Orange (fruit)

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See also Orange (colour), Les orangers (for the painting also called "Orange Tre
es"), or Orange (disambiguation).
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Orange
OrangeBloss wb.jpg
Orange blossoms and oranges on tree
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Citrus
Species: C. sinensis
Binomial name
Citrus sinensis
(L.) Osbeck[1]
The orange (specifically, the sweet orange) is the fruit of the citrus species C
itrus sinensis in the family Rutaceae.[2] The fruit of the Citrus sinensis is co
nsidered a sweet orange, whereas the fruit of the Citrus aurantium is considered
a bitter orange. The orange is a hybrid, possibly between pomelo (Citrus maxima
) and mandarin (Citrus reticulata), which has been cultivated since ancient time
s.[3]
As of 1987, orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the
world.[4] Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for
their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processe
d for its juice or fragrant peel.[5] As of 2012, sweet oranges accounted for app
roximately 70% of citrus production.[6] In 2010, 68.3 million metric tons of ora
nges were grown worldwide, production being particularly prevalent in Brazil and
the US states of California[7] and Florida.[8]
Contents
1 Botanical information and terminology
2 Etymology
3 Varieties
3.1 Common oranges
3.1.1 Valencia
3.1.2 Hart's Tardiff Valencia
3.1.3 Hamlin
3.1.4 Other varieties of common oranges
3.2 Navel oranges
3.2.1 Cara cara navels
3.2.2 Other varieties of navels
3.3 Blood oranges
3.3.1 Other varieties of blood oranges
3.4 Acidless oranges
4 Attributes
4.1 Nutritional value
4.2 Acidity
4.3 Grading
5 History
6 Cultivation
6.1 Climate
6.2 Propagation
6.2.1 Principal rootstocks
6.2.2 Other rootstock varieties in the United States
6.3 Harvest
6.4 Degreening
6.5 Storage
6.6 Pests and diseases
6.6.1 Cottony cushion scale
6.6.2 Citrus greening disease
6.6.3 Greasy spot
7 Production
8 Juice and other products
8.1 Products made from oranges
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Botanical information and terminology
refer to caption
Orange fruit and cross section
All citrus trees belong to the single genus Citrus and remain almost entirely in
terfertile. This means that there is only one superspecies that includes grapefr
uits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids.[9] As the int
erfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids, bud union
s, and cultivars, their taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing or inconsist
ent.[3][6] The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium (a kind of m
odified berry) because it has numerous seeds, is fleshy and soft, derives from a
single ovary and is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the
ovary wall.[10][11]
Different names have been given to the many varieties of the genus. Orange appli
es primarily to the sweet orange Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. The orange tree is
an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of 9 to 10 m (30 to 33 ft)
, although some very old specimens can reach 15 m (49 ft).[12] Its oval leaves,
alternately arranged, are 4 to 10 cm (1.6 to 3.9 in) long and have crenulate mar
gins.[13] Although the sweet orange presents different sizes and shapes varying
from spherical to oblong, it generally has ten segments (carpels) inside, and co
ntains up to six seeds (or pips)[14] and a porous white tissue called pith or, m
ore properly, mesocarp or albedo[15] lines its rind. When unripe, the fruit is gr
een. The grainy irregular rind of the ripe fruit can range from bright orange to
yellow-orange, but frequently retains green patches or, under warm climate cond
itions, remains entirely green. Like all other citrus fruits, the sweet orange i
s non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis is subdivided into four classes with dist
inct characteristics: common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges,
and acidless oranges.[16][17][18]
Other citrus species also known as oranges are:
the bitter orange (Citrus aurantium), also known as Seville orange, sour ora
nge especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree , bigarade orange a
nd marmalade orange;
the bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia Risso). It is grown mainly in Italy for
its peel, which is used to flavor Earl Grey tea;
the trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata), sometimes included in the genus
(classified as Citrus trifoliata). It often serves as a rootstock for sweet ora
nge trees, especially as a hybrid with other Citrus cultivars. The trifoliate or
ange is a thorny shrub or small tree grown mostly as an ornamental plant or to s
et up hedges. It bears a downy fruit similar to a small citrus, used to make mar
malade. It is native to northern China and Korea, and is also known as "Chinese
bitter orange" or "hardy orange" because it can withstand subfreezing temperatur
es;[19] and
Four satsumas
Satsumas
the mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata). It has an enormous number of cultiv
ars, most notably the satsuma (Citrus unshiu), the tangerine (Citrus tangerina)
and the clementine (Citrus clementina). In some cultivars, the mandarin is very
similar to the sweet orange, making it difficult to distinguish between the two.
The mandarin, however, is generally smaller and oblate, easier to peel, and les
s acidic.[20]
Orange trees generally are grafted. The bottom of the tree, including the roots
and trunk, is called rootstock, while the fruit-bearing top has two different na
mes: budwood (when referring to the process of grafting) and scion (when mention
ing the variety of orange).[21]
Etymology
Main article: Orange (word)
The word orange derives from the Sanskrit word for "orange tree" (?????? nara?ga
), probably of Dravidian origin.[22] The Sanskrit word reached European language
s through Persian ????? (narang) and its Arabic derivative ????? (naranj).
The word entered Late Middle English in the fourteenth century via Old French or
enge (in the phrase pomme d'orenge).[23] The French word, in turn, comes from Ol
d Provenal auranja, based on Arabic naranj.[22] In several languages, the initial
n present in earlier forms of the word dropped off because it may have been mis
taken as part of an indefinite article ending in an n soundin French, for example
, une norenge may have been heard as une orenge. This linguistic change is calle
d juncture loss. The color was named after the fruit,[24] and the first recorded
use of orange as a color name in English was in 1512.[25][26]
As Portuguese merchants were presumably the first to introduce the sweet orange
in Europe, in several modern Indo-European languages the fruit has been named af
ter them. Some examples are Albanian portokall, Bulgarian ???????? (portokal), G
reek p??t????? (portokali), Persian ?????? (porteghal), and Romanian portocala.[
27][28] Related names can be found in other languages, such as Arabic ???????? (
bourtouqal), Georgian ????????? (p'ort'oxali), and Turkish portakal.[27] In Ital
y, words derived from Portugal (Portogallo) to refer to the sweet orange are in
common use in most dialects throughout the country, in contrast to standard Ital
ian arancia.[29]
In other Indo-European languages, the words for orange allude to the eastern ori
gin of the fruit and can be translated literally as "apple from China". Some exa
mples are Low German Apfelsine, Dutch appelsien and sinaasappel, Swedish apelsin
, and Norwegian appelsin.[28] A similar case is Puerto Rican Spanish china.[30][
31]
Various Slavic languages use the variants pomaranc (Slovak), pomeranc (Czech), p
omaranca (Slovene), and pomarancza (Polish), all from Old French pomme d'orenge.
[32][not in citation given]
Varieties
Common oranges
Common oranges (also called "white", "round", or "blond" oranges) constitute abo
ut two-thirds of all the orange production. The majority of this crop is used mo
stly for juice extraction.[16][18]
Valencia
Main article: Valencia orange
The Valencia orange is a late-season fruit, and therefore a popular variety when
navel oranges are out of season. This is why an anthropomorphic orange was chos
en as the mascot for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, held in Spain. The mascot was name
d Naranjito ("little orange") and wore the colors of the Spanish national footba
ll team.
Hart's Tardiff Valencia
Thomas Rivers, an English nurseryman, imported this variety from the Azores Isla
nds and catalogued it in 1865 under the name Excelsior. Around 1870, he provided
trees to S. B. Parsons, a Long Island nurseryman, who in turn sold them to E. H
. Hart of Federal Point, Florida.[33]
Hamlin
This cultivar was discovered by A. G. Hamlin near Glenwood, Florida, in 1879. Th
e fruit is small, smooth, not highly colored, seedless, and juicy, with a pale y
ellow colored juice, especially in fruits that come from lemon rootstock. The tr
ee is high-yielding and cold-tolerant and it produces good quality fruit, which
is harvested from October to December. It thrives in humid subtropical climates.
In cooler, more arid areas, the trees produce edible fruit, but too small for c
ommercial use.[12]
Trees from groves in hammocks or areas covered with pine forest are budded on so
ur orange trees, a method that gives a high solids content. On sand, they are gr
afted on rough lemon rootstock.[4] The Hamlin orange is one of the most popular
juice oranges in Florida and replaces the Parson Brown variety as the principal
early-season juice orange. This cultivar is now[needs update] the leading early
orange in Florida and, possibly, in the rest of the world.[12]
Other varieties of common oranges
refer to caption
Indian hybrid Orange
Belladonna: grown in Italy
Berna: grown mainly in Spain
Biondo Comune ("ordinary blond"): widely grown in the Mediterranean basin, e
specially in North Africa, Egypt, Greece (where it is called "koines"), Italy (w
here it is also known as "Liscio"), and Spain; it also is called "Beledi" and "N
ostrale";[16] in Italy, this variety ripens in December, earlier than the compet
ing Tarocco variety[34]
Biondo Riccio: grown in Italy
Cadanera: a seedless orange of excellent flavor grown in Algeria, Morocco, a
nd Spain; it begins to ripen in November and is known by a wide variety of trade
names, such as Cadena Fina, Cadena sin Jueso, Precoce de Valence ("early from V
alencia"), Precoce des Canaries, and Valence san Pepins ("seedless Valencia");[1
6] it was first grown in Spain in 1870[35]
Calabrese or Calabrese Ovale: grown in Italy
Carvalhal: grown in Portugal
Castellana: grown in Spain
Cherry Orange: grown in southern China and Japan
Clanor: grown in South Africa
Dom Joo: grown in Portugal
Fukuhara: grown in Japan
Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginnin
g of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is a
bout as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet[36]
Homosassa: grown in Florida
Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as "Shamouti"
Jincheng: the most popular orange in China
Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas
Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon
Kona: a type of Valencia orange introduced in Hawaii in 1792 by Captain Geor
ge Vancouver; for many decades in the nineteenth century, these oranges were the
leading export from the Kona district on the Big Island of Hawaii; in Kailua-Ko
na, some of the original stock still bears fruit
Lue Gim Gong: grown in Florida, is an early scion developed by Lue Gim Gong,
a Chinese immigrant known as the "Citrus Genius"; in 1888, Lue cross-pollinated
two orange varieties the Hart's late Valencia and the Mediterranean Sweet and o
btained a fruit both sweet and frost-tolerant; this variety was propagated at th
e Glen St. Mary Nursery, which in 1911 received the Silver Wilder Medal by the A
merican Pomological Society;[4][37] originally considered a hybrid, the Lue Gim
Gong orange was later found to be a nucellar seedling of the Valencia type,[38]
which is properly called Lue Gim Gong; since 2006, the Lue Gim Gong variety is g
rown in Florida, although sold under the general name Valencia
Macetera: grown in Spain, it is known for its unique flavor
Malta: grown in Pakistan
Maltaise Blonde: grown in north Africa
Maltaise Ovale: grown in South Africa and in California under the names of G
arey's or California Mediterranean Sweet
Marrs: grown in Texas, California and Iran, it is relatively low in acid
Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pi
neapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit prod
uction and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deepe
r color[36]
Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a dis
tinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called
anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flower
s; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century
Mosambi: grown in India and Pakistan, it is so low in acid and insipid that
it might be classified as acidless
Narinja: grown in Andhra, South India
Parson Brown: grown in Florida, Mexico, and Turkey, it once was a widely-gro
wn Florida juice orange, its popularity has declined since new varieties with mo
re juice, better yield, and higher acid and sugar content have been developed; i
t originated as a chance seedling in Florida in 1865; its fruits are round, medi
um large, have a thick, pebbly peel and contain 10 to 30 seeds; it still is grow
n because it is the earliest maturing fruit in the United States, usually maturi
ng in early September in the Valley district of Texas,[18] and from early Octobe
r to January in Florida;[36] its peel and juice color are poor, as is the qualit
y of its juice[18]
Pera: grown in Brazil, it is very popular in the Brazilian citrus industry a
nd yielded 7.5 million metric tons in 2005
Pera Coroa: grown in Brazil
Pera Natal: grown in Brazil
Pera Rio: grown in Brazil
Pineapple: grown in North and South America and India
Premier: grown in South Africa
Rhode Red: is a mutation of the Valencia orange, but the color of its flesh
is more intense; it has more juice, and less acidity and vitamin C than the Vale
ncia; it was discovered by Paul Rhode in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida
Roble: it was first shipped from Spain in 1851 by Joseph Roble to his homest
ead in what now is Roble's Park in Tampa, Florida; it is known for its high suga
r content
Queen: grown in South Africa
Salustiana: grown in North Africa
Sathgudi: grown in Tamil Nadu, South India
Seleta, Selecta: grown in Australia and Brazil, it is high in acid
Shamouti Masry: grown in Egypt; it is a richer variety of Shamouti
Sunstar: grown in Florida, this newer cultivar ripens in mid-season (Decembe
r to March) and it is more resistant to cold and fruit-drop than the competing P
ineapple variety; the color of its juice is darker than that of the competing Ha
mlin[36]
Tomango: grown in South Africa
Verna: grown in Algeria, Mexico, Morocco, and Spain
Vicieda: grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain
Westin: grown in Brazil
Navel oranges
Navel oranges are characterized by the growth of a second fruit at the apex, whi
ch protrudes slightly and resembles a human navel. They are primarily grown for
human consumption for various reasons: their thicker skin makes them easy to pee
l[clarification needed], they are less juicy and their bitterness a result of th
e high concentrations of limonin and other limonoids renders them less suitable
for juice.[16] Their widespread distribution and long growing season have made n
avel oranges very popular. In the United States, they are available from Novembe
r to April, with peak supplies in January, February, and March.[39]
refer to caption
A navel orange, peeled and sectioned; the underdeveloped twin fruit is located o
n the bottom right
According to a 1917 study by Palemon Dorsett, Archibald Dixon Shamel and Wilson
Popenoe of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a single mutation
in a Selecta orange tree planted on the grounds of a monastery near Bahia, Braz
il, probably yielded the first navel orange between 1810 and 1820.[40] Neverthel
ess, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, has suggested that
the parent variety was more likely the Portuguese navel orange (Umbigo), descri
bed by Antoine Risso and Pierre Antoine Poiteau in their book Histoire naturelle
des orangers ("Natural History of Orange Trees", 18181822).[40] The mutation cau
sed the orange to develop a second fruit at its base, opposite the stem, as a co
njoined twin in a set of smaller segments embedded within the peel of the primar
y orange.[41] Navel oranges were introduced in Australia in 1824 and in Florida
in 1835. In 1870, twelve cuttings of the original tree were transplanted to Rive
rside, California, where the fruit became known as "Washington".[42] This cultiv
ar was very successful, and rapidly spread to other countries.[40] Because the m
utation left the fruit seedless and, therefore, sterile, the only method to cult
ivate navel oranges was to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus trees.
The California Citrus State Historic Park and the Orcutt Ranch Horticulture Cent
er preserve the history of navel oranges in Riverside.
Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. Thi
s does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all nave
l oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly two-hundred-year-old
tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are,
therefore, clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless ba
nana, the Cavendish. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to n
ew varieties.[40]
Cara cara navels
Slices of common and cara cara oranges on a plate
Cara cara orange slices (left)
Cara cara oranges (also called "red navel") are a type of navel orange grown mai
nly in Venezuela, South Africa and in California's San Joaquin Valley. They are
sweet and comparatively low in acid,[43] with a bright orange rind similar to th
at of other navels, but their flesh is distinctively pinkish red. It is believed
that they have originated as a cross between the Washington navel and the Brazi
lian Bahia navel,[44] and they were discovered at the Hacienda Cara Cara in Vale
ncia, Venezuela, in 1976.[45]
South African cara caras are ready for market in early August, while Venezuelan
fruits arrive in October and Californian fruits in late November.[43][44]
Other varieties of navels
Bahianinha or Bahia
Dream Navel
Late Navel
Washington or California Navel
Blood oranges
Sectioned oranges on a plate
Comparison between the inside and the outside of regular and blood oranges
Main article: Blood orange
Blood oranges are a natural mutation of C. sinensis, although today the majority
of them are hybrids. High concentrations of anthocyanin give the rind, flesh, a
nd juice of the fruit their characteristic dark red color. Blood oranges were fi
rst discovered and cultivated in Sicily in the fifteenth century. Since then the
y have spread worldwide, but are grown especially in Spain and Italyunder the nam
es of sanguina and sanguinella, respectively.
The blood orange, with its distinct color and flavor, is generally considered th
e most delicious juice orange,[16] and has found a niche as an ingredient variat
ion in traditional Seville marmalade.
Other varieties of blood oranges
Maltese: a small and highly colored variety, generally thought to have origi
nated in Italy as a mutation and cultivated there for centuries. It also is grow
n extensively in southern Spain and Malta. It is used in sorbets and other desse
rts due to its rich burgundy color.
Moro: originally from Sicily, it is common throughout Italy. This medium-siz
ed fruit has a relatively long harvest, which lasts from December to April.
Sanguinelli: a mutant of the Doble Fina, discovered in 1929 in Almenara, in
the Castelln province of Spain. It is cultivated in Sicily.
Scarlet navel: a variety with the same mutation as the navel orange.
Tarocco: a relatively new variety developed in Italy. It begins to ripen in
late January.[34]
Acidless oranges
Acidless oranges are an early-season fruit with very low levels of acid. They al
so are called "sweet" oranges in the US, with similar names in other countries:
douce in France, sucrena in Spain, dolce or maltese in Italy, meski in North Afr
ica and the Near East (where they are especially popular), seker portakal ("suga
r orange") in Turkey,[46] succari in Egypt, and lima in Brazil.[16]
The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups,
renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eate
n. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage rend
ers them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or t
he United States.[16]
Attributes
Nutritional value
Oranges, raw,
all commercial varieties Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 197 kJ (47 kcal)
Carbohydrates
11.75 g
Sugars 9.35 g
Dietary fiber 2.4 g
Fat
0.12 g
Protein
0.94 g
Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.
(1%)
11 g
Thiamine (B1)
(8%)
0.087 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
(3%)
0.04 mg
Niacin (B3)
(2%)
0.282 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
(5%)
0.25 mg
Vitamin B6
(5%)
0.06 mg
Folate (B9)
(8%)
30 g
Choline
(2%)
8.4 mg
Vitamin C
(64%)
53.2 mg
Vitamin E
(1%)
0.18 mg
Trace metals
Calcium
(4%)
40 mg
Iron
(1%)
0.1 mg
Magnesium
(3%)
10 mg
Manganese
(1%)
0.025 mg
Phosphorus
(2%)
14 mg
Potassium
(4%)
181 mg
Zinc
(1%)
0.07 mg
Other constituents
Water 86.75 g
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
g = micrograms mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
[icon] This section requires expansion with: nutritional properties (see talk p
age). (November 2012)
Oranges, like most citrus fruits, are a good source of vitamin C.
Acidity
Being a citrus fruit, the orange is acidic: its pH levels are as low as 2.9,[47]
and as high as 4.0.[47][48]
Grading
See also: Food grading
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has established the following
grades for Florida oranges, which primarily apply to oranges sold as fresh frui
t: US Fancy, US No. 1 Bright, US No. 1, US No. 1 Golden, US No. 1 Bronze, US No.
1 Russet, US No. 2 Bright, US No. 2, US No. 2 Russet, and US No. 3.[49] The gen
eral characteristics graded are color (both hue and uniformity), firmness, matur
ity, varietal characteristics, texture, and shape. Fancy, the highest grade, req
uires the highest grade of color and an absence of blemishes, while the terms Br
ight, Golden, Bronze, and Russet concern solely discoloration.
Grade numbers are determined by the amount of unsightly blemishes on the skin an
d firmness of the fruit that do not affect consumer safety. The USDA separates b
lemishes into three categories:
General blemishes: ammoniation, buckskin, caked melanose, creasing, decay, s
cab, split navels, sprayburn, undeveloped segments, unhealed segments, and wormy
fruit
Injuries to fruit: bruises, green spots, oil spots, rough, wide, or protrudi
ng navels, scale, scars, skin breakdown, and thorn scratches
Damage caused by dirt or other foreign material, disease, dryness, or mushy
condition, hail, insects, riciness or woodiness, and sunburn.[49]
The USDA uses a separate grading system for oranges used for juice because appea
rance and texture are irrelevant in this case. There are only two grades: US Gra
de AA Juice and US Grade A Juice, which are given to the oranges before processi
ng. Juice grades are determined by three factors:
The juiciness of the orange
The amount of solids in the juice (at least 10% solids are required for the
AA grade)
The proportion of anhydric citric acid in fruit solids
History
The orange is unknown in the wild state; is assumed to have originated in southe
rn China, northeastern India, and perhaps southeastern Asia.[4] and that they we
re first cultivated in China around 2500 BC.[50]
In Europe, citrus fruitsamong them the bitter orange, introduced to Italy by the
crusaders in the 11th centurywere grown widely in the south for medicinal purpose
s,[4] but the sweet orange was unknown until the late 15th century or the beginn
ings of the 16th century, when Italian and Portuguese merchants brought orange t
rees into the Mediterranean area.[4] Shortly afterward, the sweet orange quickly
was adopted as an edible fruit. It also was considered a luxury item and wealth
y people grew oranges in private conservatories, called orangeries. By 1646, the
sweet orange was well known throughout Europe.[4]
Spanish explorers introduced the sweet orange into the American continent. On hi
s second voyage in 1493, Christopher Columbus took seeds of oranges, lemons, and
citrons to Haiti and the Caribbean. Subsequent expeditions in the mid-1500s bro
ught sweet oranges to South America and Mexico, and to Florida in 1565, when Ped
ro Menndez de Avils founded St Augustine.[51] Spanish missionaries brought orange
trees to Arizona between 1707 and 1710, while the Franciscans did the same in Sa
n Diego, California, in 1769. An orchard was planted at the San Gabriel Mission
around 1804 and a commercial orchard was established in 1841 near present-day Lo
s Angeles. In Louisiana, oranges probably were introduced by French explorers.
Archibald Menzies, the botanist and naturalist on the Vancouver Expedition, coll
ected orange seeds in South Africa, raised the seedlings onboard and gave them t
o several Hawaiian chiefs in 1792. Eventually, the sweet orange was grown in wid
e areas of the Hawaiian Islands, but its cultivation stopped after the arrival o
f the Mediterranean fruit fly in the early 1900s.[4][52]
As oranges are rich in vitamin C and do not spoil easily, during the Age of Disc
overy, Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch sailors planted citrus trees along trade r
outes to prevent scurvy.
Around 1872, Florida farmers obtained seeds from New Orleans, so many orange gro
ves were established by grafting the sweet orange on to sour orange rootstocks.
Cultivation
Climate
refer to caption
Orange tree in March in Santa Clara, California
Like most citrus plants, oranges do well under moderate temperaturesbetween 15.5
and 29 C (59.9 and 84.2 F)and require considerable amounts of sunshine and water. I
t has been suggested that the use of water resources by the citrus industry in t
he Middle East is a contributing factor to the desiccation of the region. [citat
ion needed] Another significant element in the full development of the fruit is
the temperature variation between summer and winter and, between day and night.
In cooler climates, oranges can be grown indoors.
As oranges are sensitive to frost, there are different methods to prevent frost
damage to crops and trees when subfreezing temperatures are expected. A common p
rocess is to spray the trees with water so as to cover them with a thin layer of
ice that will stay just at the freezing point, insulating them even if air temp
eratures drop far lower. This is because water continues to lose heat as long as
the environment is colder than it is, and so the water turning to ice in the en
vironment cannot damage the trees. This practice, however, offers protection onl
y for a very short time.[53] Another procedure is burning fuel oil in smudge pot
s put between the trees. These devices burn with a great deal of particulate emi
ssion, so condensation of water vapour on the particulate soot prevents condensa
tion on plants and raises the air temperature very slightly. Smudge pots were de
veloped for the first time after a disastrous freeze in Southern California in J
anuary 1913 destroyed a whole crop.[54]
Propagation
See also: Fruit tree propagation
It is possible to grow orange trees directly from seeds, but they may be inferti
le or produce fruit that may be different from its parent. For the seed of a com
mercial orange to grow, it must be kept moist at all times. One approach is plac
ing the seeds between two sheets of damp paper towel until they germinate and th
en planting them, although many cultivators just set the seeds straight into the
soil.
Commercially grown orange trees are propagated asexually by grafting a mature cu
ltivar onto a suitable seedling rootstock to ensure the same yield, identical fr
uit characteristics, and resistance to diseases throughout the years. Propagatio
n involves two stages: first, a rootstock is grown from seed. Then, when it is a
pproximately one year old, the leafy top is cut off and a bud taken from a speci
fic scion variety, is grafted into its bark. The scion is what determines the va
riety of orange, while the rootstock makes the tree resistant to pests and disea
ses and adaptable to specific soil and climatic conditions. Thus, rootstocks inf
luence the rate of growth and have an effect on fruit yield and quality.[55]
refer to caption
Orange tree in Southern France
Rootstocks must be compatible with the variety inserted into them because otherw
ise, the tree may decline, be less productive, and even die.[55]
Among the several advantages to grafting are that trees mature uniformly and beg
in to bear fruit earlier than those reproduced by seeds (3 to 4 years in contras
t with 6 to 7 years),[56] and that it makes it possible to combine the best attr
ibutes of a scion with those of a rootstock.[57]
Principal rootstocks
Today, five types of rootstock predominate in relatively cool climates where col
d or freezing weather is probable, especially Florida and southern Europe.
Sour rootstock: it is the only rootstock that truly is an orange (the Citrus
aurantium or bitter orange). It is vigorous and highly drought-resistant.
Poncirus trifoliata: it is a close relative of the Citrus genus, sometimes c
lassified as Citrus trifoliata. It is especially resistant to cold, the tristeza
virus, and the fungus Phytophthora parasitica (root rot) and grows well in loam
soil. Among its disadvantages are its slow growthit is the slowest growing roots
tockand its poor resistance to heat and drought. It is primarily used in China, J
apan, and areas of California with heavy soils.[58]
Swingle citrumelo: it is tolerant of tristeza virus and Phytophthora parasit
ica and moderately resistant to salt and freezing.[56] This rootstock selection
was hybridized from the Duncan grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen) and the Po
ncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. by Walter Tennyson Swingle in Eustis, Florida, in 19
07. It was released by the US Department of Agriculture to nurserymen in 1974.
Troyer citrange and Carrizo citrange: these reasonably vigorous rootstocks a
re resistant to Phytophthora parasitica, nematodes, and tristeza virus and show
good cold tolerance. They also are highly polyembryonic, so growers can obtain m
ultiple plants from a single seed. Citrange, however, does not do well in clay,
calcareous or high-pH soils, and is sensitive to salinity. It is not feasible as
rootstock for mandarin scions, as it overgrows them by producing branches of it
s own in competition with the grafted budwood.[59] Citranges are hybrids of the
Washington navel orange and the Poncirus trifoliata. The original crosses, made
in the early 1900s by the U.S. Department of Agriculture with the intention of p
roducing cold tolerant scion varieties, were later identified as suitable for us
e as rootstocks. The commercial use of these rootstocks began in Australia in th
e 1960s. The Troyer variety generally is found in California, while the Carrizo
variety is used in Florida.
Cleopatra mandarin: it is tolerant of salinity and soil alkalinity and also
suitable for shallow soils. It is used primarily in Spain, Australia, and Florid
a. Dade County, for example, has 85% calcareous soil, a typical trait of land th
at has been under water.[60] The Cleopatra mandarin, originated in India and int
roduced into Florida from Jamaica in the mid-nineteenth century, has been distri
buted and tested as a rootstock throughout the world. Nowadays, however, it is c
onsidered an inferior rootstock because it is sensitive to many diseases, grows
slowly, and is difficult to propagate.[61]
Other rootstock varieties in the United States
Oranges
African shaddock X trifoliate hybrid[40]
Benton citrange trifoliate hybrid[40]
Borneo Rangpur lime[40]
Bitters C-22 citrange (X Citroncirus sp. Rutaceae): it was hybridized at the
USDA Date and Citrus Station in Indio, California, and developed further by the
University of California, Riverside. It is used primarily as rootstock for nave
l oranges in California. In 2009, a report suggested it also may be useful to re
place sour orange rootstock for grapefruit in Texas because it is tolerant of ca
lcareous soil.[62][63] Its name is not related to the bitter orange: it was name
d after Dr William Bitters, professor of Horticulture and a curator of the Citru
s Variety Collection.
Carpenter C-54 citrange[63]
C-32 citrange trifoliate hybrid[40]
C-35 citrange trifoliate hybrid[40]
Calamondin kumquat hybrid[40]
Carrizo citrange trifoliate hybrid[40]
Citradia trifoliate hybrid[40]
Citremon trifoliate hybrid (CRC 1449)[40]
Citrumelo trifoliate hybrid C190[40]
Citrumelo trifoliate hybrid (CRC 1452)[40]
Citrumelo trifoliate hybrid (CRC 4475)[40]
Citrus macrophylla (Alemow)[40]
Citrus volkameriana (Volkamer lemon)[40]
Cleopatra mandarin X trifoliate hybrid X639[40]
Flying dragon trifoliate (CRC 3330A)[40]
Fraser Seville sour orange[40]
Furr C-57 citrange[63]
Goutoucheng sour orange (CRC 3929)[40]
Goutoucheng sour orange (CRC 4004)[40]
Grapefruit seedling (CRC 343)[40]
Pomeroy trifoliate[40]
Rangpur lime X Troyer citrange hybrid[40]
Rich 16-6 trifoliate[40]
Rubidoux trifoliate[40]
Rusk citrange trifoliate orange[40]
Satsuma X trifoliate hybrid[40]
Schaub rough lemon[40]
Small-leaf trifoliate[40]
Smooth Flat Seville sour orange[40]
Sun Chu Sha Kat mandarin[40]
US 119 (Grapefruit X trifoliate) X Sweet Orange hybrid[40]
Vangassay rough lemon[40]
Yuma Ponderosa lemon pummelo hybrid[40]
Zhuluan sour orange hybrid (CRC 3930)[40]
Zhuluan sour orange hybrid (CRC 3981)[40]
Harvest
[icon] This section requires expansion. (November 2012)
Canopy-shaking mechanical harvesters are being used increasingly in Florida to h
arvest oranges. Current canopy shaker machines use a series of six-to-seven-foot
long tines to shake the tree canopy at a relatively constant stroke and frequen
cy.[64]
Degreening
Oranges must be mature when harvested.[citation needed] In the United States, la
ws forbid harvesting immature fruit for human consumption in Texas, Arizona, Cal
ifornia and Florida.[65] Ripe oranges, however, often have some green or yellow-
green color in the skin. Ethylene gas is used to turn green skin to orange. This
process is known as "degreening", also called "gassing", "sweating", or "curing
".[65] Oranges are non-climacteric fruits and cannot post-harvest ripen internal
ly in response to ethylene gas, though they will de-green externally.[66]
Storage
A stand with oranges, a man next to it, a cat on the floor
A stand with oranges in a market at Agadir, Morocco
Commercially, oranges can be stored by refrigeration in controlled-atmosphere ch
ambers for up to 12 weeks after harvest. Storage life ultimately depends on cult
ivar, maturity, pre-harvest conditions, and handling.[67] In stores and markets,
however, oranges should be displayed on non-refrigerated shelves.
At home, oranges have a shelf life of about one month.[68] In either case, optim
ally, they are stored loosely in an open or perforated plastic bag.[68]
Pests and diseases
See also: List of citrus diseases
Cottony cushion scale
The first major pest that attacked orange trees in the United States was the cot
tony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), imported from Australia to California in 1
868. Within 20 years, it wiped out the citrus orchards around Los Angeles, and l
imited orange growth throughout California. In 1888, the USDA sent Alfred Koebel
e to Australia to study this scale insect in its native habitat. He brought back
with him specimens of Novius cardinalis, an Australian ladybird beetle, and wit
hin a decade the pest was controlled.[33]
Citrus greening disease
The citrus greening disease, caused by the bacterium Liberobacter asiaticum, has
been the most serious threat to orange production since 2010. It is characteriz
ed by streaks of different shades on the leaves, and deformed, poorly-colored, u
nsavory fruit. In areas where the disease is endemic, citrus trees live for only
five to eight years and never bear fruit suitable for consumption.[69] In the w
estern hemisphere, it was discovered in Florida in 1998, where it has attacked n
early all the trees ever since. It was also reported in Brazil by Fundecitrus Br
asil in 2004.[69] As from 2009, 0.87% of the trees in Brazil's main orange growi
ng areas (So Paulo and Minas Gerais) showed symptoms of greening, which means an
increase of 49% over 2008.[70]
The disease is spread primarily by two species of psyllid insects. One of them i
s the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama), an efficient vector of t
he Liberobacter asiaticum. Generalist predators such as the ladybird beetles Cur
inus coeruleus, Olla v-nigrum, Harmonia axyridis, and Cycloneda sanguinea, and t
he lacewings Ceraeochrysa spp. and Chrysoperla spp. make significant contributio
n to the mortality of the Asian citrus psyllid, which results in 80100% reduction
in psyllid populations. In contrast, parasitism by Tamarixia radiata, a species
-specific parasitoid of the Asian citrus psyllid, is variable and generally low
in southwest Florida: in 2006, it amounted to a reduction of less than 12% from
May to September and 50% in November.
In 2007, foliar applications of insecticides reduced psyllid populations for a s
hort time, but also suppressed the populations of predatory ladybird beetles. So
il application of aldicarb provided limited control of Asian citrus psyllid, whi
le drenches of imidacloprid to young trees were effective for two months or more
.[71]
Management of citrus greening disease is difficult and requires an integrated ap
proach that includes use of clean stock, elimination of inoculum via voluntary a
nd regulatory means, use of pesticides to control psyllid vectors in the citrus
crop, and biological control of psyllid vectors in non-crop reservoirs. Citrus g
reening disease is not under completely successful management.[69]
Greasy spot
Greasy spot, a fungal disease caused by the Mycosphaerella citri, produces leaf
spots and premature defoliation, thus reducing the tree's vigour and yield. Asco
spores of M. citri are generated in pseudothecia in decomposing fallen leaves.[7
2] Once mature, ascospores are ejected and subsequently dispersed by air current
s.
Production
Main article: Citrus production
Orange Grove outside of Santa Paula, California.
Brazil is the world's leading orange producer, with an output almost as high as
that of the next three countries combined (the United States, India, and China).
Orange groves are located mainly in the state of So Paulo, in the southeastern r
egion of Brazil, and account for approximately 80% of the national production. A
s almost 99% of the fruit is processed for export, 53% of total global frozen co
ncentrated orange juice production comes from this area and the western part of
the state of Minas Gerais. In Brazil, the four predominant orange varieties used
for obtaining juice are Hamlin, Pera Rio, Natal, and Valencia.[73][74]
The United States is the second largest producer. Groves are located especially
in Florida, California, Texas, and Arizona. The majority of California's crop is
sold as fresh fruit, whereas Florida's oranges are destined to juice products.
Mid-south Florida produces about half as many oranges as Brazil, but the bulk of
its orange juice is not exported. The Indian River area of Florida is known for
the high quality of its juice, which often is sold fresh in the US and frequent
ly blended with juice produced in other regions because Indian River trees yield
very sweet oranges, but in relatively small quantities.[75]
Production of orange juice between the So Paulo and mid-south Florida areas makes
up roughly 85% of the world market. Brazil exports 99% of its production, while
90% of Florida's production is consumed in the US.[76]
Orange juice is traded internationally in the form of frozen, concentrated orang
e juice to reduce the volume used so that storage and transportation costs are l
ower.[77]
The European Union is the third largest producer of oranges worldwide.[74]
Other countries with a significant production of oranges are South Africa, Moroc
co, and Argentina.
Top ten countries
with the largest production of orange in 2012[78]
(million tonnes)
Rank Country Production Rank Country Production
1 Brazil 18.0 6 Spain 2.9
2 United States 8.1 7 Egypt 2.7
3 China 6.5 8 Italy 1.7
4 India 5.0 9 Turkey 1.6
5 Mexico 3.6 10 South Africa 1.6
Juice and other products
Oranges, whose flavor may vary from sweet to sour, are commonly peeled and eaten
fresh or squeezed for juice. The thick bitter rind is usually discarded, but ca
n be processed into animal feed by desiccation, using pressure and heat. It also
is used in certain recipes as a food flavoring or garnish. The outermost layer
of the rind can be thinly grated with a zester to produce orange zest. Zest is p
opular in cooking because it contains the oil glands and has a strong flavor sim
ilar to that of the orange pulp. The white part of the rind, including the pith,
is a source of pectin and has nearly the same amount of vitamin C as the flesh
and other nutrients.
Although not so juicy or tasty as the flesh, orange peel is edible and has highe
r contents of vitamin C and more fibre. It also contains citral, an aldehyde tha
t antagonizes the action of vitamin A. Particularly in environments where resour
ces are scarce and therefore maximum nutritional value must be obtained with the
minimum generation of waste, for example, on a submarine, orange peels have bee
n consumed routinely. Since large concentrations of pesticides have been found i
n orange peels,[79] some organizations[which?] recommend consumption of the peel
of only organically grown and processed oranges, where chemical pesticides or h
erbicides have not been used.[80]
Products made from oranges
Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a juicer
or squeezer) and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at
home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of
orange juice in the world, followed by the US, where it is one of the commoditi
es traded on the New York Board of Trade.
Skeletal model of octyl acetate
Octyl acetate is responsible for the fragrance of oranges
Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered o
range juice.[81]
Sweet orange oil is a by-product of the juice industry produced by pressing
the peel. It is used for flavoring food and drinks and also in the perfume indus
try and aromatherapy for its fragrance. Sweet orange oil consists of approximate
ly 90% D-limonene, a solvent used in various household chemicals, such as wood c
onditioners for furniture andalong with other citrus oilsdetergents and hand clean
sers. It is an efficient cleaning agent with a pleasant smell, promoted for bein
g environmentally friendly and therefore, preferable to petrochemicals. D-limone
ne is, however, classified from slightly toxic to humans,[82] to very toxic to m
arine life in different countries.[83]
Although once thought to cause renal cancer in rats, limonene is now considered
a natural chemopreventive agent in humans,[84][85] since there is no evidence fo
r its carcinogenicity or genotoxicity. The Carcinogenic Potency Project estimate
s that D-limonene causes human cancer on a level roughly equivalent to that caus
ed by exposure to caffeic acid via dietary coffee intake,[86] whereas the Intern
ational Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies it under Class 3, which
means it is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.[87]
Orange blossoms are used in several different ways, as are fruit peels and the l
eaves and wood of the tree.
The orange blossom, which is the state flower of Florida,[88] is highly frag
rant and traditionally associated with good fortune. It has long been popular in
bridal bouquets and head wreaths.
Orange blossom essence is an important component in the making of perfume.
Orange blossom petals can also be made into a delicately citrus-scented vers
ion of rosewater, known as "orange blossom water" or "orange flower water". It i
s a common ingredient in French and Middle Eastern cuisines, especially in desse
rts and baked goods. In some Middle Eastern countries, drops of orange flower wa
ter are added to disguise the unpleasant taste of hard water drawn from wells or
stored in qullahs (traditional Egyptian water pitchers made of porous clay). In
the United States, orange flower water is used to make orange blossom scones an
d marshmallows.
In Spain, fallen blossoms are dried and used to make tea.
Orange blossom honey (or citrus honey) is obtained by putting beehives in th
e citrus groves while trees bloom. By this method, bees also pollinate seeded ci
trus varieties. This type of honey has an orangey taste and is highly prized.
Marmalade usually is made with Seville oranges. All parts of the fruit are u
sed: the pith and pips (separated and placed in a muslin bag) are boiled in a mi
xture of juice, slivered peel, sliced-up flesh, sugar, and water to extract thei
r pectin, which helps the conserve to set.
Orange peel is used by gardeners as a slug repellent.
Orange leaves can be boiled to make tea.
Orangewood sticks are used as cuticle pushers in manicures and pedicures, an
d as spudgers for manipulating slender electronic wires.
Orangewood is used in the same way as mesquite, oak, and hickory for seasoni
ng grilled meat.
A jar of orange juice with oranges around it
Oranges and orange juice
refer to caption
Juice squeezer
refer to caption
A jar of marmalade
See also
Cam snh (Green orange or Longan. Citrus reticulata maxima)
Orange production in Brazil
University of California Citrus Experiment Station
Eliza Tibbets (for the history of orange groves in California, US)
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Resources.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Oranges
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Citrus sinensis.
Wikispecies has information related to: Citrus sinensis
Citrus sinensis List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanic
al Databases), USDA, Agricultural Research Service.
Oranges: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy. (2006). University of C
alifornia Agriculture and Natural Resources. Accessed May 23, 2014.
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Citrus
List of citrus fruits
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