al., 1989a, b, 1991, 1992)
Isotropic perfectly plastic classical solutions:
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

Stress characteristics method
Limit equilibrium method
Limit analysis
These variations are due to different
assumptions about the footing base
friction or the failure mechanism
of active wedge.
A very large variation ! but it is yet
smaller than the difference between
the theories and reality
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

Range of solutions by classical bearing
capacity theories assuming isotropic,
perfectly-plastic material properties with
failure planes without a thickness
PSC (= 90
o
)
PSC (= 23
o
)
TC (=90
o
)
Simple shear
res
= 35
o
(PSC)
Toyoura sand
(e= 0.66)
Discrepancy between the theories and experimental data
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

PSC (= 90
o
)
PSC (= 23
o
)
TC (=90
o
)
Simple shear
res
= 35
o
(PSC)
Toyoura sand
(e= 0.66)
: decrease in
due to the increase
in the pressure level
with the increase in B.
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

PSC (= 90
o
)
PSC (= 23
o
)
TC (=90
o
)
Simple shear
res
= 35
o
(PSC)
Toyoura sand
(e= 0.66)
These data points should
collapse into a single point
if the sand were an isotropic
perfectly-plastic material
having a constant .
progressive failure
4. FEM analysis
Plane strain bearing capacity tests
air-dried Toyoura sand (B
0
= 10 cm in 1 g)
Sand box: 40 cm wide,
183 cm long and
49 cm (sand depth )
Lubricated
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0
200
400
600
800
1000
2 q
c
/( B CF)
2 q
t
/( B CF)
MSB1 No.16 e
i
=0.669
B=5cm No.18 e
i
=0.642
2

q
t
/
(

B

C
F
)

o
r

2

q
c
/
(

B

C
F
)
s/B
SSB B=5cm
No.1 e
i
=0.666
No.2 e
i
=0.648
No.3 e
i
=0.665
No.5 e
i
=0.669
No.6 e
i
=0.634
No.7 e
i
=0.639
No.8 e
i
=0.627
No.10 e
i
=0.637
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d
f
o
o
t
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

N
Normalised footing settlement, s/B
Significant effects of wall friction
Settlement, s
Footing
load
Wall friction
decreasing
0 5 10 15 20
0
200
400
600
W / B =16
(40cm/2.5cm)
W / B =4
(10cm/2.5cm)
(40cm/10cm)
W / B =8
(40cm/5cm)
W / B =2
(10cm/5cm)
N
,c
for No.19 & No.20
N
,
t

a
t

e
i
=
0
.
6
6

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

t
o

B
=
1
0
c
m
Wall friction angle
(degree)
Wall friction angle (in degree)
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

N
d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
(
c
o
n
v
e
r
t
e
d

t
o

e
=

0
.
6
6

a
n
d

B
=

1
0

c
m
)
Footing width, B
Sand box
Width, W
Error increases with a decrease in W/B and an
increase in the wall friction angle
Correct value
Bottom of the model footing
(40 cm x 10 cm)
Eleven two-component load cells (normal and shear stresses)
to measure:
a) footing pressure free from the side wall friction, if any; and
b) distributions of normal and shear stresses on footing base.
B
0
= 10 cm
1/3 of footing length = 40/3 cm
Eleven two-component load cells (normal and shear stresses)
1 3
(%) =
The central cross-section exposed
Rough footing
(Tatsuoka et al., 1989a, b, 1991, 1992)
Picture
0
10
20
30
40 0 60 20 80 100 120 140 160 180
0
10
20
30
40 0 60 20 80 100 120 140 160 180
a) Shear bandobservedonthemembraneusedfor side-wall lubrication
b) Shear bandobservedonthecenter cross-sectioninthesandbed
Definiteshear band
Marginallydefiniteshear band
Unit : mm
B=100mm
Footing
B=100mm
Initial positionS=0mm
Final settlement S=70mm Note: Settlement at peak loadS
f
=7mm
Initial positionS=0mm
Final settlement S=70mm
Unit : mm
Shear bands seen through a latex rubber membrane from outside the box
Shear bands seen on the exposed sand ground model
A good agreement
(Tani, 1986)
-5 mm x 5 mm grid printed on the latex rubber membrane,
which had been smeared with grease (green) for lubrication
-A number of pictures taken during each test
-Reading of the displacements at the nodes to an accuracy of
the order of 0.01 mm.
-Construction of strain field
1 3
(%) =
A central cross-section exposed
The strain field at peak footing load constructed from the displacements on
a latex rubber membrane used to lubricate the side wall.
Picture
Rough footing
(Tani, 1986)
Highly non-uniform strain field with failure planes
only below the footing edges.
Rough footing
1 3
(%) =
A significantly inhomogeneous distribution of
mob
from the measured strain field at peak footing load
Strain field:
direction= direction
(assumed)
Local stress-
strain relation
mob
Pre-peak
Around
peak state
Post-peak
1
Local stress-strain relationships for different angles, , in

a 1 cm-thick zone including a shear band in PSC tests:
1 cm= the grid size to define local strains in the model
bearing capacity tests
A significantly inhomogeneous distribution of
mob
from the measured strain field at peak footing load
Strain field:
direction= direction
(assumed)
Local stress-
strain relation
mob
Pre-peak
Around
peak state
Post-peak
1
The stress characteristics (along which the stress ratio / is

equal to tan
0
) obtained by assuming perfectly-plastic property
of sand with failure planes with zero thickness, using anisotropic
peak strength at each point in the sand to obtain the value.
N
Rough footing base (e= 0.66):

using the measured distribution of mobilised friction
angle at the footing base at peak footing load
(Tani, 1986)
The N
e relations by the stress

characteristics method
assuming perfectly-plastic
property of sand, using
anisotropic peak strength at
each point in the sand.
- largely over-estimating the
measured values, because the
progressive failure in sand is
ignored in the analysis.
Effects of footing base roughness:
-the observed difference between
the rough and smooth footings is
much smaller than the perfectly
plastic theory solution, why?
Strain distributions when the footing load is peak: much more
uniform when the footing is smooth, resulting in less
progressive failure, resulting in a larger N when compared
with the value when the progressive failure is more significant.
Rough
Smooth
Principal strain
Shear strain along
zero-extension direction
Shear strain, =
1

3
(Tani, 1986)
The N
e relations by the stress

characteristics method assuming
perfectly-plastic property of sand,
using anisotropic peak strength
at each point in the sand.
Effects of footing base roughness:
-the observed difference is much
smaller than the perfectly plastic
theory solutions, due to less
progressive failure in the sand
below the smooth footing.
The accurate N
values for both

rough and smooth footings can
be obtained only when using
mob
values at each local point
when the footing load becomes
peak.
(Tani, 1986)
S/B
0
= 70 %
The whole failure planes are
completed only after the footing
settlement becomes very large.
- The thickness of shear band is now observable.
B
=
1
0
c
m
- The thickness of shear band is now observable.
B
=
1
0
c
m
progressive failure
4. FEM analysis
Plane strain bearing capacity tests on Toyoura
sand; B
0
= 23 cm & 50 cm in 1 g
Rough footing
(0.5 m wide & 2 m long)
Three local load cells on each outside 1/3 of footing
Eleven local load cells on the central 1/3 of footing
Sand pit:
2 m wide, 7 m long and 4 m deep
Lubrication of the side wall using
a thin latex rubber membrane
smeared with silicone grease
Pluviation of air-dried
Toyoura sand through air
All the test conditions in
the large model tests were
the same with those in the
small model tests except
for dimensions (or scale).
1 3
(%) =
An active wedge developed
far after the peak peak state,
showing that the degree of
progressive failure is larger
than in the small scale tests
with B
0
= 10 cm.
Particle size effects: recognized as a significant difference in
the N - S/B
o
relations between 1g and centrifuge tests for the
same pressure level (i.e., for the same B= n B
0
) and the same
type of sand then why?
= 21, 23 cm
0
B n B =
= 50 cm
0
B n B =
(Tatsuoka et al., 1989a, b, 1991, 1992)
= 50 cm
0
B n B =
N
Settlement of footing, S
Shear deformation of
shear band, u
s
(mm)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
SLB sand
Toyoura sand
Hime gravel
shear band thickness
= 50 cm
0
B n B =
S= 3 mm
shear band, u
s
(mm)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
SLB sand
Toyoura sand
Hime gravel
S= 1 mm; any place has not
reached the residual state.
At S/B
0
= 5 %, totally different settlements
between B
0
= 2 cm & 50 cm !!
(s/B
0
= 5 %)
S= 25 mm; largely
exceeding (u
s
*)
res
= 3 mm
N
= 50 cm
0
B n B =
N
S= 3 mm
S= 25 mm
S= 1 mm
shear band, u
s
(mm)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
SLB sand
Toyoura sand
Hime gravel
For a larger B
0
, a larger ratio of the shear bands has
reached the residual state, which results in a smaller N.
(s/B
0
= 5 %)
Centrifuge tests
using the prototype sand
Footing width; B= n B
o
m B
o
B
o
B= 1(g) B
o
= B
o
B= 1(g) m B
o
= m B
o
B
o
Shear band width,
w
0
=15 D
50
n= 1
n= m
Scale
effect
D
50
,
0
w
0
/B
0
B
o
w
0
=15 D
50
w
0
/B
0
B= m(g) B
o
= m B
o
Particle size effect
m B
o
w
0
/(m B
0
)
Shear band width/footing width
D
50
, m
0
D
50
, m
0
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

l
e
v
e
l
w
0
=15 D
50
Pressure level effect
1 10 100 1000
0
100
200
300
400
500
Scale effect
1g test results
Centrifuge test results
(B
0
=3 cm)
Void ratio, e=0.66
N
=(2q/B)
max
1g simulation
Centrifuge simulation

B=n.B
0
(cm) in Log
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

N
Scale effects
+
= pressure level effects* + particle size effects
+ observed in 1g tests using
different footing sizes and
the same type of sand
*observed in centrifuge
tests under different n
values using the same
footing size and the same
type of sand
(Tatsuoka et al., 1992;
Siddiquee et al., 1999)
Special centrifuge tests using a
sand having a smaller particle size
while having the same global
stress-strain property as the
prototype sand. Then, no particle
size effects will be observed.
But, it will be very difficult to find
such a type of model sand !
w= 15 (D
50
/m)= w
0
/m
w
0
/(m B
0
)
B= m(g) B
o
= m B
o
Shear ban width/footing width
D
50
/m, m
0
B
o
w
0
=15 D
50
w
0
/B
0
B= m(g) B
o
= m B
o
D
50
, m
0
Centrifuge test using
the prototype sand
B= 1(g) m B
o
= m B
o
m B
o
w
0
/(m B
0
)
D
50
, m
0
Prototype
progressive failure
4. FEM analysis
FEM analysis
Physical model test
(Tatsuoka et al., 1992; Siddiquee et al., 1999)
(Siddiquee et al. 1999)
Effects of material model on the FEM results
Any result can be obtained based on the order.
(Siddiquee et al. 1999)
S: small element
(a relatively thick
shear band)
L large element
(a relatively thin
shear band)
The same sand particle size
with the same shear band width
Small footing
Large footing
When the ratio between the FEM
element size and the footing size is
kept constant, the ratio between
the FEM element size and the
shear band width changes !
mo
b
Average strain
Until the peak, the same
for elements S & L
In a larger element, the rate of strain softening in the average
stress versus average strain relation is faster!
Stress-strain relation
in a shear band
L large
element
S small
element
Then, different behaviours among different FEM element sizes !
S small
element
L large
element
The same sand particle size, resulting
into the same shear band width
FEM simulation taking into account the sand property
(anisotropy and so on) and shear banding
e= 0.66
B
0
= 50 cm
FEM simulations
Isotropic perfectly plastic
solution using
( , 90 )
o
PSC
=
As the sand model
becomes more
realistic, the FEM
simulation becomes
more realistic !
Isotropic using
( , 90 )
o
PSC
=
Pressure level-
dependency
Inherent
anisotropy
Shear banding
*the same manner of strain-
softening irrespective of
element size
a a
b b
c c
d d
e e
Experiment
Strain softening*
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

perfectly-plastic material with failure planes
without a thickness
PSC (=90
o
)
PSC (=23
o
)
TC (=90
o
)
Simple shear
res
= 35
o
(PSC)
Toyoura sand
(e= 0.66)
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

without a thickness
PSC (=90
o
)
PSC (=23
o
)
TC (=90
o
)
Simple shear
res
= 35
o
(PSC)
Toyoura sand
(e= 0.66)
The N values from FEM analysis
plotted against from PSC at =
90
o
: as the sand model becomes
more realistic, the FEM simulation
becomes more realistic !
1 10 100 1000
0
100
200
300
400
500
Scale effect
1g test results
Centrifuge test results
(B
0
=3 cm)
Void ratio, e=0.66
N
=(2q/B)
max
1g simulation
Centrifuge simulation

B=n.B
0
(cm) in Log
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

N
Scale effects
+
= pressure level effects* + particle size effects
+ by 1g tests
for different footing sizes
and the same sand type
*by centrifuge tests under
different n values
for the same footing size
and the same sand type
FEM analysis
progressive failure
4. FEM analysis
mo
b
Average strain
L large
particle
S small
particle
As the sand particle becomes smaller, the rate of strain softening
in the average stress average strain relation becomes larger !
Stress-strain relation
in a shear band
Different sand particle sizes result into
different shear band thicknesses
for the same element size.
L large
particle
S small
particle
Until the peak, the same
for elements S & L
Particle size effects when both
FEM element size and footing
size are kept constant !
Particle size effects: a thicker shear band in a bearing capacity
test on a medium coarse sand (SLB sand) (B= 10 cm in 1g)
10 cm
Particle size, D (mm)
A thicker shear band with SLB sand
than with Toyoura sand
shear band, u
s
(mm)
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

l
e
v
e
l
,

R
n
Toyoura sand
SLB sand
Toyoura sand
Hime gravel
t
o
= thickness of shear band
Particle diameter D (mm)
Particle size effects: different post-peak stress-shear
deformation relations for different particle sizes
Note that does not increase with the increase in D
50
.
N
( )
theory
N
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
1
D
50
/B
0
0
1
2
Particle size effects: a larger bearing capacity with a
larger D
50
for the same
Note that does not increase with the increase in D
50
.
N
( )
theory
N
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
1
D
50
/B
0
0
1
2
Pressure-
level effect
Particle size
effect
larger D
50
for the same
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
1
D
50
/B
0
0
1
2
The case where the particle
size is much smaller than
the footing width; or the
thickness of shear band is
much smaller than the
footing width.
larger D
50
for the same
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
1
D
50
/B
0
0
1
2
The case where the particle size
is not much smaller than the
footing width; or the thickness of
shear band is not much smaller
than the footing width: the
conventional FEM is not relevant
to this case. DEM ?
No failure mechanism
without a shear band formed !
larger D
50
for the same
The bearing capacity of footing in sand could be largely
different between
1) the actual behaviour (i.e., physical tests and field
full-scale behaviour); and
2) the classical bearing capacity theories, which do not
take into account the following factors ..
Summary - 1
Summary - 2
(1) Pressure level-dependency; and
(2) anisotropy of the strength and deformation
properties;
(3) different values and definitions of among different
shear modes (e.g., TC, PSC & simple shear); and
(4) progressive failure associated with; a) strain
localisation (i.e., shear banding); b) strain softening
rate; which is subjected to particle size effects; and c)
compressibility.
These factors, among others, should be take into
account in numerical analysis, if you like to get
realistic results.
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

without a thickness
PSC (=90
o
)
PSC (=23
o
)
TC (=90
o
)
Simple shear
res
=35
o
(PSC)
Toyoura sand
(e=0.66)
B
e
a
r
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
u
e

t
o

s
o
i
l

w
e
i
g
h
t
,

N

without a thickness
PSC (=90
o
)
PSC (=23
o
)
TC (=90
o
)
Simple shear
res
=35
o
(PSC)
Toyoura sand
(e=0.66)
Summary - 3
The use of an under-
estimated angle of friction,
close to
residual
, in
engineering practice,
which may result into:
1) consistently conservative design (or too conservative
design in many cases, particularly with large footings); and
2) an inconsistent design for different ratios of footing size to
particle size.
progressive failure
4. FEM analysis
(Huang et al., 1993; Huang &Tatsuoka, 1994)
Footing on slope
Rough & rough footing
without horizontal translation
while allowing rotation
Significant effects of footing
inclination on the footing stability
Footing on slope
Footing
(Huang et al., 1993; Kotake et al., 2001)
Highly progressive failure
in both experiment & FEM
analysis
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

FEM TEST Footing
Type-1
Type-3
Unreinforced Slope
N

(
=
2
q

/

B

)
S/B
Type-2
FEM analysis of
unreinforced sand slope
No.4 (d=0.3B) No.6 (d=0.5B)
No.8 No.9
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0
50
100
150
200

Group-2:
Effects of Vertical Spacing
S/B
N

(
=
2
q

/

B

)
FEM TEST
d/B=0.5 (No.6)
d/B=0.3 (No.4)
Unrein (No.2)
FEM analysis of
reinforced sand slope
1. The classical bearing capacity theories simplify, perhaps
overly, the actual soil stress-strain property (including
shear banding property), resulting into a large discrepancy
from the actual behaviour of a footing in sand.
2. In 1g plane strain model tests on air-dried Toyoura sand
(footing width= 10 cm), the model sand exhibited highly
progressive failure.
3. It was also the case with larger 1g plane strain model tests
on air-dried Toyoura sand (footing width= 23 cm & 50 cm).
The sand particle size relative to the physical footing width
results in significant effects on the bearing capacity of a
footing in sand (i.e., particle size effect). This effect should
be taken into account when interpreting results from
centrifuge tests.
( to continue)
Bearing capacity of strip footing in sand (continued):
4. FEM analysis can simulate the bearing capacity of a
footing in sand only when incorporating realistic stress-
strain property of sand (including shear banding property).
5. The failure of slope loaded with a footing on the crest is
also highly progressive, which can also be simulated by
relevant FEM analysis.
VII-1
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
0.001 %
Time effects: mainly viscous property and partly
ageing effects
1. Background
2. Definitions of ageing effect and loading rate effect
3. Quantification of viscous property
4. Isotach viscous property
5. TESRA viscous property
6. Non-linear three-component model
7. Effects of creep strain on the shear yielding characteristics
8. Creep strain and cyclic loading-induced residual strain
9. Ageing effect and its modelling
The longest suspension bridge, but the worst ground conditions
ever for long suspension bridges in Japan
Time-history of the settlement of
Pier Foundation 2P on a gravel deposit
for Akashi Strait Bridge
10 years

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
,

S
(
m
m
)
Elasped time (days)
14
th
Oct., 1989

A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
t

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e
(
M
P
a
)

-Instantaneous settlement
-Residual settlement
Creep settlement
Settlement by seismic effects
10 years

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
,

S
(
m
m
)
Elasped time (days)
14
th
Oct., 1989

A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
t

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e
(
M
P
a
)

Lower stiffness when constructed more slowly
Noticeable creep settlement during the cease of construction
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
Settlement rate
S
e
s
)
field

S
t
(total settlment
as measured)
S
ir
(=S
t
- S
e
)
S
e
mm/day 0.1 =
ir
S
&
Fitted to
(mm/day)
ir
S
&
0.10
0.0-0.05
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.15
0.15-0.20
0.20-0.25
> 0.25

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e

(
M
P
a
)
Settlement, S (mm)
Tatsuoka et al. (1999d)
Simulation of the settlement dealing with the ground as a soil
element that follows a non-linear three-component rheology
model of Isotach type (explained below)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Seismic settlement
(no analysis)
Displacement control
2P

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Irreversible settlement, S
ir
(mm)
Simulation
Observation
Lower stiffness when constructed more slowly
Noticeable creep settlement during the cease of construction
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
0
2
4
6
8
10
b)
3.5b
Fitted to
mm/day 0.05 =
ir
S
&
3P
S
t
S
ir
S
e
(mm/day)
ir
S
&

0.05
0.00-0.05
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.15
0.15-0.20
0.20-0.25
>0.25
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e

(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Settlement, S (mm)
Simulation of the settlement dealing with the ground as a soil
element that follows a non-linear three-component rheology
model of Isotach type (explained below)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
2
4
6
8
10

Observation
Simulation
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

(
p
)
a
v
e
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Irreversible settlement, S
ir
(mm)
Displacement control
3P
Settlements at a UK nuclear power station
First described by Dun (1973)
(Jardine, 2005)
+5. 5 m OD
+1. 5 m OD
-7. 0 m OD
- 10. 0 m OD
- 33. 5 m OD
- 43. 5 m OD
+0 m OD
Original Ground Level
Storm Beach Gravel
Upper Shoreface Deposits
(Dense)
Hastings Beds
(Weathered)
Sand (Very Dense)
Geology for a UK power
station
(Jardine, 2005)
Long term settlements at four locations:
large creep deformation of dense sand
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
T
o
t
a
l

l
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
n
e
s
)
Week
0 400 800 1200 1600
2000
40000
80000
120000
160000
200000
stud 5
0
40
80
120
stud 6
stud 7
stud 8
load
(Jardine, 2005)
Long term settlements for four locations
Semi-logarithmic trends
stud 5
stud 6
stud 7
stud 8
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Week (log scale)
80
100
120
140
160
490 1000 2205
5
8
7
6
(Jardine, 2005)
ageing effects
1. Background
3. Quantification of viscous property and effects of soil type
Two different components
of the time effects
Parameter
e
.
g
.
,

c
e
m
e
n
t
-
m
i
x
e
d

s
o
i
l
e
.
g
.
,

a
i
r
-
d
r
i
e
d

S
a
n
d
*
Phenomenon
Mechanism/material
property
Loading rate effect
+ Positive ageing: e.g., cementation
Negative ageing: e.g., weathering
Ageing effect
Time with
the fixed
origin ( t
c
)
Strain rate,
Apparent ageing
(creep, stress
relaxation, etc.)
A rate-dependent
response of material
due to viscous
property
ir
&
* excluding geological
effects
Time-dependent
changes in the
material property+
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
Different loading histories
In drained TC tests,
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Axial strain,
a
0
Elasto-plastic model
without effects of
loading rate &ageing
A unique stress-strain
curve for all the loading
histories 1 5.
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Axial strain,
a
b a
(1), (2)
(3)
(5)
0
(4)
Elasto-viscoplastic
model without ageing
effects
Different stress-strain
curves by viscous
property.
Apparent ageing effect for
loading history (3).
The same stress-strain
curves for loading
histories (1) & (2)
Elasto-viscoplastic model
with positive ageing
effects: no coupling
between the effects of
loading rate & ageing
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Axial strain,
a
b a
(1)
(3)
(5)
0
(4)
(2)
Different s-s curves for
loading histories (1) & (2).
A very stiff behaviour for a
large stress range from
point b.
The same stress state for
the same strain rate and
the same ageing period.
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Axial strain,
a
b a
(1)
(3)
(5)
0
(4)
(2)
effects: positive coupling
Even for the same strain
rate and the same ageing
period, a larger ultimate
strength when aged longer
at a higher deviator stress.
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
(b)
Test J017
60-day initial
curing
Test J002
30-day initial
curing
Ref. R37
interpolation
for 37days
initial curing
Ref. R67
exterpolation
for 67days
initial curing
Test JA003:
over-shooting
then decayed
Drained creep
for 30 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
-0.02
T
)

(
%
)
Axial strain measured with LDT (%)
Over-shooting
High stiffness
for a large
stress range
Aged for 60
days at q= 0
Aged 37 days at q= 0,
then, aged for 30 days at q= 200 kPa
Aged for
37 days at
q= 0
Aged for 30 days
at q= 0
Aged for
67 days at
q= 0
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Cement-mixed gravel in drained TC (
c
= 19.7 kPa & axial
strain rate= 0.03 %/min) (Kongsukprasert & Tatsuoka, 2005)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
(b)
Test J017
60-day initial
curing
Test J002
30-day initial
curing
Ref. R37
interpolation
for 37days
initial curing
Ref. R67
exterpolation
for 67days
initial curing
Test JA003:
over-shooting
then decayed
Drained creep
for 30 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
-0.02
T
)

(
%
)
Over-shooting
High stiffness
for a large
stress range
Aged for 60
days at q= 0
Aged 37 days at q= 0,
then, aged for 30 days at q= 200 kPa
Aged for
37 days at
q= 0
Aged for 30 days
at q= 0
Aged for
67 days at
q= 0
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Cement-mixed gravel in drained TC (
c
= 19.7 kPa & axial
strain rate= 0.03 %/min) (Kongsukprasert & Tatsuoka, 2005)
This test result also explains
why old natural soil deposits
are very stiff at small strains.
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Axial strain,
a
b a
(1)
(3)
(5)
0
(4)
(2)
For loading history (5);
1. low initially stiffness due
to viscous effects;
2. increasing tangent
stiffness and high
ultimate strength due to
ageing effects.
An addition increase
in the peak strength
by significant ageing
effects taking place
during very slow ML
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=14 days
Test JS008 JS009
t
ini
=8days t
ini
=8days
x/300 x/300
x/150 x/87
x/100 x/75

JS008
Basic axial strain rate
x = 0.03 %/min (nominal)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
JS009
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=7 days,

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Average axial strain,
a(ave)
(%)
(5) Very slow loading tests
(1)
(2)
ageing effects
1. Background
of the time effects
Parameter
e
.
g
.
,

c
e
m
e
n
t
-
m
i
x
e
d

s
o
i
l
e
.
g
.
,

a
i
r
-
d
r
i
e
d
S
a
n
d
*
Phenomenon
Mechanism/material
property
Loading rate effect
Ageing effect
Time with
the fixed
origin ( t
c
)
Strain rate,
Apparent ageing
(creep, stress
relaxation, etc.)
A rate-dependent
due to viscous
property
ir
&
effects
Time-dependent
changes in the
material property+
Drained plane strain compression on sand
'
v
PSC
' ' 3.0
v h
R = =

(not to scale)
Initial state
0 '
h
(kPa)
29 392
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
Compression at an
axial strain rate=
0.00125 %/min at
v
/
h
= 3
drained creep for
three minutes
(Di Benedetto et al., 2002; Tatsuoka et al., 2002)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
: moments of step change
in the constant axial strain rate
.

0
= 0.0125 %/min
.
.
(Axial strain rate
v
)/
0

Test Hsd02
(batch B)
10
1/10
10
10
1/10
1/10
10

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Quantification of viscosity
A sudden change in the stress associated with a step change
in the strain rate reflecting the material viscosity.
Air-dried
Hostun sand
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.

0
= 0.0125 %/min
. .
(Axial strain rate
v
)/
0

Test Hsd02
(batch B)
10
1/10
10
10
1/10
1/10
10

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
2.5 3.0 3.5
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4
A
Test Hsd02
Simulation
Experiment
Reference curve
(in terms of total strain)
a'
a
R

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Elastic relation
; a jump in the stress ratio by a step change in
the irreversible shear strain rate.
R
1E-4 1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
1.0
slope=
Hostun sand
(tests Hsd02 & 03)

Experiment
Simulation
R
/
R
Ratio of strain rates before and after a step change
a) The normalization, R/R, is relevant.
b) The relation is highly linear.
log{( ) /( ) }
ir ir
after before
R
R

=
& &
0.01 0.1 1 10
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
List of tests:
CC100r DR400m DR200r
CC200r CC400m DN400r
CC400r CR38r LS400r
CC600r CP600r
mean
= 0.0242
min
= 0.0160
max
= 0.0325
R = '
v
/'
h

R
/
R
Ratio of irr. shear strain rates before and after a step change
Constant effective horizontal stress
100r,
h
= 100 kPa: 200r,
h
= 200 kPa: 400r,
h
= 400 kPa; 600r,
h
= 600 kPa
value is not affected by:
Drained TC tests on Toyoura sand
(Nawir et al.,
2003)
DR400m & CC400m: p= 400 kPa (constant): CR38r:
v
/
h
= 3.8 (constant)
the others: constant effective horizontal stress
0.01 0.1 1 10
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
List of tests:
CC400r CR38r LS400r
CC600r CP600r
mean
= 0.0242
min
= 0.0160
max
= 0.0325
R = '
v
/'
h

R
/
R
value is not affected by a limited variation of stress path direction
LS: loose: DN: dense; and the others; medium dense
0.01 0.1 1 10
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
List of tests:
CC400r CR38r LS400r
CC600r CP600r
mean
= 0.0242
min
= 0.0160
max
= 0.0325
R = '
v
/'
h

R
/
R
value is not affected by specimen dry densities
DR200r & DR400m: air-dried; and the others; saturated
0.01 0.1 1 10
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
List of tests:
CC400r CR38r LS400r
CC600r CP600r
mean
= 0.0242
min
= 0.0160
max
= 0.0325
R = '
v
/'
h

R
/
R
value is not affected by saturation conditions
(in the case of sand and gravel at relatively high pressure levels)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Drained TC,
h
'= 400 kPa,
No.1:
v
=
0
= 0.0125 %/min,
No.3:
v
from
0
/10 to 20
0
No.1
No.3

0
0
20
0
10
0
0
/10
0
/10
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

v
'
/
h
'
ir
(%)
0
Toyoura sand
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
No.4
No.2
Drained TE,
h
'= 400 kPa,
No.2:
v
=
0
= 0.0125 %/min,
No.4:
v
from
0
/10 to 20
0
0
20
0
0
10
0
0
/10
0
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

h
'
/
v
'
Absolute value of irreversible shear strain, |
ir
| (%)
Toyoura-sand
0
/10
0
v
=
h
Triaxial
compression
Triaxial
extension
(Kiyota & Tatsuoka, 2005)
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
R
/
R
Ratio of iir. shear strain rates before and after a step change
ir
after
/
ir
before
No.3, TC-OCR= 1.0,
h
= 400 kPa, = 0.0200
No.4, TE-OCR= 1.0,
h
= 400 kPa. = 0.0242
No.5, TC-OCR= 2.0,
h
= 200 kPa, = 0.0195
No.6, TC-OCR= 4.0,
h
= 100 kPa, = 0.0200
No.7, TE-OCR= 2.0,
h
= 200 kPa, = 0.0254
Toyoura sand
1. The same equation is relevant to both TC & TE conditions
2. Effects of OC are insignificant.
log{( ) /( ) }
ir ir
after before
R
R

=
& &
Effects of soil type on the rate-sensitivity coefficient
1) Effects of particle size (D
50
) with reconstituted sand, gravel and
compacted oven-dried clay powder in drained TC and PSC
2) Effects of uniformity coefficient (U
c
) (and particle crushability)
with reconstituted sand, gravel and oven-dried clay powder in
drained TC
3) Comparison between reconstituted & aged saturated clay
and reconstituted sand & gravel in drained TC
4) Effects of the degree of saturation with reconstituted clay in
drained TC and one-dimensional (1D) compression
5) Effects of ageing with saturated clay in TC and 1D
compressions
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Compacted
oven-dried
kaolin clay
powder
(Deng & Tatsuoka,
2005)
Silica sand No.8
Jamuna River sand
(Yasin et al., 2003)
: Drained PSC
: Drained TC
Hostun sand
(Matsushita et al., 1999:
Di Benedetto et al., 2002;
Pham Van Bang et al., (2003)
OriginalChiba gravel
(Anh Dan et al., 2004)
(Hirakawa, 2003)
Toyoura sand (Matsushita et al. 1999:
Tatsuoka et al., 2003: Hirakawa, 2003:
Nawir et al., 2003a)

Mean particle diamter, D
50
(mm)
R
a
t
e
-
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e
l
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Compacted
oven-dried
Fujinomori clay
powder
(Li et al. 2004)
Aqil et al. (2005)
Similar values from drained TC & PSC tests
(Tatsuoka, 2005; Kiyota & Tatsuoka, 2005)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Compacted
oven-dried
kaolin clay
powder
(Deng & Tatsuoka,
2005)
Silica sand No.8
Jamuna River sand
: Drained PSC
: Drained TC
Hostun sand
(Hirakawa, 2003)

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e
-
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e
l
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Compacted
oven-dried
Fujinomori clay
powder
(Li et al. 2004)
Aqil et al. (2005)
Compacted oven-dried clay powder in drained TC
0
10
0
30
0
3
0
30
0
100
0
0
10
0
100

0
30
0
10
Creep(12hrs)
0
100
0
10
0
3
0 16
min / % 0082 . 0
0
=
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
(
k
P
a
)
Fujinomori Clay
G
s
=2.69; w=0.61%
e
i
=1.1146; S
r
=1.15%

(Li et al., 2004)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
Drained triaxial compression
One-dimensional compression
Fujinomori clay

R
a
t
e
-
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Degree of saturation (%)

decreases with a decrease in S
r
, but the value when
oven-dried is still nearly a half of the value when fully
saturated.
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Compacted
oven-dried
kaolin clay
powder
(Deng & Tatsuoka,
2005)
Silica sand No.8
Jamuna River sand
: Drained PSC
: Drained TC
Hostun sand
(Hirakawa, 2003)

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e
-
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e
l
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Compacted
oven-dried
Fujinomori clay
powder
(Li et al. 2004)
Aqil et al. (2005)
In the case where the effects of pore water are negligible,
a very small variation in for a very wide range of D
50
!
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Compacted
oven-dried
kaolin clay
powder
(Deng & Tatsuoka,
2005)
Silica sand No.8
Jamuna River sand
: Drained PSC
: Drained TC
Hostun sand
(Hirakawa, 2003)

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e
-
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e
l
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Compacted
oven-dried
Fujinomori clay
powder
(Li et al. 2004)
Aqil et al. (2005)
Yet, some variations & one exception! Why?
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
=0.01 %min

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
a-b; e-f; i-j; m-n; & p-q:
v
=
0
c-d; g-h; k-l; & o-p: 10
0
b-c; d-e; f-g; h-i; j-k; l-m; & n-o:
0
/10
Axial strain (LDT),
v
(%)
Start of TC loading
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
'
c
=20 kPa;
CD TC test on
crushed concrete aggregate (RREA)
A relatively large rate-dependency with crushed concrete
aggregate having a crushable thin surface layer of mortar
covering strong and stiff core particles of sand & gravel.
50
c
drained TC
compressions
(Enomoto et al., 2005)
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
Particle size diameter, D(mm)
P
e
r
s
e
n
t

f
i
n
e
r

t
h
a
n

D

Kaolin
Fujinomori clay
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand
Silica sand No.3
Silica sand No.4
Silica sand No.5
Silica sand No.6
Silica sand No.8
Coral sand A
Coral sand B
Mixed silica sand
Tanno sand
Jamuna river sand
Original chiba gravel
Model chiba gravel
Crushed concrete
A new series of drained TC tests on more geomaterials
having different D
50
, U
c
and particle crushability
*
*
*
* Crushable particles
A more scatter of due to a more variation of U
c
and
particle crushability
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Fujinomori
clay (Od-R)
No.3*
No.4*
No.5*
Hostun sand
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
Jamuna
river sand
No.8*
No.6*
Coral
sand B
Mixed*
Model chiba
gravel (air dried)
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Crushed
concrete
Kaolin
(Od-R)
Tanno sand

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Drained triaxial compression tests

Loose sand or gravel
Dense sand or gravel
*: Silica sand
Od-R: reconstituted oven-dried clay powder
1 10
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
Jamuna river sand
Oven-dried powder of
Kaolin clay
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Tanno sand
Coefficient of uniformity, U
c
Model chiba
gravel
(air dried)
Coral sand B
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
Hostun sand
Mixed silica sand
Silica sand
No.8
Silica sand
No.5
Silica sand No.6
Silica sand
No.4
Oven-dried powder of
Fujinomori clay
Silica sand
No.3
Crushed concrete
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Loose sand
Dense sand
and oven-dried clay powder
Crushable
Range for uncrushable
geomaterial;
independent of D
50
and density
With compacted oven-dried clay powder, sand & gravel,
increases with an increase in U
c
& particle crushability
50
c
drained TC
compressions
Data when the effects of pore water can be ignored.
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Fujinomori
clay (Od-R)
No.3*
No.4*
No.5*
Hostun sand
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
Jamuna
river sand
No.8*
No.6*
Coral
sand B
Mixed*
Model chiba
gravel (air dried)
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Crushed
concrete
Kaolin
(Od-R)
Tanno sand

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,


*: Silica sand
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Fujinomori
clay (Od-R)
Kitan clay
(R)
(R)
(R)
(R)
Ohimachi
clay
No.3*
No.4*
No.5*
Hostun sand
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
Jamuna
river sand
No.8*
No.6*
Coral
sand B
Mixed*
Model chiba
gravel (air dried)
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Crushed
concrete
Kaolin
(Od-R & R)
Tanno sand
Fujinomori
clay (R)
(R)

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,


*: Silica sand
Od-R: reconstituted oven-dried
R: reconstituted saturated
Saturated
reconstituted
clay
Saturated reconstituted clay has values larger than sand, gravel &
compacted oven-dried clay powder; significant effects of pore water
(not pore water pressure) with clay
(Komoto et al., 2003; Li et al., 2004; Enomoto et al., 2005)
50
c
drained TC
compressions
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Creep(24hours)
u/(
v
-u
0
)
E
x
c
e
s
s

p
o
r
e

w
a
t
e
r

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

r
a
t
i
o
,

u
/
(
v
-
u
0
)

(
%
)
Fujinomori clay
(reconstituted)
G
s
=2.69, e
i
=1.2806
w=47.68%, S
r
=84.91%
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
.
0
=0.0097 %/min
0
10
.
0
3
.

0
30
.

0
3
.
0
3
.
0
3
.

0
3
.

0
10
.

0
.
0
10
.

0
100
.
0
33
.
0
10
.
0
.
0
100
.

0
33
.
Measured
Simulation
Reference
Fujinomori Clay
(air-dried)
G
s
=2.69; w=2.87%
e
i
=1.364; S
r
=4.98%
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
(
k
P
a
)
Irrevesible vertical strain,
ir
v
(%)
Creep(12hours)
Fujinomori Clay
(oven-dried)
G
s
=2.69; w=0.61%
e
i
=1.1146; S
r
=1.15%
Measured
Simulated
Reference
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
v
(
k
P
a
)
Irreversible vertical strain,
ir
v
(%)

Fully saturated
Compacted oven-dried clay powder
Compacted air-dried powder
Similar viscous property of
kaolin under different wet
conditions in one-dimensional
compression
(Li et al., 2004; Deng & Tatsuoka, 2005)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
One-dimensional compression
Fujinomori clay

R
a
t
e
-
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

Degree of saturation (%)

decreases with a decrease in S
r
, but the value when oven-
dried is still nearly a half of the value when fully saturated.
Li IS Osaka file
(Li et al., 2004)
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
(Oven-dried)
Air-dried
Kaolin
(1D)
(drained TC)
Fujinomori clay
(1D)
(drained TC)

Degree of saturation, S
r
(%)
Pisa clay (1D)
(reconstituted (undisturbed)
S
r
relations for different types of clay:
similar but not the same.
Kiyota SF file (Li et al., 2004; Deng & Tatsuoka, 2005)
50
c
drained TC
compressions
Akashi
Strait
Bridge
Yura-seto
Bridge
Akashi
Strait
Bridge
Yura-seto
Bridge
General plan of Yura-Seto Bridge and general ground conditions.
Central span: 2,150
Awaji Island
1,000 m
770 m
Okinoshima
Iskand
1A
2P 3P
4A
Central span: 2,150
Awaji Island
1,000 m
770 m
Okinoshima
Iskand
1A
2P 3P
4A
Awaji
Island
Holocenedeposit
Holocenedeposit
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Terracedeposit
Osakagroup
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Okino
Shima
Island
Awaji
Island
Holocenedeposit
Holocenedeposit
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Terracedeposit
Osakagroup
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Awaji
Island
Awaji
Island
Holocenedeposit
Holocenedeposit
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Hard rock
(Izumi formation)
Terracedeposit
Osakagroup
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 m
-50
100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Okino
Shima
Island
Okino
Shima
Island
0
100
200
300
400
500
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2
1
0
10
5

1/5
Creep (12h)
Creep
(24h)
Creep
(12h)
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/10
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.82)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0042 %/m
Undistrubend (e
c
= 1.03)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0076 %/m
Kitan Clay No.19
(0.33 million years)
CD TC
Depth= 64.9m
'
h
= 340 kPa
Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)

V
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,
v
o
l
u
m
e

(
%
)
Sample no.
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100 m
200 m
0 m
Sand bar
Alluvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
Noticeable ageing
effects in drained TC
(Komoto et al., 2003)
Sample no.
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100 m
200 m
0 m
Sand bar
Alluvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
More noticeable ageing
effects in drained TC with
older clay
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
20
1/5
5
10
5
1/100
100
100
1/100
1/5
1/10
1/50
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.79)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0037 %/m
Undisturbed (e
c
= 0.61)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0033 %/m
Kitan Clay No.44
(1.7 million years)
CDTC Test
Depth= 88 m
'
h
= 470 kPa

D
a
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
0
100
200
300
400
500
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2
1
0
10
5

1/5
Creep (12h)
Creep
(24h)
Creep
(12h)
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/10
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.82)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0042 %/m
Undistrubend (e
c
= 1.03)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0076 %/m
Kitan Clay No.19
CD TC
Depth= 64.9m
'
h
= 340 kPa
Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)

V
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,
v
o
l
u
m
e

(
%
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
20
1/5
5
10
5
1/100
100
100
1/100
1/5
1/10
1/50
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.79)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0037 %/m
Undisturbed (e
c
= 0.61)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0033 %/m
Kitan Clay No.44
(1.7 million years)
CDTC Test
Depth= 88 m
'
h
= 470 kPa

D
a
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
Similar R between
undisturbed and
reconstituted clays in
each case
Sample no.
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100 m
200 m
0 m
Sand bar
Alluvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
0
100
200
300
400
500
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2
1
0
10
5

1/5
Creep (12h)
Creep
(24h)
Creep
(12h)
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/10
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
1/5
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.82)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0042 %/m
Undistrubend (e
c
= 1.03)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0076 %/m
Kitan Clay No.19
CD TC
Depth= 64.9m
'
h
= 340 kPa
Axial strain,
v
(%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)

V
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,
v
o
l
u
m
e

(
%
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
4
3
2
1
0 0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
20
1/5
5
10
5
1/100
100
100
1/100
1/5
1/10
1/50
Reconstituted (e
c
= 0.79)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0037 %/m
Undisturbed (e
c
= 0.61)
(d
v
/dt)
0
= 0.0033 %/m
Kitan Clay No.44
(1.7 million years)
CDTC Test
Depth= 88 m
'
h
= 470 kPa

D
a
v
i
a
t
o
r

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
Kitan clay No.19 (o.33 million years)
Reconstituted = 0.0553
Undisturbed = 0.0336

R

/

R
(d
v
ir
/dt)
after
/ (d
v
ir
/dt)
before
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
Kitan clay No.44 (1.7 million years)

R

/

R
(d
ir
/dt)
after
/ (d
ir
/dt)
before
Smaller of undisturbed clay than reconstituted clay
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
(R)
(Od-R)
(U)
(U)
(U)
Kitan clay
(U)
(U)
(R)
(R)
(R)
(R)
Ohimachi
clay
No.3*
No.4*
No.5*
Hostun sand
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
Jamuna
river sand
No.8*
No.6*
Coral
sand B
Mixed*
Model chiba
gravel (air dried)
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Crushed concrete
Kaolin
(Od-R
& R)
Tanno sand
Fujinomori clay
(R)
Kitan clay

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,


*: Silica sand
R: reconstituted saturated clay
Od-R; reconstituted oven-dried clay
U: undistrurbed saturarted clay
The value of saturated clay decreases by ageing.
(Li et al., 2004; Deng & Tatsuoka, 2005; Enomoto et al., 2005)
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Undisturbed

Reconstiuted
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0

2.6
0.87
1.6
Kitan clay

u
n
d
i
s
t
u
r
b
e
d

/

r
e
c
o
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
e
d
Sampling depth (m)
0.27
million years
Ratio
Smaller ratio of and its ratio (undisturbed/reconstituted)
with more aged clay in drained TC loading
- The ratio, (undisturbed) / (reconstituted), decreases
with an increase in the ageing period.
=> The value decreases by ageing.
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Oimachi clay Kitan clay

u
n
d
i
s
t
u
r
b
e
d

/

r
e
c
o
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
e
d
Geological age (million years)
A small range of value for aged clay, compacted dry clay,
sand & gravel (not crushable), why?
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
(R)
(Od-R)
(U)
(U)
(U)
Kitan clay
(U)
(U)
(R)
(R)
(R)
(R)
Ohimachi
clay
No.3*
No.4*
No.5*
Hostun sand
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
Jamuna
river sand
No.8*
No.6*
Coral
sand B
Mixed*
Model chiba
gravel (air dried)
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Crushed concrete
Kaolin
(Od-R
& R)
Tanno sand
Fujinomori clay
(R)
Kitan clay

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,


*: Silica sand
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
(R)
(Od-R)
(U)
(U)
(U)
Kitan clay
(U)
(U)
(R)
(R)
(R)
(R)
Ohimachi
clay
No.3*
No.4*
No.5*
Hostun sand
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
Jamuna
river sand
No.8*
No.6*
Coral
sand B
Mixed*
Model chiba
gravel (air dried)
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Crushed concrete
Kaolin
(Od-R
& R)
Tanno sand
Fujinomori clay
(R)
Kitan clay

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,


*: Silica sand
What is the cause for a scatter of the values of saturated
reconstituted clay?
Saturated
reconstituted
clay
Deng last file
values of reconstituted saturated clay are larger than sand &
gravel in drained TC
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
(Undisturbed saturated clay)
(Resonstituted saturated clay)
Drained TC

D
50
(mm)
Drained TC & PSC tests on sand & gravel
Deng final file
values of undisturbed saturated clay in 1D compression are
particularly large; due to high PI?.
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
Drained TC & PSC tests on sand & gravel
(Resonstituted saturated clay)
Drained TC
(Reconstituted saturated clay)
1D compression

D
50
(mm)
values decreases by ageing in drained TC;
Not known with values in 1D compression
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
Kaolin
Pisa clay
13,000 yrs
0.33 mil. yrs*
0.34 mil. yrs*
1.7 mil. yrs*
b
a: Canada 2 (Jonquiere clay) (Leroueil &Marques, 1996) *: Kitan clay (Komoto et al. 2003)
b: Osaka Bay clay Ma03 & Ma10 (Tanaka, 2003)
c: Osaka Bay clay (Ohmukai et al., 2003)
(Reconstituted)
(Undisturbed)
(Reconstituted)
(Undisturbed)
1-D compression tests

PI
Drained TC tests
b
c
a
1.6 mil. yrs*
Fujinomori clay
Saturated clay
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
Kaolin
13,000 yrs
0.33 mil. yrs*
0.34 mil. yrs*
1.7 mil. yrs*
(Reconstituted)
(Undisturbed)

PI
1.6 mil. yrs*
(Kitan clay)
Fujinomori
clay
Saturated clay:
drained TC
Range for
drained TC tests
of sands
and gravels
(not crushable)
In TC, the value of reconstituted saturated clay
tends to increase with an increase in PI.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
Kaolin
Pisa clay
13,000 yrs
0.33 mil. yrs*
0.34 mil. yrs*
1.7 mil. yrs*
b
(Reconstituted)
(Undisturbed)
(Reconstituted)
(Undisturbed)

PI
Drained TC tests
b
c
a
1.6 mil. yrs*
Fujinomori clay
Saturated clay
With reconstituted clay and young undisturbed clay in 1D
compression, also tends to increase with PI, but not conclusive.
Deng last file
The correlation between and C
c
: not known.
Deng last file
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
Kaolin
Pisa clay
13,000 yrs
0.33 mil. yrs*
0.34 mil. yrs*
1.7 mil. yrs*
b
(Reconstituted)
(Undisturbed)
(Reconstituted)
(Undisturbed)

PI
Drained TC tests
b
c
a
1.6 mil. yrs*
Fujinomori clay
Saturated clay
1) In drained TC and PSC on reconstituted sand, gravel &
compacted oven-dried clay powder, the effects of D
50
are
very small for a very large range of D
50
.
2) In drained TC on reconstituted sand, gravel & oven-dried
clay powder, the value tends to increase with U
c
and
perhaps with particle crushability.
3) In drained TC, the values of reconstituted saturated clay
are much higher than those of sand & gravel.
4) In drained TC and 1D compression on reconstituted clay, the
value decreases with a decrease in the degree of
saturation, but it does not become very small even when
oven-dried.
5) In drained TC on saturated clay, the value decreases with
ageing.
6) In reconstituted clay and young undisturbed clay, the value
increases with PI.
ageing effects
1. Background
In monotonic loading, the stress is a unique function
of instantaneous irreversible (or inelastic or visco-
plastic) strain and its rate.

0
10 =
& &

0
=
& &

0
/10 =
& &

Lower bound at 0
ir
=
&
: ( )
f ir

Creep
0

-A unique stress-strain
relation for a given constant
irreversible strain rate.
- Creep is a process at a
fixed stress state in which
the positive irreversible
strain consistently
decreases with time.
*) ultimately reached
only after the
infinitive long period.
*
Drained TC on sedimentary soft rock
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
/100
0
/100
0
/100
0
/100
0
/10
0
/10
0
/10
0
/10
0
Measured
(a)
Silt-sandstone
'
c
=1.29MPa
0
=0.01%/min
C: Drained creep
Simulated
0
C
C
Total axial strain,
v
t
(%)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=
'
v
-
'
h

(
M
P
a
)
C: drained creep for three days
(Hayano et al., 2001)
A simplified version of
the General Three-Component (TC) model
(Di Benedetto, ENTPE, France)
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&

Non-linear viscous component;

&
e

&
vp
Hypo-elastic
model
ir
&
(or )
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
Hypo-elastic
model
ir
&
(or )
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
Hypo-elastic
model
ir
&
(or )
The General Three-Component (TC) model
The conventional
elasto-plastic model
One of the important fundamental features:
- When , the model returns smoothly to
a conventional elasto-plastic model.
0
v
=
Another type of Three-Component (TC) model
Some fundamental issues:
- Component EP2 should be an elasto-plastic component so that
the model can return to the conventional elasto-plastic model
when (i.e., when the irreversible strain rate= 0).
- Whether E is either elastic or elasto-plastic, both E & EP2 have elasticity.
Then, the elasticity should be defined in the two components E & EP2,
which makes the model identification very difficult.
0
v
=
Non-linear elasto-plastic component;
&
e
Non-linear
viscous component;
e
&
e ir
= +
& & &
ir
&
v
Non-linear elastic or
elasto-plastic component;
EP2
E
V
Another type of Three-Component (TC) model
Non-linear elasto-plastic component;
&
e
Non-linear
viscous component;
e
&
e ir
= +
& & &
ir
&
v
Non-linear elastic or
elasto-plastic component;
EP2
E
V
- Whether component E is either elastic or elasto-plastic, the stress-strain
behaviour immediately after a step increase in the strain rate is still elasto-
plastic, which is not soil-like behaviour (i.e., the real soil behaviour is nearly
elastic).
The General Three-Component (TC) model
( ) ( )
, , ,
f ir f v ir ir v
h h = +
&
( )
,
f ir f
h
: the non-linear inviscid stress.
h
f
is the strain history parameter.
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
Hypo-elastic
model
ir
&
(or )
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
Hypo-elastic
model
ir
&
(or )
( )
, ,
v ir ir v
h
&
: the viscous stress.
h
v
is the strain history parameter.

( ) ( )
, , ,
f ir f v ir ir v
h h = +
&

( )
,
f ir f
h =
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
+
1
( )
( , )
ir
ir
f ir f
d h

=

( )
, ,
v ir ir v
h =
&
( )
1
1
( )
[ ] ( , , )
ir
ir
ir
v v ir ir v
d h

=
+

&

Generally, the stress is a function
of loading history (in terms of stress
or strain history, stress path ..):
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
ir
&
(or )
& : & when the irreversible strain is equal to
: the irreversible strain at which d
v
developed at a moment in the past
ir
: the current irreversible strain
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
v
1
ir
h
f
: loading history parameter for
f
h
v
: loading history parameter for
v
New Isotach Model
the simplest non-linear T-C model
It is assumed that, for a fixed stress path, loading history parameter h
f
= 0,
then . Then, the integration of
f
becomes independent of
loading history, resulting to:
This is the usual assumption for the classical elasto-plastic theories.
( ) ( )
,
f ir f f ir
h =
( ) ( )
,
f ir f f ir
d h d =

( ) ( )
, , ,
f ir f v ir ir v
h h = +
&

( )
,
f ir f
h =
( )
1
[ ]
ir
f
+
1
( )
( , )
ir
ir
f ir f
d h

=

( )
, ,
v ir ir v
h =
&
( )
1
1
( )
[ ] ( , , )
ir
ir
ir
v v ir ir v
d h

=
+

&

v
developed at moment in the past
ir
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
v
1
ir
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
ir
&
(or )

( ) ( )
, , ,
f ir f v ir ir v
h h = +
&

( )
,
f ir f
h =
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
+
1
( )
( , )
ir
ir
f ir f
d h

=

( )
, ,
v ir ir v
h =
&
( )
1
1
( )
[ ] ( , , )
ir
ir
ir
v v ir ir v
d h

=
+

&

New Isotach Model
f
inear
id component;

&

mponent;

&
vp
Non-l
invisc

Hypo-elastic
component:

Non-linear viscous co

&
e

It is also assumed that, for a fixed stress path, loading history
parameter h
v
= 0 (i.e., ). Then, the integration of
v
becomes independent of loading history, resulting to:
This is the usual assumption for the classical elasto-viscoplastic theories.
( ) ( )
, , ,
v ir ir v v ir ir
h =
& &
( )
,
v v ir ir
d d =
&
v
developed in the past
ir
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
v
1
ir
ir
&
(or )
New Isotach Model
( ) ( )
,
f ir v ir ir
= +
&

0
10 =
& &

0
=
& &

0
/10 =
& &

Lower bound at 0
ir
=
& : ( )
f ir

Creep
0

( ) ( )
, ( )
v ir ir f ir ir
v
g =
& &
( )
f ir

: the non-linear inviscid stress
(the lower bound)
: the viscous stress ( )
,
v ir ir

&
A specific form:
( ) ( )
, ( )
v ir ir f ir ir
v v
H g

=

& &
A more specific form:
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
ir
&
(or )
New Isotach Model
( ) ( )
,
f ir v ir ir
= +
&

( ) [1 exp{1 ( 1) }]
( 0)
ir
ir m
v
ir
r
g

= +
&
&
&

( ) ( )
, ( )
v ir ir f ir ir
v
g =
& &
( )
f ir

0
10 =
& &

0
=
& &

0
/10 =
& &

Lower bound at 0
ir
=
&
: ( )
f ir

Creep
0

: the non-linear inviscid stress
(the lower bound)
: the viscosity function
: the viscous stress
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
ir
&
(or )

0
10 =
& &

0
=
& &

0
/10 =
& &

Lower bound at 0
ir
=
&
: (
f i

Creep
0

New Isotach Model
( ) ( )
,
f ir v ir ir
= +
&

( ) ( )
, ( )
v ir ir f ir ir
v
g =
& &

The stress is always a unique
function of instantaneous values
of and .
=>Different stress-strain relations
develop by monotonic loading at
different constant strain rates;
and correspondingly, creep
deformation and stress
relaxation take place.
( ) [1 exp{1 ( 1) }] ( 0)
ir
ir m
v
ir
r
g

= +
&
&
&
ir
ir
&
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
ir
&
(or )
Incorporation of measured values into
constitutive modelling
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
Kitan clay No.44 (1.7 million years)

R

/

R
(d
ir
/dt)
after
/ (d
ir
/dt)
before
log{( ) /( ) }
ir ir
after before
R
R

=
& &
( ) [1 exp{1 ( 1) }] ( 0)
ir
ir m
v
ir
r
g

= +
&
&
&
versus relation?
Validation the form of the equation;
/
1 /
v v f
f v v f
R
R

=
+ +
( ) ( )
, ( ) .
v ir ir f ir ir
v
g when R = =
& &
The respective
relation is
independent of R.
1E-9 1E-8 1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 0.01
1
1.0
.
.
1.00
0.99
1.10
Fig. 15b
b
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

Irreversible strain rate,
ir
(%/sec)
1
+

g
v
(
i
r
)
/ln(10) b =
log{( ) /( ) } ln{( ) /( ) } ln( ) ln( )
( ) /
ln{1 ( )}
1 / 1 ( )
ir ir ir ir ir ir b
after before after before
ir v v f
ir
v
v
f v v f ir
v
R
b b
R
g R
g
R g

= = =

= = +
+ + +
& & & & & &
&
&
&
1 ( ) ( )
ir ir b
v
g a + =
& &
or
1 ( ) ( )
ir ir b
v
g a + =
& &
or
( )
f v ir b
a = + =
&
Power law
1E-9 1E-8 1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 0.01
1
1.0
.
.
1.00
0.99
1.10
Fig. 15b
b
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
1
+

g
v
(
i
r
)
/ln(10) b =
1 ( ) 0;
ir
v
g + =
&
0
ir
=
&
when
1 ( ) ( )
ir ir b
v
g a + =
& &
or
1 ( ) ( )
ir ir b
v
g a + =
& &
or
( )
f v ir b
a = + =
&
0
f v
= + =
An unrealistic consequence!
However, the power law has a big problem:
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
Reconstituted Ohi-machi clay
e
i
=1.094
Drained TC, '
h
=540 kPa

P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

'
v
/
'
h
Irreversible axial strain,
ir
v
(%)
Measured
Simulated
Reference curve:
d
ir
/dt= 0;
v
=0
f v f
= + =
v
>0
v
=0
v
<0
therefore
(Li et al., 2003)
Actual behaviour: >0 when
0.
ir
=
&
f v f
= + =
1E-9 1E-8 1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 0.01
1
1.0
.
.
1.00
0.99
1.10
Fig. 15b
b
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
1
+

g
v
(
i
r
)
/ln(10) b =
1 ( ) ( )
ir ir b
v
g a + =
& &
or
1 ( ) ( )
ir ir b
v
g a + =
& &
or
( )
f v ir b
a = + =
&
( ) 0; 1 ( ) 1.0;
ir ir
v v
g g = + =
& &
0,
ir
=
&
When
.
f v f
= + =
Actual behaviour
that is; and
0
v
=
( ) [1 exp{1 ( 1) }] ( 0)
ir
ir m
v
ir
r
g

= +
&
&
&

Viscosity function:
This function should be determined experimentally
The conditions
to be satisfied:
1) 0.0 ( )
ir
v
g
&
for any value of
ir
&
between and ;
2) ( 0) 0
ir
v
g = =
&
; and
( )
( 0)
ir
ir
v
ir
g

&
&
&
=
ir
r
m
&
(a finite positive value).
1E-9 1E-8 1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 0.01
1
1.0
.
.
1.00
0.99
1.10
Fig. 15b
b
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
1
+

g
v
(
i
r
)
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Fig. 15a
.
.
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
g
v
(
i
r
)
0.35 =
ir
&
Viscosity function:
1E-9 1E-8 1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 0.01
1
1.0
.
.
1.00
0.99
1.10
Fig. 15b
b
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
1
+

g
v
(
i
r
)
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Fig. 15a
.
.
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
g
v
(
i
r
)
1 ( )
v f
ir
v
f f
g

+
+ = =
&
( )
v
ir
v
f
g

=
&
or
( )
;
ir
v ir f
v
iso iso
ir
g

= =
&
&
&
A kind of non-linear viscosity
( ) [1 exp{1 ( 1) }] ( 0)
ir
ir m
v
ir
r
g

= +
&
&
&

Viscosity function:
When , and the model becomes elasto-plastic
having the stress-strain relation: .
ir
=
&
( )
ir
v
g =
&
(1 ) :
f e ir
= + = +
When , and the model becomes elasto-plastic
having the stress-strain relation: .
0
ir
=
& ( ) 0
ir
v
g =
&
:
f e ir
= = +
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
ir
&
(or )
( ) [1 exp{1 ( 1) }]
( 0)
ir
ir m
v
ir
r
g

= +
&
&
&

( ) ( )
, ( )
v ir ir f ir ir
v
g =
& &
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
E
EP
V
E
EP
0
As a hypo-elasticity is
assumed, this relation
is not linear. Here, the
deviator stress axial
strain relation in
triaxial loading at
constant confining
pressure is assumed.
It is assumed that EP
exhibits purely plastic
behaviour and the initial
stiffness is infinitive.
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
E
EP
V
E
EP
E+EP
0
The conventional
elasto-plastic model.
The initial stiffness is
elastic.
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
E
EP
V
E
EP
E+EP
0
E+EP+V*;
when
=
&
E+EP+V;
when 0 =
&
v f
=
=
&
*: It is assumed that
when
v f
=
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
E
EP
V
E
EP
E+EP
0
E+EP+V for arbitrary loading
history with changes in the
strain rate during loading
E+EP+V*;
when
=
&
E+EP+V;
when 0 =
&
v f
=
=
&
*: It is assumed that
when
v f
=
Quasi-elastic behaviour upon a
step increase in the strain rate
Drained TC on sedimentary soft rock
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
/100
0
/100
0
/100
0
/100
0
/10
0
/10
0
/10
0
/10
0
Measured
(a)
Silt-sandstone
'
c
=1.29MPa
0
=0.01%/min
C: Drained creep
Simulated
0
C
C
Total axial strain,
v
t
(%)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=
'
v
-
'
h

(
M
P
a
)
C: drained creep for three days
(Hayano et al., 2001)
CU TC on saturated kaolin
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Kaolin-orj
Fig. 6b-1
Simulation by the New Isotach Model
Experiment
Reference curve
b-1)
CU TC test on Kaolin
(confining pressure= 350 kPa)

q
/
p
'
Vertical (axial) strain (%)
CU TC on saturated kaolin
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Kaolin-orj
Fig. 6b-1
Experiment
Reference curve
b-1)
CU TC test on Kaolin
(confining pressure= 350 kPa)

q
/
p
'
5 6 7 8
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
Fig. 6
Experiment
Reference curve
b-2)

q
/
p
'
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
(3)
(2)
(1)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Experiment
Simulation
Creep (12 hours)
Reference relation
.
Elastic relation
Creep
(24 hours)
Kitan clay No. 20 (undisturbed)
Depth= 65.02-65.34 m
CD TC: '
h
= 335 kPa
0
= 0.00078 %/min
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

'
v
/
'
h

Axial strain,
v
(%)
2
0
50
0
5
0
0
/2
20
0
0
/2
2
0
0
/2
0
10
0

CD TC on undisturbed stiff clay
200000 220000 240000 260000 280000
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.55

Experiment
Simulation
(3) Creep for 24 hours

Times (s)
100000 110000 120000 130000 140000 150000 16000
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80

Simulation
Experiment
Creep for 12 hours
(2)
30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)

Simulation
Experiment
(1)
Kitan clay No.20
Undisturbed
Creep for 12 hours A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
(3)
(2)
(1)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Experiment
Simulation
Creep (12 hours)
Reference relation
.
Elastic relation
Creep
(24 hours)
Kitan clay No. 20 (undisturbed)
Depth= 65.02-65.34 m
CD TC: '
h
= 335 kPa
0
= 0.00078 %/min
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

'
v
/
'
h

Axial strain,
v
(%)
2
0
50
0
5
0
0
/2
20
0
0
/2
2
0
0
/2
0
10
0

The creep behaviour is
simulated very well based
on the model parameters
determined from the data
during monotonic loading
with step changes in the
strain rate.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Experiment
Simulation
Reference curve
Elastic relation
Kitan clay No. 20 (reconstituted)
CDTC Test
'
h
= 340 kPa
0
= 0.0044 %/min
0
/5
0
/5
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
s
s

R
a
t
i
o
,

'
v
/
'
h

Axial strain,
v
(%)

0
/5
0
10
0
4
0
20
0
0
Creep for
12 hours
CD TC on reconstituted clay
(Li et al., 2003)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
e
i
=1.094
Drained TC, '
h
=540 kPa

P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

'
v
/
'
h
ir
v
(%)
Measured
Simulated
Reference curve
1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
Simulated

e
i
=1.094
Drained TC, '
h
=540 kPa
ir
v
(%)
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

'
v
/
'
h
Measured
Reference curve
CD TC on reconstitute clay
Izumi group (hard rock)
Pleistocene
Terrace deposit
Upper Osaka group
Lower Osaka group
Holocene
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

(
T
.
P
.
)

(
m
)
Where is the relevant compromise between a lower cost (by a
shallower foundation) and a smaller residual settlement (by a
deeper foundation) ?
Holocene deposits
Pleistocene
deposits
Terrace deposit
TP 71 m
Osaka group (upper)
Osaka group (lower)
Diaphragm walls
Diaphragm walls
Currently considered design
Undisturbed clay in K
0
TC
Specimens: 120 mm h & 50 mm d;
1
/
3
= 2,
axial strain rate= 0.002 %/m; Drained creep for one day;
Axial strains measured with LDT
Sample no.
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100 m
200 m
0 m
Sand bar
Al l uvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
Sample no.
No.19
No.20
No.38
No.44
80
100
(m)
0
(m)
40
60
64
65
86
88
Depth
100 m
200 m
0 m
Sand bar
Al l uvium
Hard Rock
Osaka group
(Pleistocene)
Terrace
deposit
0
5
10
15
1 10 100 1000 10000
v
' (kPa)
i
r
(
%
)
Experiment
Simulated
No.25-4
No.21-4
No.44-5
(Higashioka et al., 2005)
Undisturbed clay in K
0
TC
Specimens: 120 mm h & 50 mm d;
1
/
3
= 2,
axial strain rate= 0.002 %/m; Drained creep for one day;
Axial strains measured with LDT
0
5
10
15
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
v
' (kPa)
i
r
(
%
)
Experiment
Simulated
No.25-4
No.21-4
No.44-5
Axial strain,
v
(%)
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

a
t

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e
,

p
(
k
P
a
)
No.25.4
1. Loading until the present stress state
2. Drained creep for 50 years before the
start of bridge construction
3. Construction of mound for the
foundation construction work
4. Cease of construction
5. Construction of diaphragm wal
6. Construction of ancharage
7. Drained creep after the completion of
the bridge
Approximated pre-
construction history
Start of bridge
construction
Estimated settlement for 50
years after opened to service
Approximate estimate of the settlement of the anchorage 1A by
creep deformation of the supporting ground
The residual settlement under static loading conditions would be
very small. To decide to make the footing base shallower, the footing
displacement by seismic load should also be estimated.
Settlement during construction
Settlement after opened to service
Generally, more coherent geomaterials tend to exhibit
Isotach-type viscosity, such as:
- plastic clay;
- sedimentary soft rock (pre-peak);
- cement-mixed soil (pre-peak);
- well-graded gravelly soil (pre-peak); and
- and others ??
ageing effects
1. Background

( ) ( )
, , ,
f ir f v ir ir v
h h = +
&

( )
,
f ir f
h =
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
+
1
( )
( , )
ir
ir
f ir f
d h

=

( )
, ,
v ir ir v
h =
&
( )
1
1
( )
[ ] ( , , )
ir
ir
ir
v v ir ir v
d h

=
+

&

f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
TESRA model (non-isotach)
v
ir
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
v
1
ir
It is assumed that, even for a fixed stress path, the loading history
parameter h
v
cannot be ignored and therefore the integration depends on
strain history. This is not the usual assumption for the classical elasto-
viscoplastic theories.
In monotonic loading, the stress is not a unique
function of instantaneous irreversible (or inelastic or
visco-plastic) strain and its rate..

0
10
ir
=
& &
Reference relation:
( )
f ir

0
ir
=
& &

0
/10
ir
=
& &

Creep

0
-The stress-strain state is not
unique for the same irreversible
strain rate.
-The stress-strain state could be
the same for different irreversible
strain rates.
- Creep is the process in which the
irreversible strain consistently
decreases with time, but
controlled by not only
instantaneous strain rate but also
recent strain rate history.
Drained plane strain compression on sand
'
v
PSC
' ' 3.0
v h
R = =

(not to scale)
Initial state
0 '
h
(kPa)
29 392
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
Compression at an
axial strain rate=
0.00125 %/min at
v
/
h
= 3
drained creep for
three minutes
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Saturated Hostun sand
(Batch A)
0
= 0.0125 %/min
H307C
0
/50
Test name e
0
Axial strain rate d
v
/dt
(%/min)
HOS01 0.6146 variable
H302C 0.6153 10
0
(about 40 minutes)
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
(about 40 minutes)
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50 (about two weeks)
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Drained PSC on saturated Hostun sand
-Nearly the same initial void ratios.
-Nearly no difference among the stress-strain curves by
monotonic loading at strain rates differing by a factor up to 500.
(Matsushita et al., 1999, Di Benedetto et al., 2002)
Noticeably different stress-strain curves immediately after the
start of ML at strain rates differing by a factor up to 500, despite
that the difference is not visible in large stress & strain scales.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
.
.
HOS01
0
/10 (only in this strain range)
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
= 0.0125 %/min
H307C
0
/50
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
.
.
HOS01
0
/10 (only in this strain range)
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
= 0.0125 %/min
H307C
0
/50
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
A higher yield stress, with a
larger high-stiffness zone, in
ML at a higher strain rate.
No yield stress, without a high-stiffness zone,
in ML at a strain rate lower than the strain
rate at the end of sustained loading
Therefore, the size of initial high-
stiffness zone is not a material
property, but it is a viscous
response affected by recent
strain history (among others).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(Batch A)
0
= 0.0125 %/min
Test HOS01
c1-e1
0
/10
e1-f1 10
0

f1-h1
0
/10
h1-i1 10
0
i1-k1
0
/10
k1-l1 10
0
d1, g1, j1 5 times small
cyclic loading
H307C
0
/50
Test name e
0
d
v
/dt
(%/min)
H302C 0.6153 10
0
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
l1
k1
j1
i1
g1
h1
f1
e1
d1
c1
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Obvious stress jumps when the strain rate is stepwise changed
by a factor of 100
Very small differences among the stress-strain relations at
constant strain rates differing by a factor up to 500
Obvious stress jumps when the strain rate is stepwise changed
by a factor of 100
An apparent
contradiction
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(Batch A)
0
= 0.0125 %/min
Test HOS01
c1-e1
0
/10
e1-f1 10
0

f1-h1
0
/10
h1-i1 10
0
i1-k1
0
/10
k1-l1 10
0
cyclic loading
H307C
0
/50
Test name e
0
d
v
/dt
(%/min)
H302C 0.6153 10
0
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
l1
k1
j1
i1
g1
h1
f1
e1
d1
c1
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
.
0
= 0.0125 %/min.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Test HOSB1
c2-d2 10
0
j2 -k2 creep
d2-e2 creep k2-m2 10
0
e2-g2 10
0
m2-n2 relaxation
g2-h2 creep n2-o2 10
0
h2-i2 accidental pressure drop, o2-p2 creep
followed by relaxation stage p2-q2
0
/10
i2 -j2
0
/10
H307C
0
/50
q2
p2
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
o2
n2
m2
l2
k2
j2
i2
g2
h2
f2
e2
d2
c2
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Very small differences among the stress-strain relations at
constant strain rates differing by a factor up to 500
Significant creep deformation and stress relaxation
An apparent
contradiction
Is this finding;
1) correct ?
2) important ? and
3) new ?
Is this peculiar trend of rate-dependency with sand
due simply to specific experimental conditions?
not the material property?
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
2
0
c
m
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
1
6
c
m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
hr02.opj
H307C
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%) [
v
: LDT ,
h
: GS]
(
'
v

(
n
o
t

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
-

'
v

(
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d
)
)

/

'
h
HOSB1
HOS01
H306C
H305C
H304C
H303C
H302C
1) Effects of friction on the lateral face?;
Very small and cannot explain the viscous behaviour seen in
the R (=
1
/
3
) relation.
(Matsushita et al., 1999)
Axial strain (measured with LDTs) (%)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,
Drained triaxial compression,
3
=400 kPa
Basic axial strain rate: =1.077 %/min.
Test
Test
(Tatsuoka, 2005)
Essentially the same viscous properties in triaxial compression,
in which the friction on the lateral face is zero!
3) Acceleration at the top of the specimen (20 cm high)?:
of the order of +- 0.001 cm/sec
2
; therefore, utterly negligible
inertia (dynamic stress).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
. .
v
/
0
20
1/50
20
1/5
1/50
2
20

0
= 0.0125 %/min

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
(Matsushita et al., 1999; Di Benedetto et al., 2002)
But, it is not known whether this very small acceleration can
induce significant dynamic effects in the micro-scale and
then in the macro-scale.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
. .
v
/
0
20
1/50
20
1/5
1/50
2
20

0
= 0.0125 %/min

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
0 2 4 6 8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
H307C
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
2

/

'
3
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%) [
v
: LDT ,
h
: GS]
H305C
H302C
H306C
H304C
HOS01
HOSB1 H303C
4) Effects of changes in the
2
value ?
The change in
2
associated with a step change in the strain
rate is subjective with very small variations among the different
tests and cannot explain a large change in the stress ratio R
associated with a step change in the strain rate.
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
2
0
c
m
2
0
c
m
8
c
m
8
c
m
1
6
c
m
1
6
c
m
(Matsushita et al., 1999)
5) Due to delayed dissipation of pore water pressure?
Viscous effects even with air-dried sand !
Then, what is the cause for viscous effects ?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
. .
v
/
0
20
1/50
20
1/5
1/50
2
20

0
= 0.0125 %/min

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,
Air-dried
Toyoura sand
(e= 0.658)
Drained TC
3
= 400kPa
Unload/reload
Axial strain rate=
1.077 %/min.
Stress relaxation (R)
Creep loading (C)
C & R: one day
at each stage
(Tatsuoka, 2005)
5) Due to delayed dissipation of pore water pressure?
Viscous effects even with air-dried sand !
Then, what is the cause for viscous effects ?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(Batch A)
0
= 0.0125 %/min
Test HOS01
c1-e1
0
/10
e1-f1 10
0

f1-h1
0
/10
h1-i1 10
0
i1-k1
0
/10
k1-l1 10
0
cyclic loading
H307C
0
/50
Test name e
0
d
v
/dt
(%/min)
H302C 0.6153 10
0
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
l1
k1
j1
i1
g1
h1
f1
e1
d1
c1
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Effects of strain rate and its change on the dilatancy
characteristics
Small effects of strain rate and its change on the volumetric strain:
a) generally slightly more contractive at lower strain rates
b) subjective component (i.e., an elastic response associated
with a step change in the stress)
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
Test HOS01
c1-e1
0
/10
e1-f1 10
0

f1-h1
0
/10
h1-i1 10
0
i1-k1
0
/10
k1-l1 10
0
cyclic loading
Test name e
0
d
v
/dt
(%/min)
H302C 0.6153 10
0
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50
hr02.opj
H307C
H304C
H306C
H305C
H302C
H303C
l
k
j
i
h
g
f
e
d
c
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Volumetric strain,
vol
=
v
+
h
(%) [
v
: LDT ,
h
: GS]
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
Test HOSB1
c2-d2 10
0
j2 -k2 creep
d2-e2 creep k2-m2 10
0
e2-g2 10
0
m2-n2 relaxation
g2-h2 creep n2-o2 10
0
h2-i2 accidental pressure drop, o2-p2 creep
followed by relaxation stage p2-q2
0
/10
i2 -j2
0
/10
Test name e
0
d
v
/dt
(%/min)
H302C 0.6153 10
0
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50
hr02.opj
H307C
H304C
H306C
H305C
H302C
H303C
o
n
m
l
k
j
i
h
g
f
e
d
c
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Volumetric strain,
vol
=
v
+
h
(%) [
v
: LDT ,
h
: GS]
During creep;
a) contractive when the stress ratio is below about 4.0
b) dilative when the stress ratio is above about 4.0
Initially
contractive,
then dilative
Strain path: rather independent of strain rate and its sudden
and gradual changes
- but slightly more contractive at lower strain rates
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
Test name e
0.05
d
v
/ dt (%/min)
HOSB1 0.6173 variable
H302C 0.6153 10
0
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50
HOSB1
HOS01
Shear strain, (%)
.
.
0
= 0.0125 %/min
H307C
H304C
H305C
H306C
H303C
H302C
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
Definitions of ageing and loading rate effects
Two different components of the time effects
Ageing effects: changes with time in the material properties
(including strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity and viscosity)
- Positive (e.g., cementation) & negative (weathering)
Loading rate effects due to viscosity (one feature of the material
properties)
Parameter
e
.
g
.
,

c
e
m
e
n
t
-
m
i
x
e
d

s
o
i
l
e
.
g
.
,

a
i
r
-
d
r
i
e
d

s
a
n
d
Phenomenon
Mechanism or Material
Property
Loading rate effect
Time-dependent: Material
properties change with
time, e.g., cementation,
weathering, etc.
Ageing effect
Time with
the fixed
origin ( t
c
)
Strain rate,
Apparent Ageing
(creep, stress relaxation,
etc.)
Rate-dependent:
Responses of materials
due to viscous property
ir
&
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,
Air-dried
Toyoura sand
(e= 0.658)
Drained TC
Unload/reload
Axial strain rate=
1.077 %/min.
Stress relaxation (R)
Creep loading (C)
Apparent ageing effects:
stiff, nearly elastic behavior, as a viscous response
even when any ageing effects are not involved!
(Tatsuoka, 2005)
ageing effects
1. Background
Key behaviour for constitutive modelling
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(Batch A)
0
= 0.0125 %/min
Test HOS01
c1-e1
0
/10
e1-f1 10
0

f1-h1
0
/10
h1-i1 10
0
i1-k1
0
/10
k1-l1 10
0
cyclic loading
H307C
0
/50
Test name e
0
d
v
/dt
(%/min)
H302C 0.6153 10
0
H303C 0.6162
0
/10
H304C 0.6149
0
/10
H305C 0.6160 10
0
H306C 0.6155
0
/10
H307C 0.6164
0
/50
H304C
0
/10
H305C 10
0
H306C
0
/10
H303C
0
/10
H302C 10
0
l1
k1
j1
i1
g1
h1
f1
e1
d1
c1
Shear strain, =
v
-
h
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R

=

'
v
/
'
h
Decay in the viscous property with an increase
in the irreversible strain (not time in general)

( ) ( )
,
f ir v ir ir
= +
&

( )
,
v ir ir
=
&
1 1
( ) ( )
{ } ( )
ir ir
ir ir
r v f i
v
g d d

= =

=

&

f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
New Isotach Model
v
ir
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
f
( ) 1
[ ]
ir
v
1
ir
When is totally differential, the integration (with respect

to irreversible strain) is independent of loading history.
v
d
TESRA (temporary effect of
strain rate and acceleration) model
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp

( )
f ir v
= +

v
=
1 1
( , ) ( )
{ } ( ) ( )
ir ir
ir
ir ir
f i ir
deca
r
v y
v
g d g d

= =

=

&

( 0; 0)
v
or

Decay function:
( )
1
( )
ir
ir
decay
g r

=
the same as the
New Isotach model
As is not totally differential, the integration depends on
strain history.
v
d
1
1
( )
( )
( )
{ ( )}
( )
ir
ir
ir
ir
f
ir
ir
f ir
v
ir
v f ir
ir
v
ir
v
g
d
d g
g d
=
=

= +

&
&
&
&
&
( 0)
v

The New Isotach Model:

b

0
10
ir
=
& &

0
ir
v
ir
ir
d
d

&
&

v
d

0
ir
=
& &

0
ir
v
ir
ir
d
d

&

Parallel a
v

{ ( ) ( )}
v f ir ir
v
d d g =
&

f

f f
d +

0

1
ir
&

ir
a
&

e ir
d d d = +
Increase in
v
when
increase: effects of
irreversible strain
acceleration
ir
&
ir
&
ir
&&
Increase in
v
in ML at
a constant irreversible
strain rate :
effects of irreversible
strain rate
ir
&
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
1
( )
1
( )
)
)
(
(
ir
i
ir
r
f
ir ir
ir
f ir
v
ir
v
i
v
r
g
d r g d

= +

&
&
&
&
( 0; 0)
v
or
ir
dt
&
ir
dt
&&
f
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
1
( )
1
( )
)
)
(
(
ir
i
ir
r
f
ir ir
ir
f ir
v
ir
v
i
v
r
g
d r g d

= +

&
&
&
&
( 0; 0)
v
or
Decay function:
1) r
1
= 1.0: no decay
2) r
1
less than 1.0: decay
A smaller r
1
results in a faster decay.
Sand gradually forgets
the viscosity effects
that took place in the
past at during
subsequent
irreversible straining.
v
d

Current state
Event of
( )
v
d

v

Strain difference

ir

f

1
ir

ir
=
ir

0 ( )
ir
ir
decay
g r

=
ir

1.0

r
1

( )
ir
decay
g for
( )
( )
v
d

ir

ir
1.0 0

Explanation of strain difference
ir
and the decay function ( )
ir
decay
g .
( )
1
( )
ir
ir
decay
g r

=
Decay function:
: The viscous stress
increment that has survived after an
irreversible strain increment
ir

1 1
( ) ( , ) ( )
{ ( )} ( )
ir ir
ir ir
ir ir
v v f ir
v
ir
decay
d d g g

= =
= =

&
Meaning of the integration:

v
New Isotach

TESRA

0

ir

ir
d
[ ( )]
f
v
d g

[ ( )]
ir
f
v
d g r

Current
TESRA
Isotach
ir

ir
d
( )
{ ( )}
f ir
v
d g

&
1
( )
{ ( )}
ir
f ir
v
d g r

&

0
10
ir
=
& &
Reference relation:
( )
f ir

0
ir
=
& &

0
/10
ir
=
& &

Creep

0
Non-linear
inviscid component;

Hypo-elastic
component:

&


&
e

&
vp
strain rate and acceleration)
model
The current stress is a specific
function of instantaneous ,
and recent strain history.
The stress value for a given
for the different instantaneous
values of could be the same,
while creep deformation and
stress relaxation can take place.
The viscous stress could be
either positive, zero or negative
depending on the strain history.
v
ir
&
ir
ir
ir
&
; a jump in the stress ratio by a step change in
the irreversible shear strain rate.
R
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.

0
= 0.0125 %/min
. .
(Axial strain rate
v
)/
0

Test Hsd02
(batch B)
10
1/10
10
10
1/10
1/10
10

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
2.5 3.0 3.5
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4
A
Test Hsd02
Simulation
Experiment
Reference curve
a'
a
R

Shear strain, (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Elastic relation
1E-4 1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
1.0
slope=
Hostun sand
(tests Hsd02 & 03)

Experiment
Simulation
R
/
R
Ratio of strain rates before and after a step change
All the stress jumps associated with a strain rate
jump are well simulated.
( ) [1 exp{1 ( 1) }] ( 0)
ir
ir m
v
ir
r
g

= +
&
&
&

Viscosity function:
This function should be determined experimentally
The conditions
to be satisfied:
1) 0.0 ( )
ir
v
g
&
for any value of
ir
&
between and ;
2) ( 0) 0
ir
v
g = =
&
; and
( )
( 0)
ir
ir
v
ir
g

&
&
&
=
ir
r
m
&
(a finite positive value).
1E-9 1E-8 1E-7 1E-6 1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 0.01
1
1.0
.
.
1.00
0.99
1.10
Fig. 15b
b
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
1
+

g
v
(
i
r
)
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Fig. 15a
.
.
Hostun sand
Toyoura sand

ir
(%/sec)
g
v
(
i
r
)
0.35 =
ir
&
- A sudden change in the stress associated with a step change in the strain rate
All these features are well simulated by the TESRA model.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
Step increase in the strain rate
Negative
v
Positive
v
.
PSC test on air-dried Hostun sand (test Hsd03)
Experiment
Simulation
(TESRA viscosity)
= 0.25; m=0.04;
r
ir
=10
-6
(%/sec); and
r
1
= 0.1 (for strain
difference in %)

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Shear strain, (%)
Reference curve
r
1
=0.2
- A sudden change in the stress associated with a step change in the strain rate
All these features are well simulated by the TESRA model.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
Step increase in the strain rate
Negative
v
Positive
v
.
PSC test on air-dried Hostun sand (test Hsd03)
Experiment
Simulation
(TESRA viscosity)
= 0.25; m=0.04;
r
ir
=10
-6
(%/sec); and
r
1
= 0.1 (for strain
difference in %)

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Shear strain, (%)
Reference curve
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.4
5.6
Experiment
Test Hsd03
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Shear strain, (%)
Reference curve
Simulation
(TESRA viscosity)
r
1
=0.2
A special test to fully record the strain rate history, having
sections with a constant strain rate;
sections with a constant rate of strain rate (i.e., a constant
strain acceleration); and
a creep loading stage.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3
4
5
6
c
j
i
h
g
f e
d
b
a
acc.
dec.
acc.
dec.
3
= 392kPa
0
= 0.730)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3
4
5
6
c
j
i
h
g
f e
d
b
a
acc.
dec.
acc.
dec.
3
= 392kPa
0
= 0.730)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
A constant rate of axial strain
rate= a constant axial strain
acceleration or deceleration:
The history of irreversible axial
strain rate and its rate can be
confidently defined.
58800 59000 59200 59400
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
.
A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

r
a
t
e
,

v

(
%
/
s
e
c
)
Elapsed time (sec)
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
0.0008
h
g

A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
62800 63000 63200 63400
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
.

A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

r
a
t
e
,

v

(
%
/
s
e
c
)
Elapsed time (sec)
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
j
i

A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3
4
5
6
c
j
i
h
g
f e
d
b
a
acc.
dec.
acc.
dec.
3
= 392kPa
0
= 0.730)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
58800 59000 59200 59400
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
.
A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

r
a
t
e
,

v

(
%
/
s
e
c
)
Elapsed time (sec)
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
0.0008
h
g

A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
62800 63000 63200 63400
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
.

A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

r
a
t
e
,

v

(
%
/
s
e
c
)
Elapsed time (sec)
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
j
i

A
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
- The axial strain rate was
obtained by direct derivation
with respect to time of
measured time history of
axial strain.
- A noticeable scatter due to
limited accuracy of axial strain
measurement and material
property.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
Test Combi1 (Toyoura sand)
=0.25; m=0.05;
r
ir
= 10
-6
(%/sec); and
r
1
= 0.1 (for strain difference in %)
Experiment
Reference curve
Simulation
(TESRA viscosity)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
=0.25; m=0.05;
r
ir
= 10
-6
(%/sec); and
r
1
Experiment
Reference curve
Simulation
(TESRA viscosity)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Experiment
Reference curve
Simulation
v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Stress changes associated with
gradual changes in the axial strain rate
are well simulated.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
=0.25; m=0.05;
r
ir
= 10
-6
(%/sec); and
r
1
Experiment
Reference curve
Simulation
(TESRA viscosity)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
Experiment
Reference curve
Simulation
v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Creep behaviour is well simulated.
0 20000 40000 6000
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Test Combi1
Start of creep stage
Simulation
Experiment
Elapsed time (sec)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
.
=0.25; m=0.05;
r
ir
= 10
-6
(%/sec); and
r
1
Experiment
Reference curve
Simulation
(TESRA viscosity)

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
Experiment
Reference curve
Simulation
v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Creep behaviour is well simulated.
A high-stiffness zone has
appeared by sustained loading
despite that no elastic zone is
incorporated in the inviscid stress-
strain relation (i.e., reference
curve). The high-stiffness zone
becomes larger with an increase
in the duration of the sustained
loading as well as with an
increase in the strain rate during
restarted ML.
Stress space
A given stress path
q
p
Stress-strain relations along a
given stress path
q
ir
f
-
ir
relation: Inviscid
stress-strain relation
Stress state A where
sustained loading is
made during
otherwise ML at a
(=
f
+
v
) -
ir
relation for ML
at a constant strain rate with
an intermediate sustained
loading stage at A.
High stiffness zone for (=
f
+
v
)-
ir
relation for ML at a given constant
strain rate that has developed by
sustained loading at stress state A.
So, the size of high-stiffness zone is not a material property.
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
Axial srain Crp_fs, graph2
SR
.
SR
Creep stage for 24 hours
.
SR: Loading stopped temporarily
(quasi-stress relaxation stage)
Tests Crp_f (e
0
= 0.742) & Crp_s (e
0
= 0.740)
Toyoura sand; '
h
= 392 kPa
Test CRP_f;
v
= 0.25 %/min.
Test CRP_s;
v
= 0.0025 %/min.

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
ML at axial
strain rates
different by a
factor of 100
Nearly the same stress/strain state at the start of sustained
loading despite largely different strain rates during ML (100
times)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
Axial srain Crp_fs, graph2
SR
.
SR
Creep stage for 24 hours
.
SR: Loading stopped temporarily
(quasi-stress relaxation stage)
Tests Crp_f (e
0
= 0.742) & Crp_s (e
0
= 0.740)
Toyoura sand; '
h
= 392 kPa
Test CRP_f;
v
= 0.25 %/min.
Test CRP_s;
v
= 0.0025 %/min.

v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
v
'
/
h
'
Different creep strain rates;
despite having started from nearly the same stress/strain state !
Simulation by the
TESRA model
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
C p_ C p_s S , g p 5
Reference curve
Experiment
Simulation
by the TESRA model
Test Crp_s

V ti l t i (%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

v
'
/
h
'
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
Experiment
Simulation
by the TESRA model
Reference curve
Test Crp_f

Vertical strain,
v
(%)
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=

v
'
/
h
'
Axial strain rate during
ML= 0.25 %/min
Axial strain rate during
ML= 0.0025 %/min
1.0 1.2 1.4
1
2
3
4
Start of stress unloading
at a constant rate
Test Ulcrp3

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
'
v
/
'
h
v
(%)
Simulation by
the TESRA model
Experiment
Simulation of unloading
An increase in the strain still after the stress has started decreasing !
Creep recovery: the strain deceases with time !
1.0 1.2 1.4
1
2
3
4
at a constant rate
Test Ulcrp3

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
'
v
/
'
h
v
(%)
Simulation by
the TESRA model
Experiment
An increase in the strain
still after the stress has
started decreasing !
8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
Experiment
Start of creep stage
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

(
a
x
i
a
l
)

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
at a constant rate
Test Ulcrp3
Simulation
by the TESRA model
Elapsed time (hour) (Tatsuoka et al., 2002)
1.0 1.2 1.4
1
2
3
4
at a constant rate
Test Ulcrp3

S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o
,

R
=
'
v
/
'
h
v
(%)
Simulation by
the TESRA model
Experiment
Creep recovery:
the strain deceases
with time !
35 36 37 38 39 40 41
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
Simulation by the TESRA model
Start of sustained loading
at the unloaded state
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

(
a
x
i
a
l
)

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v

(
%
)
Test Ulcrp3
Experiment
Elapsed time (hour)
Viscous behaviour of air-dried Toyoura sand in plane
strain bearing capacity tests of strip footing
A
Observationthrough
D=49cm
Rigidstripfooting
(B=10.0cm, L=39.9cm)
B
B'
P
Model sand bed
Rigidsandbox
W=40cm
L=183cm
B
=

1
0

c
m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
50
100
150
200
250
k
eq
=805 kPa/mm
k
eq
=789 kPa/mm
k
eq
=565 kPa/mm
Toyoura sand
e =0.648, Dr =92.2%
Rigid rough footing;
B=10 cm
Peak (N
=253.7 at s/B =0.05839)

b-c, d-e, h-i, n-o: 0.00472
a-b, e-f, g-h, j-k, l-m, o-p, q-r: 0.0472
c-d, i-j, m-n: 0.472
Creep loading & relaxation
r
q
p
o
n
m
l
k
j
i
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

q

(
k
P
a
)

Effects of the viscous property of sand on the
settlement characteristics of footing
(Hirakawa & Tatsuoka 2005)
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
80
100
120
140
160
180
n-o: 0.00472
l-m, o-p, q-r: 0.047
m-n: 0.472
Creep loading & relaxation
p-q: creep (4 hours)
q
p
o
n
m
l
k

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

q

(
k
P
a
)

Viscous behavior similar to those in element tests
(Hirakawa & Tatsuoka, 2005)
FEM model (Siddiquee 2003, personal communication).
5
6
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
101
102
107
110
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
FEM model (Siddiquee 2003, personal communication).
100
150
200
2 3 4
Footi ng sttl ement (mm)
A
v
e
r
r
a
g
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
k
P
a
)
Test
FEM
p
q
o
n
m
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314
Footing settlement (mm)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
k
P
a
)

)
Test
FEM
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
d
(Noguchi et al., 2004)
FEM simulation incorporating a non-linear three-
component model
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Experiment
FEM simulation
Model parameters for viscosity
=0.25
m=0.045
r
1
=0.1
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Toyoura sand
Dr =91.6 %, e = 0.650
(Test bc-jump)
b-c, d-e, f-g, h-i, j-k, l-m, n-o, q-r, s-t, u-v, w-x, y-z: 0.00472
p-q: 0.0472
a-b, c-d, e-f, g-h, i-j, k-l, m-n, o-p, r-s, t-u, v-w, x-y: 0.472
z
y
x
w
v
u
t
s
r
q
p
o
n
m
l
k
j
i
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a

FEM simulation (Siddiquee 2003, personal communication).
0 2 4
0
50
100
150
200
Experiment
FEM simulation
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

c
o
n
t
a
c
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
b-c, d-e, f-g, h-i, j-k, l-m: 0.00472
p-q: 0.0472
a-b, c-d, e-f, g-h, i-j, k-l, m-n: 0.472
n
m
l
k
j
i
h
g
f
e d
c
b
a

Measured and simulated time histories of footing settlement
(Siddiquee 2003, personal communication).
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Model parameters for viscosity
=0.25
m=0.045
r
1
=0.1
Experiment
FEM Simulation
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

f
o
o
t
i
n
g
,

s

[
m
m
]

z
y
w
x
v
u
t
s
r
q
p
o
n
m
l
k
j
i
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
Footing settlement rate [mm/min]
b-c, d-e, f-g, h-i, j-k, l-m, n-o, q-r, s-t, u-v, w-x, y-z: 4.72E-3
p-q: 4.72E-2
a-b, c-d, e-f, g-h, i-j, k-l, m-n, o-p, r-s, t-u, v-w, x-y: 4.72E-1
test naem: bc-jump
Elapsed time, t [sec]

Distribution of maximum shear strain at the end of loading from FEM
simulation (Siddiquee 2003, personal communication).
0
0.043
0.086
0.129
0.171
0.214
0.257
0.3
0.343
0.386
0.429
0.471
0.514
0.557
0.6
0.643
0.686
0.729
0.771
0.814
Contour of Eps1 - Eps2 at Step=15700
X-Axis (cm.)
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Y
-
A
x
i
s

(
c
m
.
)
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0.043
0.086
0.129
0.171
0.214
0.257
0.3
0.343
0.386
0.429
0.471
0.514
0.557
0.6
0.643
0.686
0.729
0.771
0.814
Contour of Eps1 - Eps2 at Step=15700
X-Axis (cm.)
40 35 30 25 20 15 10
Y
-
A
x
i
s

(
c
m
.
)
74
72
70
68
66
64
62
60
58
56
54
Distribution of maximum shear strain at the end of loading from FEM
simulation (Siddiquee 2003, personal communication).
0 50 100 150
0
100
200
300
400
76
77
78
81
82 80
79

Stress paths in different elements
Elem 76
Elem 77
Elem 78
Elem 79
Elem 80
Elem 81
Elem 82
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

v

(
k
P
a
)
Horizontal stress,
h
(kPa)
Stress paths in the elements immediately below the footing from
VII-2
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
0.001 %
ageing effects
1. Background
(modified from Fig. 4.14, Tatsuoka et al., 1999a)
q
p
Several existing elasto-plastic constitutive models assume:
1. there is a unique high-stiffness zone for a given previous
stress path; and
2. the shape of yield locus is different between; A.
anisotropically (or K
0
-consoliddated) and I. isotropically
specimens.
I
A
Are these sufficiently soil-like assumptions ?
a) Partially yes, but
b) not sufficiently soil-like, as the time effects
(viscous and ageing effects) are not taken
into account.
q
p
High stiffness zones detected when ML at a relatively high strain
rate is restarted after drained creep for a very short period at point
A following relatively fast ML along stress paths 1 &2
The fact is that the shape and size of high-stiffness zone
depends on not only previous stress path but also recent
loading history (i.e., history of strain, strain rate, ).
2
1
ML at a relatively high strain rate
q
p
Stress state A where drained
sustained loading is made
High stiffness zones detected when ML at a relatively high strain
rate is restarted after drained creep for a very short period at point
A following relatively fast ML along stress paths 1 &2
The fact is that the shape and size of high-stiffness zone
depends on not only previous stress path but also recent
loading history (i.e., history of strain, strain rate, ).
High stiffness zone commonly detected when
ML at a relatively high strain rate is
restarted after drained creep for a sufficiently
long period at stress state A following
relatively fast ML along stress paths 1 & 2
2
1
Effects of drained creep on subsequent undrained TC
behaviour of Fujinomori clay (w
L
= 62 %, PI= 33, D
50
= 0.017
mm & U
c
10; reconstituted by 1D consolidating de-aired
slurry at
v
= 70 kPa for a period of 3t
EOP
in a large oedometer)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
100
200
300
400
500
Undrained TC
at
V
=0.05%/min
19
16
07
Specimen 15
12
08
01
Napoli Fig.2.4(a)
Drained creep at
K('
3
/'
1
) = 0.5
for two days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0
100
200
300
400
500
Undrained TC
at
V
=0.05%/min
19
16
07
Specimen 15
12
08
01
Napoli Fig.2.4(a)
Drained creep at
K('
3
/'
1
) = 0.5
for two days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
- A high stiffness zone develops by drained creep during
otherwise undrained TC at a constant strain rate.
- This phenomenon is not linked to recent stress pathand,
therefore, cannot be predicted by any elasto-plastic model.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Fig.2.4(b)
08
12
01
15
07
16
Specimen 19
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
- A high stiffness zone develops by drained creep during
otherwise undrained TC at a constant strain rate.
- This phenomenon is not linked to recent stress pathand,
therefore, cannot be predicted by any elasto-plastic model.
A high stiffness zone develops
by drained creep during
otherwise undrained TC at a
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Fig.2.4(b)
08
12
01
15
07
16
Specimen 19
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
50
100
150
200
Specimen 16
Drained
creep
Fig.2.4(c)
E
0
E
eq
-2 E
eq
-1
E
tan
E
tan
Deviator stress, q =
1
-
3
(kPa)
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
t
a
n

a
n
d

E
e
q

(
M
P
a
)
Shape and size of high-stiffness zone depends on not
only previous stress path but also recent loading history
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
.
Undrained TC ;
v
=
0
=0.05%/min.
Anisotropic compression at
v
=0.15
0
A
Specimens 8 & 16
Specimen 16;
drained-creeped
for 2 days at A
Specimen 9
Specimen 8
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
A very small high stiffness
zone even after K
0
anisotropic compression
when not subjected to
drained creep at point A
(specimen 9)
A large high stiffness
zone developed when
subjected to drained
creep at point A even
following a recent stress
path different from the K
0
compression stress path
(specimen 16)
In this particular case, the yielding during undrained TC
loading after point A is controlled by drained creep at
stress point A , little by previous stress path!
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
.
Undrained TC ;
v
=
0
=0.05%/min.
v
=0.15
0
A
Specimens 8 & 16
Specimen 16;
drained-creeped
for 2 days at A
Specimen 9
Specimen 8
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
A very small high stiffness
zone even after K
0
when not subjected to
drained creep at point A
(specimen 9)
A large high stiffness
zone developed when
subjected to drained
creep at point A even
following a recent stress
path different from the K
0
compression stress path
(specimen 16)
0 5 10 15
0
50
100
150
200
250
End of anisotropic compression
and start of undrained TC
v
=
0
=0.05%/min.
Drained creep
for two days at Point A
Specimen 9
Specimen 8
Specimen 16
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
1) A very small high stiffness zone even after K
0
when not subjected to drained creep at point A (specimen 9)
2) A large high stiffness zone when subjected to drained creep at point A
even following a recent stress path different from the K
0
compression
stress path (specimen 16)
Similar large high stiffness zones when subjected to the same
drained creep history at point Aeven following different recent
stress paths.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
v
=
0
=0.05 %/min
v
=0.15
0
v
=0.1
0
A
v
=
0
All the specimens;
drained-creeped for two days at A.
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
Specimen 14
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean principal stress, p'(kPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
v
=
0
=0.05 %/min
v
=0.15
0
v
=0.1
0
A
v
=
0
All the specimens;
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
Specimen 14
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
In this particular case, the yielding during undrained TC
loading after point A is controlled by drained creep at
stress point A , little by previous stress path!
0 5 10 15 20
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
End of drained creep for two days at point A
Specimen 14
Specimen 28
Specimen
16
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
stress paths
stress paths
120 140 160 180 200 220
0
50
100
150
200
Specimen 14
Specimen 16
Deviator stress, q (kPa)
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
t
a
n

(
M
P
a
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
. .
. .
v
=
0
=0.05 %/min
v
=0.15
0
v
=0.1
0
A
v
=
0
All the specimens;
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
Specimen 14
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
B
0
=0.05 %/min
0.15
0
Specimen 24;
anisotropically
consolidated
Specimen 25;
Drained creep for 2 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
A high stiffness zone develops when subjected to drained creep at
any stress ratio (stress point B in this case) even following different
recent stress paths
A high stiffness zone develops when subjected to drained creep at
any stress ratio (stress point B in this case) even following different
recent stress paths
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
120
140
160
180
200
220
End of drained creep
for two days at point B
Specimen 24;
anisotropic consolidated
Specimen 25;
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
Axial strain,
v
(%)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
B
0
=0.05 %/min
0.15
0
Specimen 24;
anisotropically
consolidated
Specimen 25;
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean principal stress, p' =('
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
.
Undrained TC ;
v
=
0
=0.05%/min.
v
=0.15
0
A
Specimens 8 & 16
Specimen 16;
drained-creeped
for 2 days at A
Specimen 9
Specimen 8
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Remark:
Specimen 9, which follows a stress path closer to the failure
envelop, exhibits a peak strength noticeably lower than
specimen 8 (already shown by Henkel & Sowa, 1963). Why?
More generally, for the same drained creep history, a lower
peak strength when following a stress path closer to the
failure envelop. Why?
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
B
0
=0.05 %/min
0.15
0
Specimen 24;
anisotropically
consolidated
Specimen 25;
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
v
=
0
=0.05 %/min
v
=0.15
0
v
=0.1
0
A
v
=
0
All the specimens;
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
Specimen 14
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
B
0
=0.05 %/min
0.15
0
Specimen 24;
anisotropically
consolidated
Specimen 25;
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

=

1
-

3

(
k
P
a
)
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
. .
.
.
Undrained TC ;
v
=
0
=0.05%/min.
v
=0.15
0
A
Specimens 8 & 16
Specimen 16;
drained-creeped
for 2 days at A
Specimen 9
Specimen 8
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
.
.
.
.
.
. .
. .
v
=
0
=0.05 %/min
v
=0.15
0
v
=0.1
0
A
v
=
0
All the specimens;
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
Specimen 14
Specimen 28
Specimen 16
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
. because of a higher void ratio
when following a stress path
closer to the failure envelop (i.e.,
the behaviour not following the
Rendulics principle)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
0.15
0

0
=+-0.05%/min.
A
Fig.3.11(a)
Specimen 31
Specimen 34
Specimen 32
Specimen 9
Specimen 8
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
=
'
1
-
'
3

(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean principal stress, p'=('
1
+2'
3
)/3 (kPa)
(Tatsuoka et al. 1999d)
Comparison for the same initial
stress state:
Different peak stress states
depending on stress history
(a lower strength because of a higher
void ratio when anisotropically
consolidated)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Specimen 32
I
A (end of
anisotropic
compression)
Fig.3.14(a)
Specimen 31
Specimen 34
Specimen 9
Specimen 8
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

d
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
/
p
'
e
Normalized effective mean principal stress, p'/p'
e
Comparison for the same void
ratio (p
e
: equivalent stress):
Nearly the same peak stress
states
4
3
Undrained TC behaviour of very loose Hostun sand specimens
for different loading histories 1- 5 (Di Benedetto et al. 1997)
(Fig. 4.16 of Tatsuoka et al. 1999a)
4
3
Specimen 1: anisotropically consolidated at d
1
/dt= 0.02 %/min to stress state A
and no drained creep before undrained TC loading at a much higher strain
rate, d
1
/dt= 0.21 %/min
Specimens 2 and 3: isotropically consolidated (d
1
/dt= 0.22 %/min) to stress
states I1 and I2, followed by undrained TC loading (d
1
/dt= 0.015 %/min).
Specimen 3: drained creep at stress state A for 45 minutes.
a) The undrained TC behaviour of specimen 3 is nearly the same as specimen 1.
b) Specimen 2 showed quite different behaviour.
4
3
Specimen 4: drained TC (d
1
/dt= 0.033 %/min) from an isotropic stress state
I3 to stress point A and drained creep for over 50 minutes at stress point A.
Specimen 5; drained TC (d
1
/dt= 0.25%/min) to stress point A directly
followed by undrained TC, showing no high stiffness zone
- The development of high stiffness zone at point A is due to an abrupt
increase in strain rate (specimen 1) or drained creep (specimens 3 and 4).
- Both phenomena are basically the same from a rheological point of view.
ageing effects
1. Background
Questions:
1. Is the development of residual strain (i.e., creep strain)
during sustained loading at a nominally fixed stress state
due mainly to experimentally inevitable very small cyclic
deviator stresses? Does no residual strain develop if
sustained loading is made at a perfectly fixed stress state?
2. Is the development of residual strain during a given cyclic
loading history is exclusively by rate-independent cyclic
loading effects?
These questions are related to the relationships among
the following four major non-elastic factors of the
stress-strain property of geomaterial:
a) plastic yielding property;
b) viscous property;
c) rate-independent cyclic loading effect; and
d) ageing effect.
Relationship between
residual strains developed by
sustained loading and cyclic
loading with a relatively small
stress amplitude
Triaxial test at a constant confining
pressure (
h
= 40 kPa)
Local strain measurements
200mm
78mm
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0
50
100
150
200
0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32
110
115
120
125

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Start of cyclic & creep loading
Test 1
Test 2
0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68
140
145
150
155
Test 2
Test 1

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 2
(D
r
= 88.3 %)
Test 1
(D
r
= 86.9 %)

'
h
= 40 kPa)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
(Ko et al., 2003)
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0
50
100
150
200
0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32
110
115
120
125

D
e
v
ia
to
r
s
t
r
e
s
s
, q
(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Start of cyclic &creeploading
Test 1
Test 2
0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68
140
145
150
155
Start of cyclic &creep loading
Test 2
Test 1

D
e
v
ia
to
r
s
tr
e
s
s
, q
(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 2
(D
r
=88.3 %)
Test 1
(D
r
=86.9 %)

'
h
=40 kPa)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68
140
145
150
155
Test 2
Test 1
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Cyclic loading and sustained loading,
with the same maximum deviator
stress equally for 10 minutes
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0
50
100
150
200
0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32
110
115
120
125

D
e
v
ia
to
r
s
t
r
e
s
s
, q
(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 1
Test 2
0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68
140
145
150
155
Test 2
Test 1

D
e
v
ia
to
r
s
tr
e
s
s
, q
(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 2
(D
r
=88.3 %)
Test 1
(D
r
=86.9 %)

'
h
=40 kPa)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
The residual strain by cyclic loading
with the maximum stress being the
same as the sustained stress is much
smaller than the one developed by
the sustained loading.
0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32
110
115
120
125

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 1
Test 2
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
0
50
100
150
200
0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32
110
115
120
125

D
e
v
ia
to
r
s
t
r
e
s
s
, q
(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 1
Test 2
0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68
140
145
150
155
Test 2
Test 1

D
e
v
ia
to
r
s
tr
e
s
s
, q
(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 2
(D
r
=88.3 %)
Test 1
(D
r
=86.9 %)

'
h
=40 kPa)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32
110
115
120
125

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain,
Test 1
Test 2
In the residual strain developed
during a cyclic loading test, the
component due to the viscous
property is significant.
Increase in the
strain during stress
unloading
Simple but important conclusions:
1. It is unlikely that the development of creep strain during
sustained loading at a nominally fixed stress conditions
shown above is due to experimentally inevitable very small
cyclic deviator stresses.
2. To predict the residual strain of soil that develops by a
given cyclic loading history, not only rate-independent
cyclic loading effects but also viscous effects should be
taken into account.
Are the residual strains developed by sustained loading
and cyclic loading totally independent ?
If not, how do they interact ?
How are the effects of loading history on the residual
strain by sustained & cyclic loading ?
0
50
100
150
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
Another test series with a relatively large stress amplitude
(q= 60 kPa in double amplitude)
(Hayashi et al., 2005)
0
50
100
150
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
20
40
60
80
100
120
0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
A slight increase in the
maximum q results
into a significant
increase in the residual
strain by cyclic loading,
..
Air-dried Toyoura sand (D
r
= 90 %),
h
= 40 kPa
Cyclic loading: f= 0.04Hz
0
50
100
150
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
60
80
100
120
0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
r
= 90 %),
h
= 40 kPa
Cyclic loading: f= 0.04Hz,
t= 8,400 seconds
Sustained loading for
t= 8,400 seconds
A slight increase in the
maximum q results
into a significant
increase in the
increasing rate of
residual strain,
which is due to; a) yielding of inviscid stress;
and b) an increase in the viscous stress
caused by the above and also by an increase
in the irreversible strain rate.
0
50
100
150
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
60
80
100
120
0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
r
= 90 %),
h
= 40 kPa
t= 8,400 seconds
t= 8,400 seconds
The residual strain by sustained
loading after cyclic loading is
much smaller than the one by
sustained loading for the same
period without pre-cyclic loading,
showing that these two different
loading modes share some
common mechanism.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain, e
v
(%)
20
40
60
80
100
0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
A slight decrease in
the maximum q results
into a significant
decrease in the
increasing rate of
residual strain!
r
= 90 %),
h
= 40 kPa
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain, e
v
(%)
60
80
100
120
0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
r
= 90 %),
h
= 40 kPa
t= 8,400 seconds
t= 8,400 seconds
A slight decrease in
the maximum q results
into a significant
decrease in the
increasing rate of
residual strain!
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
A slight decrease in the
maximum q results into a
significant decrease in
the increasing rate of
residual strain!
r
= 90 %),
h
= 40 kPa
t= 8,400 seconds
t= 8,400 seconds
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Vertical strain,
v
(%)
r
= 90 %),
h
= 40 kPa
t= 8,400 seconds
t= 8,400 seconds
The residual strain by cyclic loading
after sustained loading is much
smaller than the one by cyclic
loading for the same period without
pre-sustained loading, showing that
these two different loading modes
share some common mechanism.
0 3000 6000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0 3000 6000 9000

0 100 200 300
Cyclic loading
0 100 200 300 400
-q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.0 %
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Sustained loading
Number of cycles
q
cy
= 0; D
r
=89.3 %
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.4 %
- A slight change in the maximum q results into a significant
change in the increasing rate of residual strain by cyclic
loading (also the one by sustained loading).
q= 60 kPa
in double
amplitude
0 3000 6000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0 3000 6000 9000

0 100 200 300
Cyclic loading
0 100 200 300 400
-q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.0 %
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Sustained loading
Number of cycles
q
cy
= 0; D
r
=89.3 %
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.4 %
The residual strain by sustained loading In the
second phase if the residual strains by sustained
loading and cyclic loading were totally independent.
q= 60 kPa
in double
amplitude
- The increase in the residual strain is only slight when the loading
mode is switched from cyclic to sustained. This fact shows
that the residual strains by sustained and cyclic loading are
dependent on each other, sharing some same mechanism.
0 3000 6000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0 3000 6000 9000

0 100 200 300
Cyclic loading
0 100 200 300 400
-q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.0 %
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Sustained loading
Number of cycles
q
cy
= 0; D
r
=89.3 %
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.4 %
q= 60 kPa
in double
amplitude
0 3000 6000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0 3000 6000 9000

0 100 200 300
Cyclic loading
0 100 200 300 400
-q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.0 %
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Sustained loading
Number of cycles
q
cy
= 0; D
r
=89.3 %
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.4 %
- Despite that it is small, the residual strain by cyclic loading is
noticeable after pre-cyclic loading, showing that the residual
strains by sustained and cyclic loading are not totally inter-
changeable.
q= 60 kPa
in double
amplitude
In the first phase, the residual strain by sustained loading is
larger than a half of the one by cyclic loading, showing a
paramount importance of viscous effect during cyclic loading.
0 3000 6000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Sustained-Cyclic
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=93.5%
Number of cycles
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Elaplsed time (s)
0 3000 6000 9000

0 100 200 300
Sustained loading
Cyclic loading
0 100 200 300 400

Sustained loading
Cyclic loading
Cyclic-Sustained
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.4%
q= 60 kPa
in double
amplitude
An obvious increase in the residual strain rate when the loading
mode is switched from sustained to cyclic, showing that:
a)cyclic loading effectis more important in this case; and
q= 60 kPa
in double
amplitude
0 3000 6000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Sustained-Cyclic
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=93.5%
Number of cycles
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Elaplsed time (s)
0 3000 6000 9000

0 100 200 300
Sustained loading
Cyclic loading
0 100 200 300 400

Sustained loading
Cyclic loading
Cyclic-Sustained
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.4%
B (>>A)
A
q= 60 kPa
in double
amplitude
0 3000 6000
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Sustained-Cyclic
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=93.5%
Number of cycles
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
Elaplsed time (s)
0 3000 6000 9000

0 100 200 300
Sustained loading
Cyclic loading
0 100 200 300 400

Sustained loading
Cyclic loading
Cyclic-Sustained
+q
cy
= 6 kPa; D
r
=91.4%
B (<C)
C
An obvious increase in the residual strain rate when the loading
mode is switched from sustained to cyclic, showing that:
a)cyclic loading effectis more important in this case; and
b) the residual strains by sustained and cyclic loading are not
totally inter-changeable.
Elapsed time, t
0
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

a
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
.

v
(S) Sustained
loading
(C) Cyclic
loading
Summary of behaviour
Two tests on virgin specimens
Elapsed time, t
0
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

a
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
.

v
(S) Sustained
loading
(C) Cyclic
loading
Independent model
Behaviour during;
a) cyclic loading after pre-sustained loading; and
b) sustained loading after pre-cyclic loading
when following the independent model.
a)
b)
Elapsed time, t
0
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

a
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
.

v
(S) Sustained
loading
(C) Cyclic
loading
Inter-changeable model
Behaviour during;
a) cyclic loading after pre-sustained loading; and
b) sustained loading after pre-cyclic loading
when following the inter-changeable model.
a)
b)
Elapsed time, t
0
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

a
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
.

v
(S) Sustained
loading
(C) Cyclic
loading
Independent model
Experimental data
The true behaviour is in between;
a) independent model; and
b) inter-changeable model.
Elapsed time, t
0
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

a
x
i
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n
.

v
(S) Sustained
loading
(C) Cyclic
loading
Independent model
Experimental data
The true behaviour is in between;
a) independent model; and
b) inter-changeable model.
-12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
S
Cy
Cy+S
S+Cy
q
max
=120kPa
Cyclic loading (Cy)
Cyclic&Sustained
Sustained loading (S)
Sustained&Cyclic
+q
max
(kPa) -q
max
(kPa)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
- Viscous effects on the residual strain during cyclic loading
cannot be ignored.
- Cyclic loading effects are more significant in this case
(q= 60 kPa).
- A slight change in the maximum q results into a significant
change in the residual strain by cyclic or residual loading.
-12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
S
Cy
Cy+S
S+Cy
q
max
=120kPa
Cyclic loading (Cy)
Cyclic&Sustained
Sustained&Cyclic
+q
max
(kPa) -q
max
(kPa)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
-12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
S
Cy
Cy+S
S+Cy
q
max
=120kPa
Cyclic loading (Cy)
Cyclic&Sustained
Sustained&Cyclic
+q
max
(kPa) -q
max
(kPa)
R
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
a
i
n

(
%
)
The final residual strain after a set of cyclic and sustained
loading is rather independent of the sequence of loading
mode (i.e., sustained loading after cyclic loading or vice
versa)
3. To predict the residual strain of soil that would develop for a
given cyclic loading history, all the following four factors
should be taken into account:
a) plastic yield property affected by loading history (e.g.,
preloading):
c) rate-independent cyclic loading effects; and
3. To predict the residual strain of soil that would develop for a
given cyclic loading history, all the following four factors
should be taken into account:
a) plastic yield property affected by loading history (e.g.,
preloading):
c) rate-independent cyclic loading effects; and
d) ageing effect (the next topic).
And the effects of the four factors interact with each other.
4. There are a number of elasto-plastic models that have
been propose to simulate the stress-strain behaviour during
cyclic loading.
However, these models, which incorporate rate-
independent cyclic loading effects but do not take into
account the viscous property, cannot explain properly the
behaviour during cyclic loading of geomaterial even in the
case without ageing effects .
VII-3
Paris, France
Tatsuoka, F.
ageing effects
1. Background
of the time effects
Parameter
e
.
g
.
,

c
e
m
e
n
t
-
m
i
x
e
d

s
o
i
l
e
.
g
.
,

a
i
r
-
d
r
i
e
d

S
a
n
d
*
Phenomenon
Mechanism/material
property
Loading rate effect
Ageing effect
Time with
the fixed
origin ( t
c
)
Strain rate,
Apparent ageing
(creep, stress
relaxation, etc.)
A rate-dependent
due to viscous
property
ir
&
effects
Time-dependent
changes in the
material property+
q
p
Increase in the size of high-stiffness zone by ageing effects
Common high stiffness zone when ML at a
relatively high strain rate is restarted after
drained creep for a sufficiently long period at
stress state A following relatively fast ML
along stress paths 1 and 2:
a) without ageing effects; and
2 1
High stiffness zones when ML
at a relatively high strain rate is
restarted after drained creep for
a very short period at point A
following relatively fast ML
along stress paths 1 and 2
q
p
b) with ageing effects (such as those by
cementation).
We do not know well the shape and size
of this high stiffness zone and the effects
of ageing on them.
2 1
a very short period at point A
following relatively fast ML
along stress paths 1 and 2
Takada
Kagoshima
Hakata
New bullet train line
Existing bullet train line
Nagasaki
Bullet train line
under planning
A case history in which ageing effects is an
engineering issue
A case history in which ageing effects is an
engineering issue
Takada
Kagoshima
Hakata
New bullet train line
Existing bullet train line
Nagasaki
Bullet train line
under planning
The first (not the last, I hope) bridge
abutment of cement-mixed gravel at
Takada, completed March 2003.
(Tatsuoka, 2004)
Conventional type versus new type
Soil backfill
B
e
d
r
o
c
k
1
1
7
5
0
7500
1
:
1
.
5
Gravel backfill
R.L
1800
1800
New type
Debris
deposit
Bedrock
Soil backfill
B
e
d
r
o
c
k
1500
1
2
5
5
0
Cement
-mixed
gravel
1
:
1
.
5
01020304050
3
4
8
14
16
26
50/30
50/23
50/16
50/16
50/13
50/7
Polymer geogrid
R.L
1400
1000
The conventional RC wall
structure, supporting the
backfill with the earth
pressure from the backfill.
(only design)
(All unit in mm)
Cement-mixed backfill
Original
ground
surface
Approach block of
uncemented gravel
Supporting ground
level considered in
design
RC cantilever structure
(All unit in mm)
Cement-mixed backfill
Original
ground
surface
Approach block of
uncemented gravel
Supporting ground
level considered in
design
RC cantilever structure
Supporting ground (N values
equal to or more than 50)
a) b)
a) b)
The conventional RC wall structure supports the backfill
with the earth pressure from the backfill.
Static design Seismic design
The backfill supporting the RC
parapet without the earth
pressure on the parapet.
Soil backfill
B
e
d
r
o
c
k
1
1
7
5
0
7500
1
:
1
.
5
Gravel backfill
R.L
1800
1800
Debris
deposit
Bedrock
Soil backfill
B
e
d
r
o
c
k
1500
1
2
5
5
0
Cement
-mixed
gravel
1
:
1
.
5
01020304050
3
4
8
14
16
26
50/30
50/23
50/16
50/16
50/13
50/7
Polymer geogrid
R.L
1400
1000
(only design) (actually constructed)
RC parapet
The conventional RC wall
structure, supporting the
earth pressure from the
backfill.
Design concept
Soil bags (filled with uncemented gravel, expected to function as a
temporary facing structure during wall construction and as a stable
absorber for possible relative displacements after completion)
Compacted cement-mixed
gravelly soil
2. Before constructing the parapet, the
backfill is designed as a geosynthetic-
reinforced soil retaining wall
3. Integrated parapet and cement-mixed
backfill is designed as a gravity-type
soil retaining wall
R
C

p
a
r
a
p
e
t
Bridge girder
1. The base of the parapet is designed
as a shallow foundation
Supporting ground
(N values equal to
or more than 50)
Supporting ground
(N values equal to
or more than 50)
With the new type abutment, the backfill supports the RC
parapet without activating the earth pressure on the back
of the parapet.
Seismic design
Static design
Cost reduction by 20 30 % (more if a pile foundation is
constructed for a conventional type bridge abutment)
Soil backfill
B
e
d
r
o
c
k
1
1
7
5
0
7500
1
:
1
.
5
Gravel backfill
R.L
1800
1800
Debris
deposit
Bedrock
Soil backfill
B
e
d
r
o
c
k
1500
1
2
5
5
0
Cement
-mixed
gravel
1
:
1
.
5
01020304050
3
4
8
14
16
26
50/30
50/23
50/16
50/16
50/13
50/7
Polymer geogrid
R.L
1400
1000
(only design) (actually constructed)
RC parapet
Staged construction procedure
for the new type bridge abutment (1)
Cement-mixed gravel
Soil Backfill
.
1
To avoid the damage to the connection between the
reinforcement and the facing due to relative settlement of
backfill during and after construction..
Cement-mixed gravel
Soil Backfill
.
2
3
Cement-mixed gravel
Soil Backfill
.
1
Cement-mixed gravel
Soil Backfill
.
2
3
To avoid the damage to the connection between the
reinforcement and the facing due to relative settlement of
backfill during and after construction..
Cement-mixed gravel
Soil Backfill
.
1
Cement-mixed gravel
Soil Backfill
.
2
3
The backfill supports the RC facing,
so no seismic earth pressure !
Deformation of cement-
mixed gravel backfill by:
dead load;
train loading; and
seismic load
Lateral loading test, 27 February 2003
Lateral loading test to ensure the connection strength
(Tatsuoka, 2004)
Center-hole jack
Ordinary backfill
Cement-
mixed gravel
Lateral loading
(reaction is
taken by a pair
of RC pier)
Load cell
PC steel rod
Steel strain
gauge
Settlement
gauge
Geogrid strain gauge
Displacement transducer
Earth pressure cell
Inclinometer
Steel strain gauge
Thermometer
Relative displacement
Settlement gauge
Extenso-meter
The bridge abutment was stiff enough and much more
stable than two piers.
Pier P5
Abutment
Lateral displacement (mm)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Horizontal
displacement at
the top of the RC
parapet
1.3 m from the top
(Tatsuoka, 2004)
20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10
H
e
i
g
h
t

f
o
r

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e

p
l
a
n
e

(
m
)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Positive: toward Pier No. 5
Start of loading
After unloading
Abutment
a)
20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10
H
e
i
g
h
t

f
o
r

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e

p
l
a
n
e

(
m
)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Start of loading
After unloading
Abutment
20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10
H
e
i
g
h
t

f
o
r

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e

p
l
a
n
e

(
m
)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Start of loading
After unloading
Abutment
a)
Abutment
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
H
e
i
g
h
t

f
o
r

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e

p
l
a
n
e

(
m
)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Footing base plane
Footing base plane
Start of loading
After unloading
Start of loading
After unloading
Pier No. 5 Pier No. 6
b) c)
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
H
e
i
g
h
t

f
o
r

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e

p
l
a
n
e

(
m
)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Footing base plane
Footing base plane
Start of loading
After unloading
Start of loading
After unloading
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
H
e
i
g
h
t

f
o
r

t
h
e

f
o
o
t
i
n
g

b
a
s
e

p
l
a
n
e

(
m
)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Footing base plane
Footing base plane
Start of loading
After unloading
Start of loading
After unloading
b) c)
Pier No. 5
Pier No. 6
Small and similar displacements of parapet and backfill
at the maximum lateral load, showing a high integrity of
the structure

6.0 m 3.0 m 2.5 m
(15.52, )
10mm
(0.91,0.98) (1.99,0.76)
(-1.76,5.95)
( ,1.30)
( , 2.51)
( ,0.83)
1mm

(15.26,4.27)
X
Y
Boundary between
cement-mixed gravel
and uncemented soil
Bump of about 1 mm
Crack (width= 10 mm)
Heaving about 1mm
The parapet and
cement-mixed
backfill behave as a
monolith.
Distance from the back face of parapet (m)
E
a
r
t
h

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
P
a
)
Start of loading
After unloading
Distance from the back face of parapet (m)
E
a
r
t
h

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
P
a
)
Start of loading
After unloading
9
.
5
5
m

6.0 m 3.0 m
2.5 m
7
.
7
5
m

6
.
2
5
m

0.45 m
Earth pressure
cells
9
.
5
5
m

6.0 m 3.0 m
2.5 m
7
.
7
5
m

6
.
2
5
m

0.45 m
Earth pressure
cells
Lateral load
Increase in
the earth
pressure
Decrease in
the earth
pressure
Deformation of cement-
mixed gravel backfill by:
dead load;
train loading; and
seismic load
Ageing effects should be
taken into account for this
issue.
Longitudinal
LDT (1pair)
Transverse or
lateral LDT
(3pairs)
Material
Chiba gravel (D
max
=10 mm) mixed with of Portland cement (2.5 %of
gravel) and water content 8.75 %
Specimen: 9.5 cm x 9.5 cm x 19 cm(
d
=2 g/cm
3
)
Triaxial compression Apparatus
Local axial and lateral strain
measurements with LDTs.
Specimen after
taking out of the
mould
Drained TC tests to evaluate ageing
effects as well as loading rate effects
Details of vertical and lateral LDTs
Specimen
Gypsum
Permanent
glue
Membrane
Pseudo-
hinge
LDT
Vertical
LDT
Lateral
LDTs
(Kongsukprasert &Tatsuoka, 2005b)
Grain size distribution curves of five batches of a well-
graded gravelly soil (model Chiba gravel) used in the
study
0.1 1 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Batch# 1 2 3 4 5
__________________________________________
D
10
0.262 0.265 0.244 0.190 0.179 (mm)
D
30
1.100 0.970 1.007 0.869 0.857 (mm)
D
50
2.480 2.083 2.234 2.073 2.032 (mm)
D
60
3.354 2.835 3.011 2.911 2.836 (mm)
C
c
1.38 1.25 1.38 1.36 1.45
U
c
12.8 10.7 12.3 15.3 15.8
F.C. 3.0 1.6 2.4 2.9 4.3 (%)

P
e
r
c
e
n
t

f
i
n
e
r

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

(
%
)
Grain size (mm)
Compaction characteristic of model Chiba gravel with
and without cement-mixing (nearly the same)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
Zero air void
With c/g = 2.5 %
No cement content
w
opt
: around 8.75 %
(TC specimens)
Model Chiba gravel
Bacth #1
E0 = 550 kJ /m
3

C
o
m
p
a
c
t
e
d

t
o
t
a
l

d
r
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

d

(
g
/
c
m
3
)
Moulding water content, w
i
(% by dry weight of solid)
Compacted cement-mixed well-graded
gravelly soil:
1) How is its viscous property?
2) How is the interaction between the ageing
and viscous effects ?
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
3 days
SR002
J S004
J S007
SR001
7 days
Test J S005
Test J S006
Initial curing for 14 days

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Test J S006
SR001
Test JS005
J S007
J S004
SR002
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
x/5
x
5x
x
x/5
x/25
5x
5x
x/25
Basic axial strain rate:
x =0.03%/min
J S004
J S007
SR001
7 days
3 days
SR002
Test J S005
Test J S006
Initial curing
for 14 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)

Test J S005
Test J S006
J S004
SR001
J S007
SR002
a(ave)
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)

Compacted cement-mixed well-graded gravelly soil has
obvious viscous property. Then, how to quantify the viscous
property?
3
= 19.8 kPa
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
3 days
SR002
J S004
J S007
SR001
7 days
Test J S005
Test J S006
Initial curing for 14 days

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Test J S006
SR001
Test JS005
J S007
J S004
SR002
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
x/5
x
5x
x
x/5
x/25
5x
5x
x/25
Basic axial strain rate:
x =0.03%/min
J S004
J S007
SR001
7 days
3 days
SR002
Test J S005
Test J S006
Initial curing
for 14 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)

Test J S005
Test J S006
J S004
SR001
J S007
SR002
a(ave)
(%)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)

1) Persistency of viscous stress
Step changes in the strain rate during otherwise ML at a rather high strain rate:
a) Pre-peak: isotach-viscosity, like uncemented coherent soil w/o ageing effect
b) Post-peak: TESRA-viscosity, like poorly graded sand w/o ageing effect
3
= 19.8 kPa
a ir c a
d 0
a
a ir
d 0
a
c a
( / ) {( ) / }
( / )
( ) /
q p m q q p
q p
m
q q p
=
=
= +
=
+
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
Irreversible axial strain
o
Step decrease
in strain rate
Step increase
in strain rate
a 1
= & &
a 0
= & &
q q
q/2
q/2
q/2
q/2
- m: the slope, which is a function of the ratio of the strain rates
after and before a step change, .
- q
c
: the intersect due to true cohesion, (= 15.1 p
a
); much
larger than
3
= 19.8 kPa = 0.2 p
a
a after a before
( ) /( )
& &
Linear relations:
a after a before
( ) /( )
& &
-20 0 20 40
-2
0
2
q/p
a
Test name
JS005
JS006
JS004
JS007
SR001
SR002
1/125
1/25
1/5
1/4
4
5
25
125
-q
c
/p
a
-15.124
(
q
/
p
a
)
d
a
i
r

=

0
a after a before
( ) /( )
& &
2) Amount of viscous stress
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
(
q
/
p
a
)
d
a
i
r

=

0

/

{
(
q

+

q
c
)
/
p
a
)
}
log {(
a
)
after
/(
a
)
before
}
Slope: = 0.03247
Test name
JS002
SR002
JS007
JS004
SR001
JS006
JS005
a ir
d 0
a
a after a before
c a
( / )
log[( ) /( ) ]
( ) /
q p
m
q q p

=
= =
+
& &
A linear relation is independent of the stress level
where the strain rate is changed stepwise.
1
ir a ir ir 1 ir ir
d 0 d 0 d 0 d 0 d 0
a a a a a
3
c a c 1 1
3
1 1 3 3 3
'*
( ) ( / ) ( ) ( ' *) (R*)
'*
( ) / '* '* *
'*
' * ' ; ' * ' ; '
c
q p q
q q p q q R
c c c q

= = = = =
= = = =
+ +
= + = + =
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
(
q
/
p
a
)
d
a
i
r

=

0

/

{
(
q

+

q
c
)
/
p
a
)
}
log {(
a
)
after
/(
a
)
before
}
Slope: = 0.03247
Test name
JS002
SR002
JS007
JS004
SR001
JS006
JS005
a ir
d 0
a
a after a before
c a
( / )
log[( ) /( ) ]
( ) /
q p
m
q q p

=
= =
+
& &
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
(
q
/
p
a
)
d
a
i
r

=

0

/

{
(
q

+

q
c
)
/
p
a
)
}

log {(
a
)
after
/(
a
)
before
}
Slope: = 0.03247
Test name
JS002
SR002
JS007
JS004
SR001
JS006
JS005
ir
d 0
a
(*)
*
R
R
=
1
3
'*
*
'*
R

=
1 1
3 3
3
' * '
' * '
'
c
c
c
c q

= +
= +
=
Rate-sensitivity coefficient of cement-mixed gravel
ir
d 0
a
a after a before
( *)
log[( ) /( ) ]
*
R
R

=
=
& &
A similar relation as unbonded soil
1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Fujinomori
clay (Od-R)
No.3*
No.4*
No.5*
Hostun sand
Coral sand A
Toyoura sand
J amuna
river sand
No.8*
No.6*
Coral
sand B
Mixed*
Model chiba
gravel (air dried)
Original chiba
gravel(moist)
Crushed
concrete
Kaolin
(Od-R)
Tanno sand

50
(mm)
R
a
t
e

d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,


*: Silica sand
Cement-mixed gravel, = 0.0325
The value of cement-mixed gravel similar to those of
reconstituted sand, gravel & compacted oven-dried clay powder.
(Kongsukprasert &Tatsuoka, 2005)
Compacted cement-mixed well-graded
gravelly soil:
1) How is its viscous property?
2) How is the interaction between the ageing
and viscous effects ?
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Axial strain,
a
b a
(1)
(3)
(5)
0
(4)
(2)
For compacted cement-
mixed well-graded
gravelly soil, we need:
an elasto-viscoplastic
model with ageing effects:
positive coupling
Even for the same strain rate
and the same ageing period,
a larger ultimate strength is
attained when aged longer at
a higher deviator stress.
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
(b)
Test J017
60-day initial
curing
Test J002
30-day initial
curing
Ref. R37
interpolation
for 37days
initial curing
Ref. R67
exterpolation
for 67days
initial curing
Test JA003:
over-shooting
then decayed
Drained creep
for 30 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
-0.02
T
)

(
%
)
Over-shooting
High stiffness
for a large
stress range
Aged for 60
days at q= 0
Aged for 30 days at q= 200 kPa
after aged 37 days at q= 0.
Aged for
37 days at
q= 0
Aged for 30 days
at q= 0
Aged for
67 days at
q= 0
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Moist cement-mixed gravel in drained TC (at confining pressure=
19.7 kPa and an axial strain rate of 0.03 %/min)
(Kongsukprasert
&Tatsuoka., 2005b)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
(b)
Test J017
60-day initial
curing
Test J002
30-day initial
curing
Ref. R37
interpolation
for 37days
initial curing
Ref. R67
exterpolation
for 67days
initial curing
Test JA003:
over-shooting
then decayed
Drained creep
for 30 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
-0.02
T
)

(
%
)
Over-shooting
High stiffness
for a large
stress range
Aged for 60
days at q= 0
Aged for
37 days at
q= 0
Aged for 30 days
at q= 0
Aged for
67 days at
q= 0
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Nearly elastic behaviour for a large stress range, indicating that
residual strains by train load during the life time be very small.
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
(b)
Test J017
60-day initial
curing
Test J002
30-day initial
curing
Ref. R37
interpolation
for 37days
initial curing
Ref. R67
exterpolation
for 67days
initial curing
Test JA003:
over-shooting
then decayed
Drained creep
for 30 days
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
-0.02
T
)

(
%
)
Over-shooting
High stiffness
for a large
stress range
Aged for 60
days at q= 0
Aged for
37 days at
q= 0
Aged for 30 days
at q= 0
Aged for
67 days at
q= 0
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Larger peak strength when aged longer at a more anisotropic
stress state!
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
With drained
creep loading:
Test name
J A005
J A009
J A001
J A008
J A010
J A006
J A007
J A004
J 016
(ML; tini =7 days)
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
CD TC
(
h
'=19.8 kPa)
J A016
(ML; tini =14 days)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Larger peak strength
when aged longer at a
more anisotropic stress
state!
due to coupled effects of
viscous property and
ageing effects when aged
with a shear stress !
Summary:
Positive effects of drained sustained loading (curing) at
anisotropic stress states on the compressive strength, q
max
0 5 10 15 40 60 80 100 120
0
1
2
3
4
Peak stress states
Test name
1 J A015
2 J A005
3 J A009
4 J A001
5 J A008
6 J A010
7 J A006
8 J A007
9 J A004
10 J A003
11 J S009
12 J S008
J AS series
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
Total curing time, t
c
(day)
q
max
- t
c
relation when intially cured unconfined
Positive effects of drained creep at anisotropic
stress states on the compressive strength,
represented by parameter B as a function of loading
history parameter A.
A
A'
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
Elapsed time after the start of curing, t
c
0
Start of curing
Arbitary stress
path
AA' is peak strength from
fast ML following initial
curing at zero shear stress
max max
( ) ( ) ( )
c c o c c c
q t dt q t S dt S dt + = + +
Area C
Area T
max max
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
o c c o c
c
q t dt q t
S dt
+ =
+
c
S dt
q
gain
(= q
tc
)
0
AA: peak strength for ML
without curing at non-
zero shear stress
max c c max c c c
( d ) ( ) ( ) d d
o
q t t q t S t B S t + = + +
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
(=q
0
)
Start of curing
Elapsed time since the start of curing, t
c
A
Loading path of
the concerned
TC test
A
Area T
Area C
A= C/T
B= q
gain
/q
0
More positive ageing effects on q
max
when subjected to longer
drained creep at more anisotropic stress states
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Uncorrected
for strain rate
Fitted to the data for a
strain rate = 0.03 %/min:
B = 9.68(A)
5.9
The underlined numbers indicate
the data added to those reported
by Kongsukprasert & Tatsuoka (2003).
No. Test name
1 JA015
2 JA005
3 JA009
4 JA001
5 JA008
6 JA010
7 JA006
8 JA007
9 JA004
10 JA003
11 JS009
12 JS008
13 SP004
B

=

q
g
a
i
n
/
q
o
A = C/T
Elasto-viscoplastic
model with ageing
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Elapsed time, t
b
a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
0
Constant strain
rate during ML
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
Axial strain,
a
b a
(1)
(3)
(5)
0
(4)
(2)
For loading history (5);
1. low initial stiffness due to
viscous effects;
2. tangent stiffness that
increases during loading;
and peak strength that
becomes larger due to
ageing effects.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=14 days
Test J S008 J S009
t
ini
=8days t
ini
=8days
x/300 x/300
x/150 x/87
x/100 x/75

J S008
x =0.03 %/min (nominal)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
J S009
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=7 days,

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=14 days
Test J S008 J S009
t
ini
=8days t
ini
=8days
x/300 x/300
x/150 x/87
x/100 x/75

J S008

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
J S009
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=7 days,

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Significant ageing effects during ML at a very low strain rate!
(1) & (8): no sustained loading at the origin;
(7): sustained loading at the origin; and
(1) & (7): ML at the same relatively high strain rate
(8): ML at a strain rate that is much lower than the strain rate in (1) & (7).
Peculiar behaviour due to ageing effects when the
strain rate is increased
(1)
Start of loading
(7)
(8)
When the strain rate is increased,
initially the stress increases and
then the stress becomes smaller
than the value during continuous
ML (8) at a constant strain rate
without this change.
(1) & (8): no sustained loading at the origin;
(7): sustained loading at the origin; and
(1) & (7): ML at the same relatively high strain rate
(8): ML at a strain rate that is much lower than the strain rate in (1) & (7).
Peculiar behaviour due to ageing effects when the
strain rate is decreased
(1)
Start of loading
(7)
(8)
When the strain rate is decreased,
initially the stress decreases and
then the stress becomes larger
ML (8) at a constant strain rate
without this change.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=14 days
Test J S008 J S009
t
ini
=8days t
ini
=8days
x/300 x/300
x/150 x/87
x/100 x/75

J S008

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
J S009
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=7 days,

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=14 days
Test J S008 J S009
t
ini
=8days t
ini
=8days
x/300 x/300
x/150 x/87
x/100 x/75

J S008

D
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v
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a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
J S009
Continuous ML at x
t
ini
=7 days,

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Peculiar loading rate effects upon a step change in the strain rate
during otherwise ML at a very low strain rate!
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
x/87
x/300
x/87

J S008

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
J S009

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Upon a step increase in
the strain rate, the stress
suddenly increases and
then becomes a residual
strength that is smaller
than the value during
continuous ML at a
without a change.
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
x/87
x/300
x/87

J S008

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)
J S009

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Upon a step decrease in the
strain rate, the stress
suddenly decreases and
then becomes a residual
strength that is larger than
the value during continuous
ML at a constant strain rate
without a change.
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
x/87
x/300
x/300
x/300
x/87
x/100
x/100

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
M
P
a
)

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
a(ave)
(%)
Upon a step increase in the strain
rate, the stress suddenly
increases and then becomes a
residual strength that is smaller
without a change.
Upon a step decrease in the strain
rate, the stress suddenly
decreases and then becomes a
residual strength that is larger
without a change.
These trends of behaviour in
these slow tests are due to ageing
effects that are larger than the
viscous effects.
Development of yield
locus by coupled
viscous and ageing
effects:
in the case of cement-
mixed poorly graded
sand
(Kongsukprasert et a., 2002)
D
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i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
400 600 800 200
0
0
Effective mean stress, p' (kPa)
PSC
1200 1000
400
600
800
200
1200
1400
1000 1000
Tension cut-off ;
q = 3p'
Aging at q= 700kPa
for 3 days
Consolidation for 20 hours
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
5
-1.4
Foundation
Excavation
v
3,4
1
2
Tunnel
5
ML at a constant axial
strain rate of
0.03 %/min
Ageing for
three days
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Development of
High stiff quasi-elastic zone
Consolidation
Ageing
Yielding
TestA11BPSC
Test w
i
c/s
d
A11APSC 22.378 4.349 1.231
A11BPSC 21.595 4.323 1.241
A11CPSC 21.779 4.322 1.237

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
,

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain, , (%)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Consolidation of
TestA11BPSC
Consolidation of
TestA11CPSC
Consolidation of
TestA11APSC
Yielding
Ageing
TestA11APSC
TestA11BPSC
TestA11CPSC
Test w
i
c/s
d
A11APSC 22.378 4.349 1.231
A11BPSC 21.595 4.323 1.241
A11CPSC 21.779 4.322 1.237
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
,

(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean stress, p', (kPa)
Ageing for
three days
Ageing for
20 hours
Ageing for
20 hours
Ageing for
three days
Development of high
stiffness zone
Yielding
Yielding
Yielding
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Consolidation of
TestA11BPSC
Consolidation of
TestA11APSC and TestA11CPSC
Ageing
Yielding
TestA11APSC
TestA11BPSC
TestA11CPSC
Test w
i
c/s
d
A11APSC 22.378 4.349 1.231
A11BPSC 21.595 4.323 1.241
A11CPSC 21.779 4.322 1.237
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
,

(
k
P
a
)
Shear strain, , (%)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Consolidation of
TestA11BPSC
Consolidation of
TestA11CPSC
Consolidation of
TestA11APSC
Yielding
Ageing
TestA11APSC
TestA11BPSC
TestA11CPSC
Test w
i
c/s
d
A11APSC 22.378 4.349 1.231
A11BPSC 21.595 4.323 1.241
A11CPSC 21.779 4.322 1.237
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q
,

(
k
P
a
)
Effective mean stress, p', (kPa)
Ageing for three
days at point A
Ageing for
20 hours
Ageing for three
days at point A
The size and shape of
high stiffness zone is
controlled by the ageing
at a fixed point A,
independent of the
previous stress path .
Yielding
Ageing for
20 hours
Yielding
Test A11A4
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
400 600 800 200
0
0
Effective mean stress, p' (kPa)
Test A11A3
Test A11A1
Test A11A2
Test A11A5
Test A11APSC
1200 1000
400
600
800
200
1200
1400
1600
1000
1800
Estimated ultimate failure line
for uncemented sand
d
= 1.275 gf/cm
3
(After Barbosa Cruz, 1998)
Yield surface
Tension cut-off ;
q = 3p'
Ultimate failure line for
cement-mixed sand
Estimated potentially dilative
zone
Yield point
Ultimate stress
Ultimate stress for uncemented sand
d
= 1.275 gf/cm
3
(After Barbosa Cruz, 1998)
Aging at q= 700kPa
for 3 days
Isotropic consolidation for
20 hours
Ageing for three
days at point A
Yield locus
developed by
ageing at point A
Dilatant zone
Tension cut-off
Failure envelope in the case
of no ageing at point A
We could see part of
the yield locus, but
the whole yield locus
is not known yet.
Development of a large high-stiffness zone by viscous and
ageing effects during sustained loading:
Another example with soft clay:
- a natural water content, higher by 6.6 % than the liquid limit
- mixed with ordinary Portland cement of 3.5 % of clay by dry
weight (or 40 kg/m
3
for the mixed material).
(Sugai et al., 2003)
Tachibana Bay in Shikoku; construction of a high
embankment using a lightly cement-mixed soft clay
dredged from the seabed
1) A high water content= 49.7 %
2) Achieving a high cost-effectiveness
while ensuring the necessary
safety
Reclamation work
to construct a
coal electric
power plant
50 m-high embankment
Questions:
How safe could this construction method be?.
How much is the deformation of the embankment
during the construction: if too large, tension cracks
would develop somewhere in the embankment,
which leads to a long-term deterioration of the
cement-mixed soil.
How much is the long-term deformation of the
complete embankment?
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Yield point
during isotropic
compression
Yield lucus
(type 3)
Yield point
during TC loading
Peak stress states
of isotropically
consolidated
specimens
Anisotropic compression
(K=0.5)
Loading at
constant q
TC loading
at constnat
3
Drained creep (ageing)
for 7 days
(stress point A)
Peak stress states of specimens
aged at point A
Yield locus
(type 2)
Yield locus
(type 1)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Drained triaxial compression at a constant strain rate
and at constant confining pressure after isotropic
compression drained
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Yield point
during isotropic
compression
Yield lucus
(type 3)
Yield point
during TC loading
Peak stress states
of isotropically
consolidated
specimens
(K=0.5)
Loading at
constant q
TC loading
at constnat
3
for 7 days
(stress point A)
aged at point A
Yield locus
(type 2)
Yield locus
(type 1)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
1) monotonic anisotropic compression at a constant strain rate
2) drained creep for one week at stress point A
3) drained TC at a constant strain rate along three different stress
paths
0 2 4 6
0
200
400
600
Axial strain,
1
(LDT) (%)
Yield point
(type 2)
Yield point
(type 1)
q=constant loading
following ageing at point A
Anisotropic
compression (K=0.5)
for 7 days (stress point A)
TC loading at constant
3
following aging at point A
Anisotopic compression (K=0.5)
Continuous anisotropic
compression (K=0.5)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
1 10 100 1000
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
c
Yield point
(type 2)
Yield point
(type 1)
a-b: anisotropic compression (K=0. 5)
b-c: drained creep for 7 days
at stress point A
c-d: q=constant loading
d
a
b

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

v
o
l

(
%
)
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Yield point
during isotropic
compression
Yield lucus
(type 3)
Yield point
during TC loading
Peak stress states
of isotropically
consolidated
specimens
(K=0.5)
Loading at
constant q
TC loading
at constnat
3
for 7 days
(stress point A)
aged at point A
Yield locus
(type 2)
Yield locus
(type 1)

D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
A high stiffness around stress
point A when monotonic
loading is restarted at a
constant strain rate along the
three different stress paths
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
100
200
300
400
500
Multiple loading of:
anisotropic compression at K= 0.5
and creep loading for 4 days
A
B
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11 (number of
creep loading stage)
10
Drained TC at constant '
3
Test 1
Test 2

D
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i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Seven days in actual
construction
Stress paths for multiple loading tests (tests 1 & 2)
simulating the field stress paths, cement-mixed clay.
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Test 1
b
Drained TC at constant '
3
d
Externally measured axial strain
compression (
1
: LDT)
c
a
Multiple loading of:
and creep loading
(
1
: LDT)

Axial strain,
1
(%)
D
e
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i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
q- relations at small strains from multiple loading
test 1 of anisotropic compression and creep
loading, cement-mixed clay.
q- relations from CD TC tests along various loading
histories on cement-mixed clay.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Axial strain,
a
(LDT) (%)
Yield point
(type 2)
Yield point
(type 1)
q= constant loading
Anisotropic
compression (K= 0.5)
Drained creep for 7 days (point A)
TC loading at constant
3
following aging at point A
Anisotopic compression (K= 0.5)
with ageing at point A
compression (K= 0.5)

D
e
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i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Fast loading followed
by creep loading
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
100
200
300
400
500
c
Test 2
Test 1
Test 1:
b-c: step creep loading and anisotropic compression
c-d: TC at constant '
3
d
b
a
compression
Step creep loading
followed by TC

Axial strain,
1
(LDT) (%)
D
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a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(
k
P
a
)
Overall q- relations of tests 1 & 2 .
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Elastic behaviour
in TC at constant '
3
Step creep
loading (test 2)
Unconfined compression
(
1
: external, E
50
=100 MPa)
Standard oedometer tests
Step creep
loading (test 1)
In-situ (c)
In-situ (b)
In-situ (a)

Vertical strain,
1
(%)
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

'
1

(
k
P
a
)
Comparison of relations from field full-scale
behaviour and laboratory stress-strain tests.
Simulation of ageing effects
Ageing effects: changes with time in the material
property (i.e., elastic, plastic and viscous
properties)
- Positive (e.g., development with time of
cementation or bonding at inter-particle contacts)
- Negative (e.g., deterioration by weathering with
time of cementation or bonding at inter-particle
contacts or particle strength or both)
Positive and negative ageing effects
Four conceptual experiments:
(a) No ageing at = 0. ML at a high constant strain rate (t
c
= 600 seconds at = 5 %
(b) No ageing at = 0. ML at a low constant strain rate (t
c
= 87,00 seconds at = 5 %
(c) Aged at = 0 for 86,400 seconds, followed by ML at a high constant strain rate (t
c
= 87,00
seconds at = 5 %
(d) No ageing at = 0. ML at a high constant strain rate with intermediate creep loading for
86,400 seconds (t
c
= 87,000 seconds at = 5 %
t
c
: the time having a
specified fixed
origin defined at
the start of ageing,
not arbitrary
general time.
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

Negative ageing function:
A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
Positive ageing function:
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Positive ageing
Positive and negative ageing effects
c
c
= 87,00 seconds at = 5 %
c
= 87,00
seconds at = 5 %
86,400 seconds (t
c
= 87,000 seconds at = 5 %
t
c
: the time having a
specified fixed
origin defined at
the start of ageing,
not arbitrary
general time.
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Negative ageing
Yielding, defined by > 0, which is relevant when:
(yield stress, subjected to the ageing effects); and
( , ) ( , )
[ ] [ ]
f f
t y t
=
( , ) ( , )
[ ] [ ]
f f
t y t
d d

=
Key equations for the inviscid stress,
f
:
ir
d
Non-yielding:
( , ) ( , )
[ ] [ ]
f
t t
d d

=
0
ir
d =
( , ) ( , )
[ ] [ ]
f f
t y t
p
defined by ,
which is relevant when:
; and
0
v
d = ( , because )
0
ir
=
&
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Inviscid stress:
1
,
( , )
( , )
, 0
[ ] [ ]
ir
c
ir
ir
c
t
f f
t
t
t
d

= =
=

1
0
( , )
0
0
0
[ ] ( )
( ) { ( ( )) 1.0}
{ ( ( )) } ( )
ir
c
ir
ir
c
f f ir
y
t
f f
t
f f ir f f
t
E A t d
a t b t dt

=
=
= +
+

+

The current yield stress:

Ageing effects
Ageing effects on the inviscid stress,
f
:
( , )
( , ) ( , )
( , )
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
ir ir ir
c c c
f f f
t
d t dt t
f ir
t c
d
d for d and dt

+ +
= +
is obtained referring to .
( , )
[ ]
f
y t
d

0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Yield stress increment for the inviscid stress when moving from point a to point c:
( , ) ( ) ( 0)
0 0
0 0 0
[ ] [ ( , )] [ ( , )]
( ) ( ( )) { ( ( )) } ( )
( ) ( ) { ( ( )) 1.0} { ( ( )) } ( )
ir ir ir
c
f f ir ir
y
t
f f f f ir f f
f f f f f ir f f
d E t d F t dt
E A t d a t b t dt
E d E A t d a t b t dt

= =
= +
= + +

= + + +

& &
Two components by ageing effects
the basic relation that is independent of ageing effect
f
y
( 0)
( , )
ir
f ir
F t dt
=

&
( )
( , )
ir
f ir
E t d

=

&
ir
( , )
[ ]
f
y t
d

d
,t a( )
, d t + b( )
, d t dt + + c( )
d +
f
y
( 0)
( , )
ir
f ir
F t dt
=

&
( )
( , )
ir
f ir
E t d

=

&
ir
( , )
[ ]
f
y t
d

d
,t a( ) ,t a( )
, d t + b( ) , d t + b( )
, d t dt + + c( ) , d t dt + + c( )
d +
- relation
1
0 0
( ) ( )
ir
ir
f ir f
E d

=

=

ir
Yield stress increment for the inviscid stress when moving from point a to point c:
( , ) ( ) ( 0)
0 0
0 0 0
[ ] [ ( , )] [ ( , )]
( ) ( ( )) { ( ( )) } ( )
( ) ( ) { ( ( )) 1.0} { ( ( )) } ( )
ir ir ir
c
f f ir ir
y
t
f f f f ir f f
f f f f f ir f f
d E t d F t dt
E A t d a t b t dt
E d E A t d a t b t dt

= =
= +
= + +

= + + +

& &
Component that develops by an
increase in the irreversible strain,
d, at a fixed time; and
increase in the time, dt, at a fixed
irreversible strain.
( 0.0) 1.0
f
c
A t = =
( )
f
c
A t
: the ageing function,
f
y
( 0)
( , )
ir
f ir
F t dt
=

&
( )
( , )
ir
f ir
E t d

=

&
ir
( , )
[ ]
f
y t
d

d
,t a( )
, d t + b( )
, d t dt + + c( )
d +
f
y
( 0)
( , )
ir
f ir
F t dt
=

&
( )
( , )
ir
f ir
E t d

=

&
ir
( , )
[ ]
f
y t
d

d
,t a( ) ,t a( )
, d t + b( ) , d t + b( )
, d t dt + + c( ) , d t dt + + c( )
d +
- relation
1
0 0
( ) ( )
ir
ir
f ir f
E d

=

=

ir
Current yield stress for the inviscid stress:

1
0
( , )
0 0
0
[ ] ( )
( ) { ( ( )) 1.0} { ( ( )) } ( )
ir
c
ir
c
ir
f f ir
y
t
t
f f f f ir f f
t
E A t d a t b t dt

= =
= +

+ +

increase in the irreversible strain
at a fixed time; and
increase in the time a fixed
irreversible strain.
( 0.0) 1.0
f
c
A t = =
( )
f
c
A t
: the ageing function,
- relation
1
0 0
( ) ( )
ir
ir
f ir f
E d

=

=

ir
c
t
ir
1
( , 0)
ir
t =
( , )
ir
c
t
( , )
[ ]
ir
c
f
y
t
: may be loading history

-dependent
Two components by ageing effects
1
0
( , )
0 0
0
[ ] ( )
( ) { ( ( )) 1.0} { ( ( )) } ( )
ir
c
ir
c
ir
f f ir
y
t
t
f f f f ir f f
t
E A t d a t b t dt

= =
= +

+ +

The current yield stress for the inviscid stress:
1
1
0 0
( , )
0
0
0
[ ] ( ) ( ( ) { ( ( )) } ( )
( )
( ( ) ( ( ))
ir
c
ir
ir
c
ir
c
ir
t
f f f f f ir f f
y
t
t
f f
t
f f ir
o c
t
E A t d a t b t dt
A t
A t d t dt
t
= =
= =
= + +

= +

( , )
0
[ ]
( , ) ( ) ( )
ir
c
f
y
t
f ir f ir f
y c c
t A t

=
=
(assumed in the simulation)
When a
f
= 1.0 & b
f
= 0.0 and
( )
( )
f
f
c
c
A t
t
t
A potential function is obtained and becomes loading history-independent:

( , )
[ ]
ir
c
f
y
t
Viscous stress;
TESRA viscosity is assumed in the simulation:

( )
f ir v
= +

v
=
1 1
( , ) ( )
{ } ( ) ( )
ir ir
ir
ir ir
f i ir
deca
r
v y
v
g d g d

= =

=

&

( 0; 0)
v
or

Decay function:
( )
1
( )
ir
ir
decay
g r

=
It is also assumed that is independent of ageing effects; and
the elastic stiffness is independent of ageing (this is an approximation).
( )
ir
v
g
&
In test (d) with positive ageing:
(1) Creep perfectly stops soon after
the start of creep loading.
(2) The yield stress,
f
y
, is always
increasing befofe and after the
stop of creep deformation during
sustained loading.
(3) Upon the restart of ML at a
constant strain rate, we observe;
a) a large stress range in which
the stress-strain behaviour is
very stiff,
b) followed by a clear yielding
with overshooting (due to the
TESRA viscous property); and
c) rejoining to the original stress-
strain relation by test (c) (i.e.,
linear ageing effects assumed).
Test (d) No ageing at = 0. ML at a high constant strain rate with intermediate
sustained loading for 86,400 seconds (t
c
= 87,000 seconds at = 5 %
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Positive ageing
Time histories of stress and strain
in tests (a), (b), (c) and (d) with
positive ageing.
Creep and post-creep stages in
test (d) with positive ageing:
1) ML at the initial stage.
2) End of ML
3) Increase in at a
constant .
f
y
f
=
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Positive ageing
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

Test (d)
f
y
Test (c): and
f
=
f
y
Test (a): and
f
=
f
y

and
Test (d)
ir
Tet (d): and

ir
Test (a): and
ir

Elapsed time, t
c
(second)
0
1
2
Test (d)

f
y
Test (b),

and
f
=
f
y
Test (c),
and
f
=
f
y
Test (a),
and
f
=
f
y
Viscous: TESRA
Positive ageing
0 20000 40000 60000 80000

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
ir
and
ir
ir
and
ir
Elapsed time, t
c
(second)
Time histories of stress and strain
in tests (a), (b), (c) and (d) with
positive ageing.
2) End of ML
3) Increase in at a
constant .
4) End of creep and restart of
ML.
5) Increase in at a
constant (i.e., rigid
behaviour) .
f
y
f
=
f
=
f
y
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Positive ageing
Time histories of stress and strain in
tests (a), (b), (c) and (d) with positive
ageing.
2) End of ML
3) Increase in at a
constant .
4) End of creep and restart of
ML.
5) Increase in at a
constant (i.e., rigid
behaviour) .
f
y
f
=
f
=
f
y
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Positive ageing
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

f
y
Viscous: TESRA
Positive ageing
Test (d)
86650 86700 86750 86800 86850 86900

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
ir
Elapsed time, t
c
(second)
End of creep stage
Start of yielding
Viscous stress
Test (d) with positive ageing
Creep and post-creep stages
in test (d) with positive
ageing:
6) Start of yielding after the
restart of ML
7) Stress-overshooting
8) Clear yielding point
9) Rejoining to the stress-strain
relation of test (c)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

f
y
Viscous: TESRA
Positive ageing
Test (d)
86650 86700 86750 86800 86850 86900

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
ir
Elapsed time, t
c
(second)
End of creep stage
Start of yielding
Viscous stress
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Positive ageing
c
c
= 87,00 seconds at = 5 %
c
= 87,00
seconds at = 5 %
86,400 seconds (t
c
= 87,000 seconds at = 5 %
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Negative ageing
In test (d) with negative ageing:
The rate of creep strain is
accelerated from sometime
after the start of creep
loading, resulting into the
ultimate creep failure.
Time histories of stress and strain in tests (a), (b), (c) and (d)
with negative ageing.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Test (d),
f
=
f
y

Test (b), and

f
=
f
y
Test (c), and
f
=
f
y
Test (a),
and
f
=
f
y
Viscous: TESRA
Negative ageing
0 20000 40000 60000 80000

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
and
ir
ir
and
ir
and
ir

Elapsed time, t
c
(second)
Peak strength in test (c)
before the peak strength is
attained in the basic stress-strain
relation (without ageing effects)
Acceleration of creep strain rate
in test (d)
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Negative ageing
Test (d) with negative ageing
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
f
=
f
y

Viscous: TESRA, Negative ageing, Test (d)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 22000
0
2
4
6
8
10
ir
Elapsed time, t
c
(second)
Creep failure
test (d) with negative ageing:
2) Start of decrease in
at a constant .
3) becomes the
same with , and start of
increase in .
4) Uncontrolled large ,
leading to creep failure.
f f
y
=
ir
&
f f
y
=
ir
&
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

A
f
(t
c
)=(exp(-t
c
/60000)+1)/2
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(a)
A
f
(t
c
)=(log
10
(10*(t
c
+60000)/60000))
TESRA viscosity
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain, (%)
Negative ageing

3
4
10 c =
&
c =
&
0
0: ( )
ir
= =
&
0
1
2
Creep failure in case of no ageing

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0
400
800
1200

Simulation
A(t
c
) = log
10
( ( 10 + ( t
c
/ 86400 ) ) / 10 )
TESRA ( r
1
= 0.001 )
C11APSC
Cc11APSC
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(

k
P
a

)
A11APSC
Axial strain,
a
(%)
Another example: cement-mixed poorly graded sand
Due to both viscous property
and ageing effects, the stress-
strain behaviour of cement-
mixed soil (and natural soil)
becomes very stiff for a large
stress range when monotonic
loading is restarted after creep
loading.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
600
800
1000

Experiment
A11APPSC
Simulation

a

(
%
)
f
(inviscid stress)
f
y
(yield inviscid stress)
Simulation

q

(
k
P
a
)
Elapsed time (min)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0
400
800
1200
C11APSC
A11APSC
Cc11APSC

Cement-mixed Aomori sand
D
e
v
i
a
t
o
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

q

(

k
p
a

)
Axial strain,
a
(%)
Aged for three days
Remark: another model to simulate the ageing effects by
successively adding linear three-component models
&
Linear elastic component;

Linear elastic
component:
Linear viscous component;
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
1
2
3
4
0
1+2+3+4
0
( ) =
& &
1
0
( ) =
& &
1 ( 0) =
&
a
b
a-b: creep for an infinite period when
components 2, 3 & 4 are not added during creep.
&

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
1
2
3
4
0
1+2+3+4
0
( ) =
& &
1
0
( ) =
& &
1 ( 0) =
&
a
b
c
a-c: creep for a
finite period when
components 2, 3
& 4 are added
during creep.
&

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
1
2
3
4
0
1+2+3+4
0
( ) =
& &
1
0
( ) =
& &
1 ( 0) =
&
a
b
c
a-c: creep for a
finite period when
components 2, 3
& 4 are added
during creep.
Model behaviour at
after components 2, 3 & 4
were added during creep: the
strain increment a-c is not fully
recovered during loading from
state c, because the newly
added components have not
been strained until state c.
0
=
& &
&

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
1
2
3
4
0
1+2+3+4
0
( ) =
& &
1
0
( ) =
& &
1 ( 0) =
&
a
b
c
a-c: creep for a
finite period when
components 2, 3
& 4 are added
during creep.
Actual behaviour during loading
at from state c: the
creep strain increment a-c is
fully recovered during loading
from state c.
0
=
& &
Model behaviour at
after components 2, 3 & 4
were added during creep: the
strain increment a-c is not fully
recovered during loading from
state c, because the newly
0
=
& &
&

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
f

Linear elastic
component:
1
2
3
4
0
1+2+3+4
0
( ) =
& &
1
0
( ) =
& &
1 ( 0) =
&
a
b
c
* To simulate this behaviour by following the adding model, the added
components 2, 3 & 4 should have been strained until reaching state c.
The data of cement-mixed
soil showed that the post-
creep strength is even
higher than the strength*.
The behaviour of the adding
model upon the restart of ML at
after components 2, 3
& 4 were added during creep:
the strain increment a-c is not
fully recovered during loading
from state c, because the newly
0
=
& &
The adding model is not relevant to geomaterials.
q
p
b) with ageing effects (such as those by
cementation).
We do not know well the shape and
size of this high stiffness zone and the
effects of ageing on them.
2 1
a relatively short period at
point A following relatively fast
ML along stress paths 1 and 2
Summary
1) Time effects consist of loading rate effects due to viscous
propertyand ageing effects, which are due to different
mechanisms.
2) Careful and systematic laboratory tests are required for the
study on the time-dependent deformation properties of
geomaterials (as always).
3) The viscous property of different types of geomaterial can be
represented by the rate-sensitivity coefficient and the decay
parameter r
1
:
Summary
4) The rate-sensitivity coefficient :
a) with sand & gravel, the effects on of pore water, confining
pressure, void ratio, stress paths (TC &TE) are insignificant;
b) with compacted oven-dried clay powder, sand & gravel, the
effects of particle size on are insignificant for a very wide
range of D
50
; the value tends to increase with U
c
;
c) the value of saturated clay is larger than compacted oven-
dried clay powder and it decreases by ageing.
5) The increment of the viscous stress component that develops
at a certain strain, , (denoted as [d
v
]
()
):
a) is generally persistent (i.e., r
1
= 1.0; the isotach viscosity) with
plastic clay and cemented material; and
b) decreases with an increase in the irreversible strain (r
1
less
than 1.0; the TESRA viscosity) typically with poorly graded
sands.
Summary (continued)
6) The non-linear three-component model is relevant to simulate
the viscous property of a wide range of geomaterial.
7) With well-compacted cement-mixed well-graded gravel, more
positive effects of ageing were attained when aged at more
anisotropic stress states.
8) When positive ageing effects are active during sustained
loading, the stress-strain behaviour becomes very stiff for a
large range of stress upon the restart of monotonic loading at a
constant strain following sustained loading.
9) To take into account the ageing effects in the three-component
model, the yield stress for the inviscid stress that develops for
positive ageing and shrinks for negative ageing should be
introduced.
Summary of the lecture
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

0 Shear strain,
Rate effects
Strain softening
Peak strength
Non-linear pre-peak
(Hypo) Elasticity
Plasticity
Viscosity
Shear banding with
Inherent anisotropy
Ageing effect
Pressure-dependency
Dilatancy
Summary of the lecture
Elasticity: Geomaterial exhibits quasi-elastic stress-strain
behaviour at strains less than, typically, about 0.001 %.
Non-linear pre-peak stress-strain behaviour: Effects of both shear
and compression preloading histories could be significant.
Effects on confining pressure on stress-strain behaviour: The
stress ratio shear strain volumetric strain relations of granular
material becomes more independent of pressure level as the
pressure level becomes lower.
Inherent anisotropy: Effects of inherent anisotropy on the stress-
strain behaviour at very small strains are insignificant, but they
increase with strain, showing significant strength anisotropy, and
then decrease in the post-peak regime and have disappeared
until the residual state is reached. (to continue)
Summary of the lectures (continued)
Shear banding: the shear stress shear deformation
characteristics of shear band are controlled mainly by particle
size (and other secondary factors), which result in significant
particle size effects in the collapse load in typical boundary
value problems of geotechnical engineering.
Time effects: Time effects consist of two components, viscous
effects and ageing effects, which are due to different
mechanisms. Poorly graded sand exhibits a specific feature of
viscosity (i.e., decay with an increase in strain). The viscous
property of a wide range of geomaterial can be expressed by
two parameters (i.e., the rate-sensitivity coefficient, , and the
decay parameter, r
1
).
The final remark:
It seems that laboratory stress-strain tests have
recently become less popular,
perhaps because:
1) it is very difficult to retrieve high-quality
undisturbed samples in many occasions;
2) laboratory tests are often considered to be less
direct (so less useful) than field tests for design
purposes; and
3) laboratory tests are just painstaking
and time-consuming,
particularly for graduate students.
In many cases, however:
1) more proper characterisation of stress-strain
properties becomes possible with help of
relevant laboratory stress-strain tests,
resulting into more rational (safer or more
cost-effective) design; and
2) proper understanding of the stress-strain-time
behaviour of geomaterials, which is essential
for rational design, becomes possible with help
of relevant laboratory stress-strain tests.
I believe that
geotechnical engineering is
still young and full of wonders,
if we could be free from a number
of classical and modern myths !
Thank you for your attentions !
Derivation of
2
s
G V =

x
1

Homogeneous isotropic linear elastic media
(density: , shear modulus G) dx
x

Propagation of dx
shear wave at a velocity of V
s
dy

0 u (lateral displacement)

1) and dx
x
arethe shear stresses acting at the bottom and top surfaces of an element.

2) The equation of motion for this element is:

2
2
u
dx dy dx dy
x t

+ =

(1)
2
2
u
x t

=

(2)

3) For an isotropic linear elastic material, the stress-strain property of soil is:

u
G G
x

= =
(G: shear modulus, constant) (3)

4) Equation of motion: For a homogeneous soil deposit, we have 0
G
x
. In this case, by
substituting Eq. 3 into Eq. 2, we have:

2 2
2
u
G
2
u
x t

=

(4)

By using the parameter
s
G
V
= , Eq. 4 becomes:

2 2
2
2
s
u u
V
2
x t

=

(5)

5) Solution: As the displacement u is a function of the time t and the coordinate x, we can assume:

( , ) ( ) ( ) u x t X x T t = (6)


2 2
2
2
s
2
X T
V T X
x t
(7)
2 2
2
2 2
1 1
2
s n
X T
V
X x T t

= =

(8)

where
n
is a constant, not a function of x and t. The general solution of Eq. 8 is:

{ }
1 2
1
exp( ) exp( )
n n n n
n
T A i t A i
=
= +
t (9a)
1 2
1
exp( ) exp( )
n n
n n
n
s s
X B i x B i x
V V

=

= +

(9b)


1
exp{ ( ) }
n n
n
s
x
u T X C i t
V

=

= =

(9c)

Another form of the solution is:

{ }
1 2 3 4
1
n n n n n n n n
n
T A t A t A t A t
=
= + + +
(10a)
1 2 3 4
1
n n n
n n n n
n
s s s
n
s
X B x B x B x B
V V V

=

= + + +

x
V
(10b)


1 2
1
sin{ ( ) } cos{ ( ) }
n n n
n
s s
x
u T X C t C t
V V
n
x

=

= = +

(10c)

2

6) Implications of the solution:

x
t=t
1
+dt

u(x
1
+dx,t
1
+dt)
3

Vertical propagation
of shear wave t=t
1

0 u

u(x
1
,t
1
)
x
1
x
1
+dx

In the figure above, the vertical propagation of shear wave is illustrated. The phase of u moves
as above when the time elapses from t
1
to t
1
+dt. The phase velocity is defined as:

Phase velocity=
dx
dt
(11)

Here, we have:

1 1 1 1
( , ) ( , ) u x t u x dx t dt = + + (12)

By substituting Eqs. 9c or 10c into Eq. 12, we obtain:

1 1
1 1
s s
x x dx
t t dt
V V
+
= + (13a)
s
dx
V
dt
= (13b)

Eq. 13b means that V
s
is the phase velocity of shear wave.
s
dx
V
dt
= and
s
dx
V
dt
= mean,
respectively, upward and downward propagating shear waves.

7) Shear strain: Referring to Eq. 9c or Eq. 10c, the shear strain is obtained as:

s
u
u particle velocity
t
x V phase velocity

= = =
(14)

The particle velocity can be directly measured in the field.
Conventional Linear Theory for Pressure-meter Tests

1. Purpose of the test:
To evaluate the stiffness of the ground.

1

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 (*: two quantities only measured)
o
Balloon
Bore hole
z
r
o

u
0
: lateral
displacement at
the wall face*
r
p: pressure
applied to the
bore hole
wall*
u: lateral
displacement
in the ground

2. Linear theory
Strain changes (positive in compression) due to the horizontal displacement in the ground (u):
rr
u
r
(1)
u
r
= (2)
0
zz
= (3)

rr

dr
r
( )
rr
rr
r
r
(assuming the plane strain conditions;

relevant when using a long enough balloon)

Strain changes by stress changes (positive in compression) in the
ground:
[ ]
1
( )
rr rr zz
E

= + (4)
[ ]
1
( )
zz rr
E

= + (5)
[
1
(
zz zz rr
E

= + ] ) (6) Fig. 3

Equilibrium of stress:
( )
2 ( ) 2 2
rr
rr rr
r r r r
r

+ + = +

r
(7a) (see Fig. 3)

( )
0
rr rr
r r
=
(7b)

As 7 unknowns ( , , , , , ,
rr zz rr zz
u

) versus 7 equations, we can find the solution.

Deleting
zz
:
(
zz rr
)
= + (8)
2 2
1
)
rr rr rr
E

=

(9)
2 2
1
(1 ) ( )
rr rr
E

= +

(9a)
[
1
(1 )
rr rr
E
]

+
= (9b)
[
1
(1 )
2
rr rr
G
]
= (9c)
Similarly, by substituting Eq. 8 into Eq. 5, we obtain:
[
1
(1 )
2
rr
G

] = (10)
(
1
2
rr rr
G
)
=

(11)
2
1
2 ( )
rr
u u
G
r r r
r

= +
(12)

Deleting
:
{ }
2 2
1 1
(1 ) (1 )
2 2
rr rr rr
G G

+ = =

(13)
1 2
(1 )
2
rr
u u
r r G

+ =

(14a)
By rearranging Eq. 14a, we obtain:
2
(1 )
1 2
rr
G u
r r

= +

u
(14b)

By partially derivating Eq. 14b with respect to r, we obtain:
2
2 2
2 1
(1 )
1 2
rr
G u u
r r r

= +

u
r r
(14c)

2
Solutions from Eqs. 7b, 12 and 14c:
By substituting Eqs. 12 and 14c into Eq. 7b and by rearranging, we obtain the strain compatibility
equation:
2
2
2
0
u u
r r u
r r

+ =

(15)
Note that this does not include any material properties.

The solution of Eq. 15 is:

2
2 2
, ,
a u a u
u
r r r r

= = =

3
2
a
r
r
(16a)
By using the known value u
0
at the wall face (r
0
= ), we obtain:
0 0
u r a
u
r r
= = (17a)
0 0 0
2 2
0 0
u r u u a
r r r r

= = =
(17b)

3

Fig. 4
0
0
a
u
r
=
0
r
: 0 r u
0
r
0 0
u r a
u
r r
= =
(measured)

By substituting Eq. 17b into Eq. 14a at the wall face (
0
r r = ), we obtain:
0 0
0 0
1 2
(1 )
2
u u
p
r r G

+ =

(18)
0
0 0
2 ;
2
u p
p G G
r u
= =
0
r
(19) (the solution is independent of the Poissons ratio)

p
2G
1
0

Fig.5
0
0
u
r

The strains at the wall face are:
[ ] [ ]
0 0
0
0
1 rr
r r r r
r r o
u u
r r

= =
=

= = =

(20)
[ ] [ ]
0 0
0
3
r r r r
o
u
r
=
= =
=
(21)
But, note that the strain is not uniform in the radial direction from the central axis of bore hole.

4

The soil is assumed to be isotropic linear-elastic.

x

1
Homogeneous linear isotropic elastic media
(density: , shear modulus: G) dx
x

Cross-section: A, mass M A L =

Shear wave velocity: dx
V
s
dy
0 u (horizontal displacement)

Fig. 1
0
( 0) sin u x a t = = Fig. 2
L
Mass: MA
A

It is assumed that the base is being forced to vibrate by the following input motion:

0
( 0) sin( u x a t) = = (15)

where is the angular frequency and f is the frequency ( 2 f = ). Eq. 10c is the general
solution for this case. Among those in Eq. 10c, only the term including sin( ) t can satisfies Eq.
15. Then Eq. 10c becomes:

1 2
( , ) sin sin
s s
u x t C t x C t x
V V

= + +

t
(16)

where C
1
and C
2
are the coefficients determined by the boundary conditions. By substituting
Eq.15 into Eq. 16 under the condition x=0, we obtain:

0 1 2
sin ( ) sin( ) a t C C = +
2
(17)
0 1
a C C = + (18)


1 0 1
( , ) sin ( ) sin
s s
u x t C t x a C t x
V V

= + +

(19)

At the resonance, we obtain that and Eq. 19 becomes:
0
0 a =

(
1 1
( , ) sin sin 2 sin cos
n n n
n n
s s s
u x t C t x t x C x t
V V V

= + =

)
n
(20)

Eq. 20 means that there exist two shear waves propagating upwards and downwards that have the
same amplitude of displacement while opposite signs, with a phase difference of (180
o
).
n
is
the angular frequency at resonance, which is obtained as follows:

The force equilibrium at the top of the media is:

2
2
0
A
x L
x L
u u
M A G
t x
=
=

+

=
(21)

At the resonance, we obtain the following from Eq. 20:

2
2 2
1 1
2
2 sin cos( ) 2 sin cos( )
n n
n n n
s s
x L
x L
u
C x t C L
t V V

=
=

= =

n
t
(22a)
1 1
2 cos cos( ) 2 cos cos( )
n n n n
n n
x L s s s s
x L
u
C x t C L
x V V V V

=
=

= =

t
(22b)

By substituting Eqs. 22a & 22b into Eq. 21, we obtain:

2
sin cos
n n
A n
s s
n
s
M L A G L
V V

=

V
(23)

The non-dimensional angular frequency at the resonance F is defined as:

n
s
L
F
V

= (24)

By using Eq. 24 and referring to the fact that M A L = , we obtain the following from Eq. 23:

tan
A
M
F F
M
= (25)

Accordingly, when M and M
A
are known, we can obtain the value of F from Eq. 25 and then by
substituting that value of F into Eq. 24, we obtain the value of
n
as:

s
n
V
F
L
= (26)

On the other hand, when the value of
n
is measured, the shear modulus G is obtained from the
2
following equations that is obtained from Eq.24:

n
s
L
V
F

= (27a)
2
n
L
G
F
(27b)

When M
A
=0, we obtain / 2 F = from Eq. 25. In this case, from Eq. 26, we obtain:

2
s
n
V
L
= (28a)
1
2 4
n
n
V
f
L
s
= = (28b)
or / 4
s n s n
V f V T L = =

3
List of papers (March 2003), F. Tatsuoka
Papers related to the lectures at the IHP, Paris
(29 March thourgh 6
th
April 2005) by Tatsuoka,F.
(V-1)

Papers: referred to in the lectures (including Tatsuoka as the author)
Papers: not referred to, but closely related to the lectures (including Tatsuoka as one of the authors)
Papers: referred to in the lectures (not including Tatsuoka as the author)

1) Henkel, D.J . & V.A. Sowa (1963): The influence of stress history in undrained triaxial tests on
clays, ASTM, STP361: 280-291.
2) Poorooshasb,H.B., Holubec,I. and Sherbourne,A.N. (1967): Yielding and flow of sand in triaxial
compression: Parts II and III, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.IV, No.4, pp.376-397.
3) Marachi,N.D, Chan,C.K., Seed,H.B. and Duncan,J .M. (1969): Strength and deformation
characteristics of rockfill materials, Report No.TE-69-5, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Institute of
Transportation and Traffic Engineering, University of California.
4) Poorooshasb,H.B. (1971): Deformation of sand in triaxial compression, Proc., 4
th
Asian
Regional Conf. on SMFE, Bangkok, Vol.1. pp.63-66.
5) Arthur,J .R.F. and Menzies,B.K. (1972): Inherent anisotropy in a sand, Geotechnique, Vol.22,
No.1, pp115-138.
6) Oda,M. (1972): Initial fabrics and their relation to mechanical properties of granular materials,
Soils and Foundations, Vol.12, No.1, pp.17-36.
7) Tatsuoka,F. (1972): A fundamental study of the deformation characteristics of sand by triaxial
apparatus, Ph.D. thesis, University of Tokyo (in J apanese).
8) Tatsuoka,F. and Ishihara,K. (1973), Stress path and dilatancy performance of sand, Proc. of 10
th

Int. Conf. on SMFE, Moscow, 1/64, pp.419-424.
9) Tatsuoka,F. and Ishihara,K. (1974a), Yielding of sand in triaxial compression, Soils and
Foundations (J ournal of J apanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering), Vol. 14,
No.2, pp.51-65.
10) Tatsuoka,F. and Ishihara,K. (1974b), Drained Deformation of sand under cyclic stresses reversing
direction, Soils and Foundations, Vol.14, No.3, pp.51-65.
11) Ishihara,K., Tatsuoka,F. and Yasuda,S. (1975), Undrained deformation and liquefaction of sand
under cyclic stresses, Soils and Foundations, Vol.15, No.1, pp.29-44.
12) Kuribayashi,E., Iwasaki,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1975), Effects of stress-strain conditions on dynamic
properties of sands, Proc. of Japanese Society of Civil Engineers, No.242, pp.105-114.
13) Tatsuoka,F. (1976), Stress-dilatancy relation of anisotropic sands in three dimensional stress
condition, Soils and Foundations, Vol.16, No.2, pp.1-18.
14) Iwasaki,T., and Tatsuoka,F. (1977), Effects of grain size and grading on dynamic shear moduli of
sands, Soils and Foundations, Vol.17, No.3, pp.19-35.
15) Hardin,B.O. (1978): The nature of stress-strain behavior for soils, Proc. Geotech. Div. Specialty
Conf. on Earthquake Eng. and Soil Dynamics, ASCE, Pasadena, I, 3-90.
16) Iwasaki,T., Tatsuoka,F. and Takagi,Y. (1978), Shear moduli of sands under cyclic torsional
loading, Soils and Foundations, Vol.18, No.1, pp.39-56.
17) Tatsuoka,F., Iwasaki,T., and Takagi,Y. (1978), Hysteretic damping of sands and its relation to
shear modulus, Soils and Foundations, Vol.18, No.2, pp.25-40.
18) Vermeer, P.A. (1978), A double hardening model for sand, Gotechnique, Vol. 28, No.4,
pp.413-433.
19) Roesler,S.K. (1979): Anisotropic shear modulus due to stress anisotropy, Jour. of GE Div., ASCE,
105-GT7, 871-880.
1
2
20) Tatsuoka,F., Iwasaki,T., Yoshida,S., Fukushima,S. and Sudo,H. (1979a), Shear modulus and
damping by drained tests of clean and specimens reconstituted by various methods, Soils and
Foundations, Vol.19, No.1, pp.39-54.
21) Tatsuoka,F., Iwasaki,T., Fukushima,S. and Sudo,H. (1979b), Stress conditions and stress histories
affecting shear modulus and damping of sand under cyclic loading, Soils and Foundations,
Vol.19, No.2, pp.29-43.
22) Tatsuoka,F. and Silver,M.L. (1980), A new method for the calibration of the inertia of
resonant-column devices, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.3, No.1, pp.30-34.
23) Tatsuoka,F. (1980), Stress-strain behavior of an idealized anisotropic granular material, Soils
and Foundations, Vol.20, No.3, pp.75-90.
24) Moroto, N. (1980), Shearing deformation of granular materials such as sand, Internal Report,
Department of Civil Engineering, Hachinohe Institute of Technology, Hachinohe, Aomori, J apan.
25) Tatsuoka,F. (1981), Simple method for automatic measurement of volume change in laboratory
tests, Soils and Foundations, Vol.21, No.3, pp.104-106.
26) Tatsuoka,F. and Molenkamp,F. (1983), Discussion on yield loci for sands, Mechanics of
Granular Materials: New Models and Constitutive Relations, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,
pp.75-87.
27) (1983)
22 4
28) Tatsuoka,F., Molenkamp,F., Torii,T., and Hino,T. (1984), Behavior of lubrication layers of
platens in element tests, Soils and Foundations, Vol.24, No.1, pp.113-128.
29) Fukushima,S. and Tatsuoka,F. (1984), Strength and deformation characteristics of saturated sand
at extremely low pressures, Soils and Foundations, Vol.24, No.4, pp.30-48.
30) Tatsuoka,F. and Haibara,O. (1985), Shear resistance between sand and smooth or lubricated
surfaces, Soils and Foundations, Vol.25, No.1, pp.89-98.
31) Tatsuoka,F. (1985), On the angle of interface friction for cohesionless soils, Soils and
32) Tatsuoka,F., Sakamoto,M., Kawamura,T. and Fukushima,S. (1986a), Strength and deformation
characteristics of sand in plane strain compression at extremely low pressures, Soils and
33) Tatsuoka,F., Goto,S. and Sakamoto,M. (1986b), Effects of some factors on strength and
deformation characteristics of sand at low pressures, Soils and Foundations, Vol.26, No.1,
pp.105-114.
34) Kong,X-J ., Tatsuoka,F. and Pradhan,T.B.S. (1986), Dynamic deformation properties of sand at
extremely low pressures, Proc. Japanese Symposium of Earthquake Eng., pp.631-636.
35) Tatsuoka,F., Sonoda,S., Hara,K., Fukushima,S., and Pradhan,T.B.S. (1986c), Failure and
deformation of sand in torsional shear, Soils and Foundations, Vol.26, No.4, pp.79-97.
36) Pradhan,T.B.S., Tatsuoka,F. and Molenkamp,F. (1986), Accuracy of automated volume change
measurement by means of a differential pressure transducer, Soils and Foundations, Vol.26, No.4,
pp.150-158.
37) Tani,K. (1986), Mechanism of bearing capacity of shallow foundation on sand, Master of
Engineering thesis, University of Tokyo (in J apanese).
38) Tatsuoka,F. (1987), Discussion on the paper by Bolton, Gotechnique, Vol.37, No.2,
pp.219-226.
39) Tatsuoka,F. (1988), Some recent developments in triaxial testing system for cohesionless soils,
ASTM STP No.977, pp.7-67.
40) Goto,S. and Tatsuoka,F. (1988), Effects of end conditions on triaxial compressive strength for
cohesionless soil, ASTM STP No.977, pp.692-705.
41) Lam,W-K. and Tatsuoka,F. (1988a), Triaxial compressive and extension strength of sand affected
by strength anisotropy and sample slenderness, ASTM STP No.977, pp.655-666.
3
42) Lam,W-K. and Tatsuoka,F. (1988b), Effect of initial anisotropic fabric and
2
on strength and
deformation characteristics of sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.28, No.1, pp.89-106.
43) Pradhan,T.B.S., Tatsuoka,F. and Horii,N. (1988a), Simple shear testing on sand in a torsional
shear apparatus, Soils and Foundations, Vol.28, No.2, pp.95-112.
44) Pradhan,T.B.S., Tatsuoka,F. and Horii,N. (1988b), Strength and deformation characteristics of
sand in torsional simple shear, Soils Foundations, Vol.28, No.3, pp.131-148.
45) Tatsuoka,F. and Pradhan,T.B.S. (1988), Shear strength of sand by plane strain compression tests
and simple shear tests, Proc. of the 8
th
Asian Regional Conf. on SMFE, Vol.2, pp.152-153.
46) Tatsuoka,F., Pradhan,Tej B.S. and Horii,N. (1988), Discussion on the paper by J ewell and Wroth,
Gotechnique Vol.38, No.1, pp.148-153.
47) Pradhan, Tej B.S., Tatsuoka,F. and Sato,Y. (1988c), Undrained stress strain behavior of sand
subjected to earthquake wave loading, Proc. of the 9
th
World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Vol.3, pp.267-272.
48) Pradhan,T.B.S., Tatsuoka,F. and Sato,Y. (1989), Experimental stress-dilatancy relations of sand
subjected to cyclic loading, Soils and Foundations, Vol.29, No.1, pp.45-64.
49) Pradhan,T.B.S. and Tatsuoka,F. (1989), On stress-dilatancy equations of sand subjected to cyclic
loading, Soils and Foundations, Vol.29, No.1, pp.65-81.
50) Ampadu,S. and Tatsuoka,F. (1989), An automated stress-path control triaxial system,
Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.12, No.3, pp.238-243.
51) Tatsuoka,F., Pradhan,T.B.S. and Yoshi-ie,H. (1989), A cyclic undrained simple shear testing
method for soils, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.12, No.4, pp.269-280.
52) Pradhan,T.B.S., Tatsuoka,F., Mohri,Y. and Sato,Y. (1989), An automated triaxial testing system
using a simple triaxial cell for soils, Soils and Foundations, Vol.29, No.1, pp.151-160.
53) Tatsuoka,F., Tani,K., Okahara,M., Morimoto,T., Tatsuta,M., Takagi,S. and Mori,H. (1989a),
Discussion on the Paper by Hettler and Gudehus, Soils and Foundations, Vol.29, No.4,
pp.146-154.
54) Tatsuoka,F., Huang,C-C., Morimoto,T. and Okahara,M. (1989b), Discussion on the Paper by
Graham et al., Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.26, No.4, pp.748-755.
55) Shibuya,S., Tatsuoka,F. and Kong,X.J . (1989), Discussion, Recent Developments in Laboratory
Strength and Deformation Testing, Proc. 12
th
ICSMFE, Rio de Janeiro, Vol.5, pp.2793-2794.
56) Tatsuoka,F. (1990), Discussion on the paper by Lade, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM,
Vol.13, No.1, pp.63-67.
57) Tatsuoka,F., Nakamura,S., Huang,C-C., and Tani,K. (1990), Strength anisotropy and shear band
direction in plane strain tests on sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.30, No.1, pp.35-54.
58) Huang,C-C. and Tatsuoka,F. (1990), Bearing capacity of reinforced horizontal sandy ground,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol.9, No.1, pp.51-82.
59) Tatsuoka,F., Shibuya,S., Goto,S., Sato,T. and Kong,X.J . (1990), Discussion on the Paper by
Clayton et al., Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol.13, No.1, March, pp.63-67.
60) Tatsuoka,F., Shibuya,S., Teachavorasinskun,S. and Park,C-S. (1990), Discussion on the Paper by
Bolton and Wilson, Gotechnique, Vol.40, No.4, pp.659-663.
61) Shibuya,S., Kong,X.J . and Tatsuoka,F. (1990b), Deformation characteristics of gravels subjected
to monotonic and cyclic loading - with particular reference to their small strain behaviour, Proc.
Japan Symposium Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, pp.771-776.
62) J amiolkowski,M., Leroueil,S., and Lo Presti,D.C.F. (1991): Design parameters from theory to
practice, Theme Lecture, Proc. Geo-Coast '91, Yokohama, 2, 877-917.
63) Stokoe,K.H.II, Lee,J .N.-K. and Lee, S.-H. (1991): Characterization of soil in calibration chambers
with seismic waves, Calibration Chamber Testing (Huang eds), Elsevier, 363-376.
64) Stokoe,K.H.II, Hwang,S.K. and Lee,J .N.-K. (1995): Effect of various parameters on the stiffness
and damping of soils at small strains, IS Hokkaido 94, 2, 785-816.
65) Shibuya,S., Tatsuoka,F., Park,C.-S., Teachavorasinskun,S. and Abe.,F., (1991), Elastic properties
4
of granular materials measured in the laboratory, Proc. of the 10
th
European Regional Conf. on
SMFE, Florence, Vol. 10, No.1, pp.163-166.
66) Teachavorasinskun,S., Shibuya,S., Tatsuoka,F., Kato,H. and Horii,N. (1991a), Stiffness and
damping of sands in torsion shear, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotech.
Earthquake Engnrg. and Soil Dynamics, March, St. Louis, Vol. I, pp.103-110.
67) Teachavorasinskun,S., Shibuya,S. and Tatsuoka,F. (1991b), Stiffness of sands in monotonic and
cyclic torsional simple shear, Proc. ASCE Geotechnical Engineering Congress, Boulder,
Geotechnical Special Publication, Vol.27, pp.863-878.
68) Tatsuoka,F., Okahara,M., Tanaka,T., Tani,K., Morimoto,T. and Siddiquee,M.S.A. (1991),
Progressive failure and particle size effect in bearing capacity of a footing on sand, Proc. ASCE
Geotech. Engineering Congress, 1991, Boulder, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication, Vol.27,
pp.788-802.
69) Woods,R.D. (1991): Field and laboratory determination of soil properties at low and high strains,
SOA paper, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering
and Soil Dynamics, St. Louis, pp.1727-1741.
70) Tatsuoka,F. and Huang,C.-C. (1991), Discussion of Bearing capacity of foundations in slopes
a

by Shields et al., Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol.117, No.12, pp.1970-1975.
71) Shibuya,S., Tatsuoka,F., Abe,F., Kim,Y.-S., Park,C-S. and Mukabi,J .N. (1991), A new look at
stress-strain relations of soils and soft rocks, Proc. of the 9
th
Asian Regional Conf. on SMFE,
Bangkok, Vol.1, pp.63-66.
72) Teachavorasinskun,S., Shibuya,S. and Tatsuoka,F. (1991b), Stiffness of sands in monotonic and
cyclic torsional simple shear, Proc. of the ASCE Geotechnical Engineering Congress 1991,
Boulder, Geotechnical Special Publication, Vol.27, pp.863-878.
73) Tatsuoka,F., Yamada,K., Yasuda,M., Yamada,S. and Manabe,S. (1991c), Cyclic undrained
behaviour of an undisturbed gravel for aseismic design of a bridge foundation, Proc. of the
Second Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics,
St Luois (Prakash eds.), Vol.1, pp.141-148.
74) Tatsuoka,F. and Shibuya,S. (1991), Deformation characteristics of soils and rocks from field and
laboratory tests, Keynote Lecture for Session No.1, Proc. of the 9
th
Asian Regional Conf. on
SMFE, Bangkok, Vol.II, pp.101-170.
75) Goto.S, Tatsuoka,F., Shibuya,S., Kim,Y.-S., and Sato,T.(1991), A simple gauge for local small
strain measurements in the laboratory, Soils and Foundations, Vol.31, No.1, pp.169-180.
76) Tatsuoka,F., Shibuya,S. and Teachavorasinskun,S. (1991), Discussion on the Paper by
Alarcon-Guzman et al., Soils and Foundations, Vol.31, No.2, pp.202-209.
77) Shibuya,S., Tatsuoka,F., Teachavorasinskun,S., Kong,X.J ., Abe,F., Kim,Y.S. and Park,C.-S.
(1992), Elastic Deformation Properties of Geomaterials, Soils and Foundations, Vol.32, No.3,
pp.26-46.
78) Ampadu,S.K. and Tatsuoka,F. (1992), Discussion on the Paper by Atkinson, J .H. et al.,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.29, No.5, pp. 874-877.
79) Tatsuoka,F., Siddiquee,M.S.A., Tanaka,T. and Okahara,M. (1992), A new Aspect of a very old
issue: Bearing capacity of footing on sand, Panel Discussion, Proc. of the 9
th
Asian Regional Conf.
on SMFE, Vol.2, pp.358-359.
80) Ampadu,S.K. and Tatsuoka,F. (1993), A hollow cylinder torsional simple shear apparatus capable
of a wide range of shear strain measurement, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.16, No.1,
pp.3-17.
81) Ampadu,S.K. and Tatsuoka,F. (1993), Effect of setting method on the behaviour of clays in
triaxial compression from saturation to undrained shear, Soils and Foundations, Vol.33, No.2,
pp.14-34.
82) Goto,S., Park,C.-S., Tatsuoka,F., and Molenkamp,F. (1993), Quality of the lubrication layer used
in element tests on granular materials, Soils and Foundations, Vol.33, No. 2, pp.47-59.
5
83) Tatsuoka,F., Siddiquee,M.S.A., Park,C.-S., Sakamoto,M. and Abe,F.(1993), Modeling
stress-strain relations of sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.33, No.2, pp.60-81.
84) Shibuya,S., Tatsuoka,F., Teachavorasinskun,S. and Kong,X.-J ., Abe,F., Kim,Y.-S. and Park,C.-S.
(1993), Elastic deformation properties of geomaterials (closure), Soils and Foundations, Vol.33,
No.4, pp.197-199.
85) Tatsuoka,F., Kohata,Y., Mizumoto,K. Kim,Y.-S., Ochi,K. and Shi,D. (1993), Measuring small
strain stiffness of soft rocks, Proc. of Inter. Conf. on Geotechnical Engineering of Hard Soils -
Soft Rocks, Vol.1, Balkema, pp.809-816.
86) Huang,C.-C., Tatsuoka,F., and Sato,Y. (1994), Failure mechanisms of reinforced sand slopes
loaded with a footing, Soils and Foundations, Vol.34, No.2, pp.27-40.
87) Huang,C.-C. and Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Stability analysis for footings on reinforced sand slopes,
88) Tatsuoka,F., Sato,T., Park,C.-S., Kim,Y.-S., Mukabi,J .N. and Kohata,Y. (1994), Measurements of
elastic properties of geomaterials in laboratory compression tests, Geotechnical Testing Journal
ASTM, Vol.17, No.1, pp.80-94.
89) Shibuya,S., Park,C.-S., Tatsuoka,F., .Abe,F., Teachavorasinskun,S., Kohata,Y. and Sato,T. (1994),
The significance of local lateral-strain measurement of soil specimens for a wide range of strain,
90) Goto,S., Park,C.-S., Tatsuoka,F., and Molenkamp,F. (1994), Quality of the lubrication layer used
in element tests on granular materials (closure), Soils and Foundations, Vol.34, No.3, pp.108.
91) Kim,Y.-S., Tatsuoka,F. and Ochi,K. (1994), Deformation characteristics at small strains of
sedimentary soft rocks by triaxial compression tests, Gotechnique, Vol.44, No.3, pp.461-478.
92) Siddiquee,M.S.A., Tanaka,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Settlement prediction of spread footing
based on laboratory test results, Predicted and Measured Behavior of Five Spread Footings on
Sand, ASCE, Geotechnical Special Publication, Vol.41, pp.137-140.
93) Park,C.-S. and Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Anisotropic strength and deformations of sands in plane strain
compression, Proc. of the 13
th
Int. Conf. on S.M.F.F., New Delhi, Vol.13, No.1, pp.1-4.
94) Tatsuoka,F., Siddiquee,M.S.A. and Tanaka,T. (1994), Link among design, model tests, theories
and sand properties in bearing capacity of footing on sand, Panel Discussion, Proc. of the 13
th
Int.
Conf. on S.M.F.E., New Delhi, Vol.13, No.5, pp.87-88.
95) Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Measurement of static deformation moduli in dynamic tests, Panel
Discussion on Deformation of soils and displacements of structures, Panel Discussion, Proc. of the
10
th
European Conf. on S.M.F.E., Florence, Vol.4, pp.1219-1226.
96) Tatsuoka,F., Kohata,Y., Karoji.H. and Miyashita,A. (1994a), Stiffness of the ground improved to
support the pier of J NLT atop Mauna Kea, Proc. SPIEs 1994, Int. Symposium Astronomical
Telescopes & Instrumentation for the 21
st
Century, Vol.2199, pp.404-413.
97) Tatsuoka,F., Teachavorasinskun,S., Dong,J ., Kohata,Y. and Sato,T. (1994b), Importance of
measuring local strains in cyclic triaxial tests on granular materials, Proc. of ASTM Symposium
Dynamic Geotechnical Testing , ASTM, STP 1213, pp.288-302.
98) Kohata,Y., Tatsuoka,F., Dong,J ., Teachavorasinskun,S. and Mizumoto,K. (1994), Stress states
affecting elastic deformation moduli of geomaterials, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure
Deformation of Geomaterials (Shibuya et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.3-9.
99) Dong,J ., Nakamura,K., Tatsuoka,F. and Kohata,Y. (1994), Deformation characteristics of gravels
in triaxial compression tests and cyclic triaxial tests, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure
Deformation of Geomaterials (Shibuya et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.17-23.
100) Teachavorasinskun,S., Tatsuoka,F. and Lo Presti,D.C.F. (1994), Effects of the cyclic
prestraining on dilatancy characteristics and liquefaction strength of sand, Proc. of Int.
Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of Geomaterials (Shibuya et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1,
pp.75-80.
101) Mukabi,J .N., Tatsuoka,F., Kohata,Y., Tsuchida,T. and Akino,A. (1994), Small strain stiffness
6
of Pleistocene clays in triaxial compression, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of
Geomaterials (Shibuya et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.189-195.
102) Miyazaki,K., Hameed,R.A., Sato,Y., Kohata,Y. and Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Deformation
characteristics of undisturbed silty-sand from triaxial compression and in-situ tests and full-scale
behavior, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of Geomaterials (Shibuya et al., eds.),
Balkema, Vol.1, pp.241-246.
103) Flora,A., J iang,G.L., Kohata,Y. and Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Small strain behaviour of a gravel
along some triaxial stress paths, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of
104) Siddiquee,M.S.A., Tatsuoka,F., Hoque,E., Tsubouchi,T., Yoshida,O., Yamamoto,S. and
Tanaka,T. (1994), FEM simulation of footing settlement for stiff geomaterials, Proc. of Int.
Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of Geomaterials (Shibuya et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1,
pp.531-537.
105) Tsubouchi,T., Ochi,K. and Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Non-linear FEM analyses of pressuremeter tests
in a sedimentary soft rock, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of Geomaterials
(Shibuya et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.539-544.
106) Ochi,K., Tsubouchi,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1994), Deformation characteristics of sedimentary soft
rock evaluated by full-scale excavation, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of
107) Kohata,Y., Tatsuoka,F., Mukabi,J .N. and Suzuki,M. (1995): Effects of strain rate and drainage
on deformation characteristics at small stain of geomaterials, Earthquake Geotechnical
Engineering (Ishihara eds.), Balkema, pp.151-156.
108) Tatsuoka,F., Kohata,Y., Tsubouchi,T., Murata,K., Ochi,K. and Wang,L. (1995a), Sample
disturbance in rotary core tube sampling of softrock, Conf. on Advances in Site Investigation
Practice, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, pp.281-292.
109) Tatsuoka,F., Kohata,Y., Tsubouchi,T. and Ochi,K. (1995b), Stiffness of sedimentary soft
rocks evaluated by triaxial compression tests, Proc. of the 8
th
Int. Congress on Rock Mechanics,
Tokyo, Vol.3., pp.1201-1204.
110) Tatsuoka,F., Kohata,Y., Ochi,K. and Tsubouchi,T. (1995c), Stiffness of soft rocks in Tokyo
metropolitan area - from laboratory tests to full-scale behaviour, Keynote Lecture, Proc. Int.
Workshop on Rock Foundation of Large-Scale Structures, Tokyo, Balkema, pp.3-17.
111) Yoshida,T., Tatsuoka,F., Siddiquee,M.S.A. and Kamegai,Y. (1995), Shear banding in sands
observed in plane strain compression, Localisation and Bifurcation Theory for Soils and Rocks
(Chambon et al., eds.), Balkema, pp.165-179.
112) Tatsuoka,F and Kim,Y.-S. (1995), Deformation of shear zone in sedimentary soft rock
observed in triaxial compression, Localisation and Bifurcation Theory for Soils and Rocks
(Chambon et al., eds.), Balkema, pp.181-187.
113) Tatsuoka,F. and Kohata,Y. (1995), Stiffness of hard soils and soft rocks in engineering
applications, Keynote Lecture, Proc. of Int. Symposium Pre-Failure Deformation of Geomaterials
(Shibuya et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol. 2, pp.947-1063.
114) Tatsuoka,F., Lo Presti,D.C.F. and Kohata,Y. (1995d), Deformation characteristics of soils and
soft rocks under monotonic and cyclic loads and their relationships, SOA Report, Proc. of the
Third Int. Conf. on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics,
St Luois (Prakash eds.), Vol.2, pp.851-879.
115) Hoque,E., Tatsuoka,F. and Sato,T. (1996), Measuring anisotropic elastic properties of sand
using a large triaxial specimen, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.19, No.4, pp.411-420.
116) Hoque,E., Sato,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1997), Performance evaluation of LDTs for the use in
triaxial tests, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.20, No.2, pp.149-167.
117) Izumi, K., Ogihara, M. and Kameya, H. (1997): Displacements of bridge foundations on
sedimentary soft rock: A case study on small-strain stiffness, Geotechnique 47, No.3, pp.619-632.
7
118) Tatsuoka,F., Ochi,K., Tsubouchi,T., Kohata,Y. and Wang,L. (1997), Sagamihara experimental
underground excavations in sedimentary softrock, Geotechnical Engineering, Proc. Instn Civ.
Engrs, 125, Oct., pp.206-223.
119) Di Benedetto,H. and Tatsuoka,F. (1997), Small strain behaviour of geomaterials: Modelling of
strain rate effects, Soils and Foundations, Vol.37, No.2, pp.127-138.
120) Tatsuoka,F., Uchimura,T. and Tateyama,M. (1997), Preloaded and prestressed reinforced soil,
121) Yoshida,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1997), Deformation property of shear band in sand subjected to
plane strain compression and its relation to particle characteristics, Proc. 14
th
ICSMFE, Hamburg,
Vol. 1, pp.237-240.
122) Dong,J . and Nkamura,K. (1997), Anisotropic deformation and strength characteristics of
gravels in large-scale plane strain triaxial compression tests, Proc. 14
th
ICSMFE, Hamburg, Vol.
1, pp.81-84.
123) Sato,M., Ueda.M, Hasebe,N. and Kondo,H. (1997a): Comparison among wave velocities from
seismic observation waves and field tests for hard rock mass, J . of J SCE, -38, 75-87 (in
J apanese).
124) Sato,M., Ueda.M, Hasebe,N. and Umehara,H. (1997b): Dynamic elastic modulus of dam
concrete earthquake motion, J . of J SCE, -35, 43-55.
125) Siddiquee,M.A.A., Tatsuoka,F. and Tanaka,C. (1997), Effect of the shape of footing on bearing
capacity, Proc. 14
th
ICSMFE, Hamburg, Vol. 1, pp.891-894.
126) Hayano,K., Sato,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1997), Deformation characteristics of a sedimentary
softrock from triaxial compression tests rectangular prism specimens, Gotechnique, Vol.47, No.3,
Symposium In Print, pp.439-449.
127) Kohata,Y., Tatsuoka,F., Wang,L., J iang,G.L., Hoque,E. and Kodaka,T. (1997), Modelling the
non-linear deformation properties of stiff geomaterials, Gotechnique, Vol.47, No.3, Symposium
In Print, pp.563-580.
128) J iang,G.L., Tatsuoka,F., Flora,A. and Koseki,J . (1997), Inherent and stress state-induced
anisotropy in very small strain stiffness of a sandy gravel, Gotechnique, Vol.47, No.3,
Symposium In Print, pp.509-521.
129) Tatsuoka,F., Goto,S., Tanaka,T., Tani,K., and Kimura,Y. (1997), Particle size effects on
particle size effects on bearing capacity of footing on granular material, Proc. Int. Conf. on
Deformation and Progressive Failure in Geomechanics, IS Nagoya 97 (Asaoka et al., eds.),
Pergamon Press, pp.133-138.
130) Koseki,J ., Tatsuoka,F., Munaf,Y., Tateyama,M. and Kojima,K. (1997), A modified procedure
to evaluate active earth pressure at high seismic loads, Soils and Foundations, Special Issue,
209-216.
131) Shibuya, S., Mitachi, T., & Tamate, S. (1997): Interpretation of direct shear box testing of
sands as quasi-simple shear, Geotechnique, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp. 769-790.
132) Di Benedetto,H., Cazacliu,B., Boutin,C., Doanh,T. and Touret,J .P. (1997): Compertement des
sables avec rotation daxes: nouvel appareil couvrant quatre dcades de dformation, Proc. 14th
ICSMFE, Hamburg, 1, 279-282.
133) Hoque,E., and Tatsuoka,F. (1998), Anisotropy in the elastic deformation of materials, Soils
and Foundations, Soils and Foundations, Vol.38, No.1, pp.163-179.
134) Koseki,J ., Hamaya,S., Tatsuoka,F. and Maeshiro,N. (1998): Elasto-plastic deformation
characteristics of Toyoura sand during liquefaction, Proc. of ASCE Specialty Conference on
Geotechnical Engineering and Soil Dynamics III, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 75, Vol. 1,
pp.385-397.
135) Hayano,K., Tatsuoka,F. and Yoshiizumi,N. (1998), Modeling pre-failure stress-strain
properties of sedimentary softrocks based on very small strain stiffness, Nondestructive and
Automated Testing for Soil and Rock Properties, ASTM STP 1350 (Marr & Fairhurst eds.),
8
pp.259-275.
136) Balakrishnaiyer,K., Anh Dan,L.Q., Tatsuoka,F., Koseki,J . and Modoni,G. (1998): Deformation
characteristics at small strain levels of dense gravel, The Geotechnics of Hard Soils Soft Rocks,
Proc. of Second Int. Conf. on Hard Soils and Soft Rocks (Evamgelista & Picarelli eds.), Balkema,
Vol.1, pp.423-431.
137) Santucci de Magistris,F., Sato,T., Koseki,J . and Tatsuoka,F. (1998): Effects of strain rate and
ageing on small strain behaviour of a compact silty sand, The Geotechnics of Hard Soils Soft
Rocks, Proc. of Second Int. Conf. on Hard Soils and Soft Rocks (Evamgelista & Picarelli eds.),
Balkema, Vol.1, pp.843-851.
138) Puzrin,A. and Tatsuoka,F. (1998), Elastic energy potential for uncemented granular materials,
Soils and Foundations, Vol.38, No.4 , pp.267-274.
139) Santucci de Magistris,F., Koseki,J ., Amaya,M., Hamaya,S., Sato,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999), A
triaxial testing system to evaluate stress-strain behaviour of soils for wide range of strain and strain
rate, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.22, No.1, pp.44-60.
140) Hayano,K., Maeshiro,T., Tatsuoka,F., Sato,T., Wang,L. and Kodaka,T. (1999), Shear banding
in a sedimentary soft mudstone subjected to plane strain compression, Geotechnical Testing
Journal, ASTM, Vol.22, No.1, pp.67-79.
141) Yasin,S.J .M., Umetsu,K., Tatsuoka,F., Arthur,J .R.F. and Dunstan,T. (1999), Plane strain
strength and deformation of sands affected by batch variations in two different types of apparatus,
Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.22, No.1, pp.80-100.
142) Siddiquee,M.S.A., Tanaka,T., Tatsuoka,F., Tani,K. and Morimoto,T. (1999), Numerical
simulation of the bearing capacity of strip footing on sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.39, No.4,
pp.93-109.
143) Kotake,N., Tatsuoka,F., Tanaka,T., Siddiquee,M.S.A., and Yamauchi,H. (1999), An insight
into the failure of reinforced sand in plane strain compression by FEM simulation, Soils and
144) Tatsuoka,F., J ardine,R.J ., Lo Presti,D., Di Benedetto,H. and Kodaka,T. (1999a), Characterising
the Pre-Failure Deformation Properties of Geomaterials, Theme Lecture for the Plenary Session
No.1, Proc. of XIV IC on SMFE, Hamburg, September 1997, Volume 4, pp.2129-2164.
145) Tatsuoka,F., Modoni,G., J iang,G.L., Anh Dan,L.Q., Flora,A., Matsushita,M., and Koseki,J .
(1999b): Stress-Strain Behaviour at Small Strains of Unbound Granular Materials and its
Laboratory Tests, Keynote Lecture, Proc. of Workshop on Modelling and Advanced testing for
Unbound Granular Materials, January 21 and 22, 1999, Lisboa (Correia eds.), Balkema, pp.17-61.
146) Tatsuoka,F., Correia,A.G., Ishihara,M. and Uchimura,T. (1999c): Non-linear Resilient
Behaviour of Unbound Granular Materials Predicted by the Cross-Anisotropic
Hypo-Quasi-Elasticity Model, Proc. of Workshop on Modelling and Advanced testing for Unbound
Granular Materials, January 21 and 22, 1999, Lisboa (Correia eds.), Balkema, pp.197-204.
147) Hayano,K., Tatsuoka,F., Koseki,J . and Sato,T. (1999): Small strain deformation characteristics
of sedimentary soft mudstone from true triaxial tests, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure
Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Torino 99 (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Balkema,
Vol.1, pp.191-198.
148) Miyazaki,K., Hayano,K., Tatsuoka,F. and Koseki,J . (1999): Deformation of sedimentary soft
rock in deep excavation, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation Characteristics of
Geomaterials, IS Torino 99 (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.809-817.
149) Modoni,G., Flora,A., Anh Dan,L.Q., Mancuso,C., Koseki,J ., Balakrishnaier,K. and Tatsuoka,F.
(1999): A simple experimental procedure for the complete characterization of small strain stiffness
of gravels, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials,
IS Torino 99 (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.123-130.
150) J iang,G.L., Kohata,Y., Tateyama,M. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Small strain deformation
characteristics of dense gravel, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation
9
Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Torino 99 (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1,
pp.291-298.
151) Barbosa-Cruz,E.R. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Effects of stress state during curing on stress-strain
behaviour of cement-mixed sand, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation
pp.509-516.
152) Mukabi,J .N. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Effects of stress path and ageing in reconsolidaiton on
stress-strain properties of three natural stiff clays, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure
Vol.1, pp.131-140.
153) Hayano,K., Koseki,J ., Sato,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Small strain deformation characteristics
of sedimentary soft mudstone," Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation
Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS, Torino '99 (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1,
pp.191-198.
154) Yasin,S.J .M. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Stress history-dependency of sand deformation in plane
strain, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS
Torino 99 (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.703-711.
155) Masuda,T., Tatsuoka,F. and Yamada,S. (1999): Sand behaviour in cyclic lateral plane strain
loading and modeling the hysteretic stress-strain relations, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure
Vol.1, pp.675-680.
156) Koseki,J , Balakrishnaier,K. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Large scale triaxial tests on elastic
properties of undisturbed gravel containing fines, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure
Vol.1, pp.299-304.
157) Santucci de Magistris,F. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Time effects on the stress-strain behaviour of
Metramo silty sand, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation Characteristics of
Geomaterials, IS Torino 99 (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.491-555.
158) Matsushita,M., Tatsuoka,F., Koseki,J ., Cazacliu,B., Di Benedetto,H. and Yasin,S.J .M. (1999):
Time effects on the pre-peak deformation properties of sands, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on
Pre-Failure Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Torino 99 (J amiolkowski et al.,
eds.), Balkema, Vol.1, pp.681-689.
159) Tatsuoka,F., Santucci de Magistris,F. and Momoya,M. and Maruyama,N. (1999d): Isotach
behaviour of geomaterials and its modelling, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure Deformation
pp.491-499.
160) Kohata,Y., J iang,G.L., Murata,O. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Elastic-properties-based modelling of
non-linear deformation characteristics of gravels, Proc. Second Int. Conf. on Pre-Failure
Vol.1, pp.533-539.
161) Tatsuoka,F. (1999): 4.4.4. Recent Laboratory study 2: Small strain behavior of granular
materials, Introduction to Mechanics of Granular Materials (Oda & Iwashita eds.), Balkema,
pp.299-308.
162) Mukabi,J .N. and Tatsuoka,F. (1999): Influence of reconsolidation stress history and strain rate
on the behaviour of kaolin over a wide range of strain, Geotechnics for Developing Africa (Wardle
et al., eds.), Balkema, pp.365-377.
163) Modoni,G., Flora,A., Mancuso,C., Viggiani,C. and Tatsuoka,F. (2000): Evaluation of gravel
stiffness by pulse wave transmission tests, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol.23, No.4,
pp.506-521.
164) Tatsuoka,F., Santucci de Magistris,F., Hayano,K., Momoya,Y. and Koseki,J . (2000a): Some
10
new aspects of time effects on the stress-strain behaviour of stiff geomaterials, Keynote Lecture,
The Geotechnics of Hard Soils Soft Rocks, Proc. of Second Int. Conf. on Hard Soils and Soft
Rocks, Napoli, 1998 (Evamgelista and Picarelli eds.), Balkema, Vol.2, pp1285-1371.
165) Masuda,T., Tatsuoka,F., Yamada,S. and Sato,T. (1999): Stress-strain behaviour of sand in plane
strain compression, extension and cyclic loading tests, Soils and Foundations, Vol.39, No.5,
pp.31-45.
166) Yasin,S.J .M. and Tatsuoka,F. (2000): Stress history-dependent deformation characteristics of
dense sand in plane strain; Soils and Foundations, Vo.40, No.2, pp.77-98.
167) Barbosa-Cruz,E.R. and Tatsuoka,F. (2000); Stress-strain properties from elastic behaviour to
peak strength of compacted cement-mixed sand, Grouting, Soil Improvement, Goesystmes
including Reinforcement, Finish Geotechnical Society Proc. 4
th
International Conference on
Ground Improvement Systems, J une, Helsinki (Rathamayer eds.), pp.3-10.
168) Qiu,J .-Y., Tatsuoka,F. and Uchimura,T. (2000): Constant pressure and constant volume direct
shear tests on reinforced sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.40, No.4, pp.1-17.
169) Tatsuoka,F., Uchimura,T., Hayano,K., Di Benedetto,H., Koseki,J . and Siddiquee,M.S.A. (2001);
Time-dependent deformation characteristics of stiff geomaterials in engineering practice, the
Theme Lecture, Proc. of the Second International Conference on Pre-failure Deformation
Characteristics of Geomaterials, Torino, 1999, Balkema (J amiolkowski et al., eds.), Vol. 2,
pp.1161-1262.
170) Sugai,M., Tatsuoka,F., Kuwabara,M. and Sugo,K. (2000), Strength and Deformation
Characteristics of Cement-Mixed Soft Clay, Coastal Geotechnical Engineering in Practice, Proc.
IS Yokohama (Nakase and Tsuchida eds.), Balkema, 1, pp. 521-52
171) Hayano,K., Matsumoto,M., Tatsuoka,F. and Koseki,J . (2001): Evaluation of time-dependent
deformation property of sedimentary soft rock and its constitutive modeling, Soils and
Foundations, Vol.41, No.2, pp. 21-38.
172) Siddiquee, M. S. A., Tatsuoka, F., Tanaka, T., Tani, K., Yoshida, K. and Morimoto, T. (2001);
Model tests and FEM simulation of some factors affecting the bearing capacity of footing on
sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.41, No.2, pp.53-76.
173) Siddiquee,M.S.A., Tanaka,T. and Tatsuoka,F. (2001), Numerical simulation of shear band
formation in plane strain compression tests on sand, Rural and Environmental Engineering,
Journal of the Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and Reclamation Engineering, No.40
(2001.8), pp.48-65.
174) Kotake,N., Tatsuoka,F., Tanaka,T., Siddiquee,M.S.A. and Huang,C.-C. (2001); FEM simulation
of the bearing capacity of level reinforced ground subjected to footing load, Geosynthetics
International, Vol.8, No.6, pp.501-549.
175) Tatsuoka,F. (2001); Impacts on Geotechnical Engineering of Several Recent Findings from
Laboratory Stress-Strain Tests on Geomaterials, 2000 Burmister Lecture at Columbia University,
Geotechnics for Roads, Rail Tracks and Earth Structures (Correia & Brandle eds.), Balkema, pp.
69-140.
176) Viggiani G., Kntz M., Desrues J . (2001): An experimental investigation of the relationship
between grain size distribution and shear banding in granular materials, In: Continuous and
Discontinuous Modelling of Cohesive Frictional Materials, P.A. Vermeer et al. Eds. (Lecture
Notes in Physics, Vol. 568).
177) Siddiquee,M.S.A., Yasin,S.J .M. & Hoque.E (2001) FEM simulation of elasto-visco-plastic
stress-strain behavior of stiff geo-materials, Proc. 15
th
ICSMFE, Istanbul, Vol.1, pp271-274.
178) Tatsuoka,F., Shibuya,S. and Kuwano,R. (2001): Recent advances in stress-strain testing of
geomaterials in the laboratory, Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain Testing of Geomaterials
(Tatsuoka et al. eds.), Balkema, pp.1-12.
179) Koseki,J ., Tatsuoka,F., Yoshimine,M., Hatanaka,M., Uchida,K., Yasufuku,N. and Furuta,I.
(2001): Report on applications of laboratory stress-strain test results of geomaterials to
11
geotechnical practice in J apan, Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain Testing of Geomaterials
(Tatsuoka et al. eds.), Balkema, pp.111-184.
180) Kongsukprasert,L., Kuwano,R. and Tatsuoka,F. (2001): Effects of ageing with shear stress on
the stress-strain behavior of cement-mixed sand, Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain Testing of
Geomaterials (Tatsuoka et al. eds.), Balkema, pp.251-258.
181) Nawir,H., Kuwnao,R. and Tatsuoka,F. (2001): Effects of stress path on the flow rule of sand in
triaxial compression, Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain Testing of Geomaterials (Tatsuoka et al.,
eds), Balkema, pp.287-294.
182) Santucci de Magistris,F., Tatsuoka,F. and Ishihara,M. (2001): Simulation of viscous effects on
the stress-strain behaviour of a dense silty sand, Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain Testing of
Geomaterials (Tatsuoka et al., eds), Balkema, pp.295-302.
183) Correia,G.A., Ahn Dan,L.Q., Koseki,J . and Tatsuoka,F. (2001): Small strain stiffness under
different isotropic and anisotropic stress conditions of two granular granite materials, Advanced
Laboratory Stress-Strain Testing of Geomaterials (Tatsuoka et al., eds.), Balkema, pp.209-215.
184) Anh Dan,L.Q., Koseki,J . and Tatsuoka,F. (2001); Viscous deformation in triaxial compression
of a dense well-graded gravel and its model simulation, Advanced Laboratory Stress-Strain
Testing of Geomaterials (Tatsuoka et al. eds), Balkema, pp.187-194.
185) AnhDan, L.Q., Koseki, J . and Sato, T. (2002). Comparison of Youngs moduli of dense sand
and gravel measured by dynamic and static methods. Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol.25, No.4,
pp.349-368.
186) Di Benedetto,H., Tatsuoka,F. and Ishihara,M. (2002): Time-dependent deformation
characteristics of sand and their constitutive modelling, Soils and Foundations, 42-2, pp.1-22.
187) Tatsuoka,F., Ishihara,M., Di Benedetto,H. and Kuwano,R. (2002): Time-dependent shear
deformation characteristics of geomaterials and their simulation, Soils and Foundations, 42-2,
pp.103-129.
188) Tatsuoka,F., Hayano,K. and Koseki,J . (2002): Strength and deformation characteristics of
sedimentary soft rock in the Tokyo metropolitan area, Characterisation and Engineering Properties
of Natural Soils (Tan et al. eds.), Swets & Zeitlinger, pp.1461-1525.
189) Tatsuoka,F., Masuda,T. and Siddiquee,M.S.A. (2003): Modelling the stress-strain behaviour of
sand in cyclic plane strain loading, Geotechnical and Environmental Engineering, Journal of
Geotechnical and Environmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol.129, No.6, J une 1, pp.450-467.
190) LeQuang AnhDan, Tatsuoka,F. and Koseki,J . (2003), Effects of stress history on the
deformation characteristic of gravely soil, Proc. 12
th
Asian Regional Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Singapore, August.
191) Lohani, T.N. and Tatsuoka, F., (2003): Effects of specimen curing methods on the strength and
deformation property of cement-mixed gravel, Proc. ??th European Regional Conference on
SMGE, Prague.
192) Nawir,H. and Tatsuoka,F. (2003): Viscous effects on the shear yielding characteristics of sand
and its modelling Proc. 3
rd
Int. Symp. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon
03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, Sept. 2003, pp.645-653.
194) Yasin,S.J .M. and Tatsuoka,F. (2003), New strain energy hardening functions for sand based on
the double yielding concept, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Symp. on Deformation Characteristics of
Geomaterials, IS Lyon 03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, Sept. 2003, pp.1127-1134.
195) Hirakawa, D., Shibata, Y., Uchimura, T. and Tatsuoka, F. (2003): Residual deformations by
creep and cyclic loading of reinforced-gravel backfill and their relation, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Symp. on
Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon 03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema,
Sept. 2003, pp.589-596.
197) Watanabe, K., Tateyama, M., J iang, G., Tatsuoka, F., and Lohani, T.N., (2003): Strength
characteristics of cement-mixed gravel evaluated by large triaxial compression tests, Proc. 3
rd
Int.
12
Symp. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon 03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.),
Balkema, Sept. 2003, pp.683-693.
198) Omae,S., Sato,N. And Oomoto,I. (2003): Dynamic Properties of CSG, Proc. 4
th
International
Symposium on Roller Compacted Concrente Dams (RCC), Madrid, November.
199) Kongsukprasert, L. and Tatsuoka, F. (2003): Viscous effects coupled with ageing effects on the
stress-strain behaviour of cement-mixed granular materials and a model simulation, Proc. 3
rd
Int.
Balkema, Sept. 2003, pp.569-577.
200) Lohani, T. N., Kongsukprasent, L., Watanabe, K., & Tatsuoka, F. (2003b), Strength and
deformation characteristics of cement-mixed gravel for engineering use, Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on
Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon 03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema,
September, 2003, pp.637-643.
201) Yamamoto,T, Miyagawa, H., Yamada, S. and Nakajima,H., Tatsuoka, F. and Kuwano, R.
(2003): Compression characteristics of stiff clay to support a bridge foundation evaluated by field
and laboratory tests, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Sym. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon
03, (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, September, 2003, pp.1363-1371.
202) Ko,D.H., Ito.H., Tatsuoka.F. and Nishi.T. (2003), Significance of viscous effects in the
development of residual strain incyclic triaxial tests on sand, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Sym. on Deformation
Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon 03(Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, September, 2003,
pp.559-568.
203) Siddiquee,M.S.A., Tatsuoka,F. and Tanaka,T. (2003): Implementation of a time dependent
constitutive model TESRA into the nonlinear FEM scheme, Proc. 3
rd
Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon 03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, September, 2003,
pp.873-881.
204) Li,J . Z., Tatsuoka,F., Nishi,T. and Komoto,N. (2003): Viscous stress-strain behaviour of clay
under unloaded conditions, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Sym. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials,
IS Lyon 03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, September, 2003, pp.617-625.
205) Komoto, N., Nishi, T., Li, J . Z. and Tatsuoka, F. (2003). Viscous stress-strain properties of
undisturbed Pleistocene clay and its constitutive modeling, Proc. 3
rd
pp.579-587.
206) Sugai,M. and Tatsuoka,F. (2003): Ageing and loading rate effects on the stress-strain behaviour
of a cement-mixed soft clay, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Sym. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials,
IS Lyon 03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, September, 2003, pp.627-635.
207) Okuyama,Y., Yoshida,T., Tatsuoka,F., Koseki,J ., Uchimura,T., Sato,N,. and Oie,M. (2003):
Shear banding characteristics of granular materials and particle size effects on the seismic stability
of earth structures, Proc. 3
rd
Int. Sym. on Deformation Characteristics of Geomaterials, IS Lyon
03 (Di Benedetto et al. eds.), Balkema, September, 2003, pp.607-616.
208) Oie,M, Sato,N. Okuyama.Y., Yoshida,Teru, Yoshida,Tetuya, Yamada,S., Tatsuoka,F. 2003.
Shear banding characteristics in plane strain compression of granular materials, Proc. 3rd Int.
Balkema, September, 2003, pp.597-606.
209) Modoni,G., Flota,A., Ahn Dan,L.Q. and Tatsuoka,F. 2003. Experimental investigation and
constitutive modeling of pre-failure deformation of a very densely compactly gravel, Proc. 3rd Int.
Balkema, September, 2003, pp.497-504.
210) Tatsuoka,F., Di Benedetto,H. and Nishi,T. (2003): A framework for modelling of the time
effects on the stress-strain behaviour of geomaterials, Proc. 3
rd
13
pp.1135-1143.
211) Koseki,J ., Tatsuoka,F., Watanabe,K., Tateyama.M., Kojima,K. and Munaf,Y. (2003); Model
tests of seismic stability of several types of retaining walls, Reinforced soil engineering, Advances
in Research and Practice, Marcel Dekker, Inc. (Ling,H.I., Leshcinsky,D. and Tatsuoka,F. eds.), pp.
317-358.
212) Nawir,H., Tatsuoka,F. and Kuwano,R. (2003a): Experimental evaluation of the viscous
properties of sand in shear, Soils and Foundations, Vol.43, No.6, pp.13-31.
213) Nawir,H., Tatsuoka,F. and Kuwano,R. (2003b): Viscous effects on the shear yielding
characteristics of sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.43, No.6, pp.33-50.
214) Kaynia, A.M. (2003). Sustained performance of railway tracks SUPERTRACK. Proc.
6th World Congress on Railway Research, Edinburgh, Scotland, 28 Sept. 1 Oct. 2003, 885-889.
215) Ogata,K.,Kitamura,K., Yamada,Y,., Sakai,K. and Tatsuoka,F. (2003), Strength and
deformation characteristics of gravel backfill for embankments by plane strain and triaxial
compression tests, Proc. 38th Japan National Conference on Geotechnical Engineering (in
J apanese).
216) Santucci de Magistris,F. and Tatusoka,F. (2004): Effects of moulding water content on the
stress-strain behaviour of a compacted silty sand, Soils and Foundations, Vol.44, No.2, pp.85-102.
217) Li,J .-Z., Acosta-Martnez,H., Tatsuoka,F. and Deng, J .-L. (2004): Viscous property of soft clay
and its modeling, Engineering Practice and Performance of Soft Deposits, Proc. of IS Osaka 2004.
218) Tatsuoka,F. (2005). Effects of viscous properties and ageing on the stress-strain behaviour of
geomaterials. Proceedings of the GI-JGS workshop, Boston, ASCE Special Geotechnical SPT
No. ??? (Yamamuro & Koseki eds.).
219) Lohani, T.N., Kongsukprasert, L., Watanabe, K. and Tatsuoka, F. (2004) Strength and
deformation properties of compacted cement-mixed gravel evaluated by triaxial compression tests,
220) Hoque,E. and Tatsuoka,F. (2004) Effects of stress ratio on small-strain stiffness during triaxial
shearing, Geotechnique, vol.54, No.7, pp.429-439.
221) Aqil,U., Tatsuoka,F. and Uchimura,T. (2005a), Strength and deformation characteristics of
recycled concrete aggregate in triaxial compression, Proc. of GeoFrontier 2005 Congress,
GeoInstitute, ASCE, Austin, Texas, GSP 138, Site characterization and modeling (Mayne et al.
eds).
222) Deng,J . and Tatsuoka,F. (2005), Ageing and viscous effects on the deformation of clay in 1D
compression , Proc. of GeoFrontier 2005 Congress, GeoInstitute, ASCE, Austin, Texas, GSP 138,
Site characterization and modeling (Mayne et al. eds).
223) Kiyota,T., Tatsuoka,F. and Yamamuro,J . (2005), Drained and undrained creep characteristics
of loose saturated sand and their relation, Proc. of GeoFrontier 2005 Congress, GeoInstitute,
ASCE, Austin, Texas, GSP 138, Site characterization and modeling (Mayne et al. eds).
224) 203)Tatsuoka,F. Nawir,H., and Kuwano,R. (2004): A modelling procedure of shear yielding
characteristics affected by viscous properties of sand in triaxial compression, Soils and
225) Di Benedetto, H., Tatsuoka, F., Lo Presti, D., Sauzat, C. and Geoffroy H. (2004), Time effects
on the behaviour of geomaterials, Keynote Lecture, , Proc. 3
rd
Vol.2, pp.?????.
226) Maqbool, S., Koseki, J . and Sato, T. (2004), Effects of compaction on small strain Youngs
moduli of gravel by dynamic and static measurements, Bulletin of ERS (Earthquake Resistant
Structure Research Center), IIS, University of Tokyo, 2004, No.37, pp.41-50.
227) Kongsukprasert, L., Tatsuoka, F. and Tateyama, M. (2004): Several factors affecting the
14
strength and deformation characteristics of cement-mixed gravel, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 45,
No. 3, pp.107-124.
228) Tatsuoka,F. (2004): Cement-mixed soil for Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway and railway bridge
abutments, Geotechnical Engineering for Transportation Projects, Proc. of GeoTrans 04, GI, ASCE,
Los Angels, ASCE Special Geotechnical SPT No. 126 (Yegian and Kavazanjian eds.), pp.18-76.
229) Acosta-Martnez H., Tatsuoka, F. and Li J ianghzhong (2005): Viscous property of clay in 1-D
compression: evaluation and modelling, Proc. 16
th
ICSMGE, Osaka.
230) Hirakawa, D. and Tatsuoka, F. (2005a): Viscous behaviour of air-dried sand in model Loading
Tests of strip footing, Proc. 16
th
ICSMGE, Osaka.
231) Anh Dan,L.Q., Tatsuoka,F., and Koseki,J . (2003), Viscous shear stress-strain characteristics of
dense gravel in triaxial compression, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM (submitted).
232) Aqil, U., Tatsuoka, F., Uchimura, T., Lohani,T.N., Tomita,Y. and Matsushima, K. (2005b);
Strength and deformation characteristics of recycled concrete aggregate as a backfill material,
Soils and Foundations, Vol. 45, No. 4, pp.???.
233) Kongsukprasert, L. and Tatsuoka, F. (2005): Ageing and viscous effects on the deformation
and strength characteristics of cement-mixed gravely soil in triaxial compression, Soils and
Foundations, Vol.45, No.6, pp.??.
234) Enomoto,T., Shishime,M. and Tatsuoka,F. (2005), Effects of grading characteristics on the
viscosity of sand in triaxial compression, Proc. 40th Japan National Conference on Geotechnical
Engineering, Hakodate (in J apanese).
235) Hayashi,T., Moriyama,M., Tatuoka,F. and Hirakawa,D. (2005), Residual deformations by
cyclic and sustained loading of sand and their relation, Proc. 40th Japan National Conference on
Geotechnical Engineering (in J apanese).
236) Maqbool, S., Koseki, J . and Sato, T. (2005), Effect of compaction on statically and dynamically
measured Youngs moduli of gravel, Proc. 40th Japan National Conference on Geotechnical
Engineering
237) Soda,H., Sato,N., Yamada,S. and Tatsuoka,F. (2005), Deformation of shear band in dam core
materials subjected to plane strain compression, Proc. Annual Symposium, Session III, JSCE (in
J apanese).
238) Higashioka, M., Wakasugi, M., Yamada, S. Nakajika, K. and Tatsuoka, F. (2005), Simulation l
of elasto-viscoplastic behaviour of stiff clay in triaxial anisotropic compression by a non-linear
three-component model, Proc. Annual Symposium, Session III, JSCE (in J apanese).
239) J ardine, R. (2005), Application of advanced laboratory testing for predicting practical
load-displacement behaviour, Lessons learned from field observations, Invited lecture, Institut
Henri Poincare, Paris.
240) Hirakawa, D. and Tatsuoka, F. (2005): Viscous behaviour of air-dried sand in model
Loading Tests of strip footing, Proc. 16
th
ICSMGE, Osaka, Vol.1, pp???.
241) Tatsuoka,F., Kiyota,T. and Enomoto,T. (2005). Viscous properties of geomaterials in drained
shear Geomechanics- Testing, Modeling and Simulation, Proceedings of the Second GI-JGS
workshop, Osaka, ASCE Special Geotechnical SPT No. ??? (Lade et al. eds.), pp..
242) Tatsuoka, F., Tomita, Y., Lovati, L. and Aqil, U. (2005), Crushed concrete aggregate as a
backfill material for civil engineering soil structures, Proc. of Workshop of TC3 of the ISSMGE,
16
th
ICSMGE, Osaka (eds. Correia).
243) Higashioka, M., Wakasugi, M., Yamada, S. Nakajika, K. and Tatsuoka, F.
(2005), Simulation l of elasto-viscoplastic behaviour of stiff clay in triaxial anisotropic
compression by a non-linear three-component model, Proc. 60
th
Annual Conf. of J SCE, Tokyo, III
(in J apanese).
244)

Deformation and Strength Characteristics of Granular Materials

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Deformation and Strength Characteristics of Granular Materials

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Deformation and Strength

Characteristics of Granular Materials:

=253.7 at s/B =0.05839)

=253.7 at s/B =0.05839)

(Tatsuoka et al., 2001)

(G: shear modulus, constant) (3)

= = (19) (the solution is independent of the Poissons ratio)

Stress path in the

Cyclic loading of vertical

(Hoque et al., 1996, 1997: Hoque &Tatsuoka, 1998, 2004)

Cyclic drained triaxial

1) is proportional to the inherent anisotropy.

increases with an increase

(Tatsuoka &Kohata 1995)

Two similar linear or non-linear indexes

-Drained TC tests on moist well-graded gravel having different

Based on the proposal by Moroto (1980)

Based on the proposal by Moroto (1980)

Based on the proposal by Moroto (1980)

Current inviscid stress state (q

In the pre-peak regime, overall shear bands suddenly start

Sliding block theory

The failure envelop on a plane:

Strength anisotropy of air-pluviated Toyoura sand

Toyoura sand, air-pluviated

[Three key points]

2) At failure, the directions of

Plane strain conditions

Plane strain conditions

The TC strength ( ) could

The manner of progressive failure is controlled by:

Stress-strain behaviour outside the shear

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Local stress-strain relationships for different angles, , in

The stress characteristics (along which the stress ratio / is

Rough footing base (e= 0.66):

e relations by the stress

e relations by the stress

values for both

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Angle of internal friction, (degree)

Degree of saturation (%)

Drained triaxial compression tests

Drained triaxial compression tests

Drained triaxial compression tests

Degree of saturation (%)

Drained triaxial compression tests

Drained triaxial compression tests

Drained triaxial compression tests

When is totally differential, the integration (with respect

=253.7 at s/B =0.05839)

Drained triaxial compression tests

The current yield stress:

Current yield stress for the inviscid stress:

: may be loading history

A potential function is obtained and becomes loading history-independent:

Tet (d): and

0 20000 40000 60000 80000