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CHAPTER TEN
Under the kings of the Gupra dynasty, an Gupta kings. However, an unusual, larqer than
empire was formed that, with tributary stares, life-sizestone scuJptureo[a horse(Fig. ro.r) is
dominated most of northern and north-central generally thought to be of this period, and, on
India for approximately two hundred years, the teruous basisof its very weathered inscrip-
fiom about a.o. 3r9, when the Gupta era was tion,3 has been said to represent a sacrificial
proclaimed,l until the sixth century.The political horse used by Sarnudragupta for one of the
strength of the Guptas and the cultural flores- aivamedhorituals he performed, an event also
cence that they apparently fostered are often commemorated in lis aluamedhacoin tvpe. The
compared to aspects of the Maurya dynasty, horse is carved of beige sandston. *".
and, indeed, it has been suggested rhat the "od
found at l(iairigarh in Utrar Pradesh.very near -
Guptas consciouslylooked back to the Maurya che Nepal border, a region importanr to the
period for a model upon which ro base their early Gupta and Licchavi alliance. Its sryle
own empire.2 Candragupta I (ca. 3r9-335) rypifieswhar musr be consideredrhe rransitional
was probably the first to attain significant power phase berween the Kugana-periodworks of the
and fame for his line, partially achie.rred
through Mathura and related schoolsand the develooed
a marriage alliance with the Licchavis of north- Gupta srylesof the fifih cenrury. A sriff qualiry
eastern India and Nepal. Under his son and pervadesthe work, and the articulation of joints
successor, Samudragupta (ca. 1.35176), the and the transidonsfrom one parr of the body
empire expanded to include newly conquered to the next seemabrupt, much like formulations
teuitodes as well as numerous tributary states of human figures at Mathure and other related
in northem and norrh-cenrrallndia. sites during the Kulena period, and contrasting
Few works of art are known that may be strongly with the naturalism of animal sculpture
positively assigned to the reigns of the early evidencedunder rhe Mauryas. Even rhough it
'88 DYNASTIXSOF THB MIDDTE PERIOD
is entirely free-standing, the horse is properly
viewcd in pro61e.Its lack of implicit movement
in spaceor torsion relatesit to the earlier Kusa4a
formulations as well as other fourth-century
examples.
Three Jain images found at DurjanPura, near
Vidi{a in north-central India, provide further im-
portant information about art under the early
Guptas.They are datedby their inscriptionsto the
reign of a previously little known Gupta king,
Remagupta (ca. 37G38o),a and thus constitute
an important document of Gupta history as
well. All three sculptureswere nearly identical
in their original state, although each is partially
ro.r. Horse. From Khairigalh, Uttar Pradesh,India. damaged. The best preserved (Fig. ro.z) shows
Gupte period (reign of Samudragupta?).Ca. fourth
century. Beige sandstone.FI: about 2oo cm. SteteMu_ a central figure sitting in vajnparyahkasana with
seurn, Lucknow. his hands in dhyaxa nu&a, attended by nvo
caurl bearers.A halo comprised of a scalloped
flame morif around the perimeter reminiscent
of Kugana formulations of the Mathura school
and containing an open lotus blossom, appears
behind his head. The pedestalincludes a wheel
in the center and lions at the corners.In all, the
conliguration is strikingly similar to that of
Buddhist and Jain images of the Ku;ana period.
But like the preceding horse sculpture, these
late fotrrth-centuryimages representa transi- G-,::r:
tional stage bctwein the Kugaqa works of =on
Mathura and related sitesand the mature Gupta ::- I:
idiom. Abrupt, angular contours to the bodies =r-ie:
and rather squat proportions recall the Kuqa4a ieieo:
idiom and yet, a movement toward what is =::1)-
consideredthe Gupta ideal is suggestedin the :3:;V
omamentation of the halo. ;: lli
:aa--:
Hlxou A n t o r r n r E A R L YG U P T AP I R I o D
The Vidi6a region was an imPortant early GuPta the reign of Candragupta II (ca. 38o-4r5), the
art center, for in addition to the three Pieces successorof Ramagupta, who made imPortant ==-i:
military campaignsin the region. At Udayagiri, __ -:-
from Remagupta's reign, numerous other
remains have been located in the area,In partic- only a few kilometers from Vidi6a, twenty --l
ular, art seemsto have flourished there during rock-cut chambers were excavated during the
THE GUPTA PERIoD 169
i::operly
E-:aement
ts: Kusaqa
t:-:r-ntury
fF::r. near
E:-:er im-
I -3 early
!:--s rothe
l::: king,
| -- -ritute
L.-ory as
Jr ::ntical
!::ftlally
E: ihows
E':';a rvith
li :t two
r ;:lloped
:-* :rlscent
:::' school
E_ ;PPears
b = rvheel
. L all, the ro.3. Facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh,India. Gupta
n ;hat of pedod. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).
r+ period.
t:::.. these
f .: tmnsi- Gupta period, two of which bear inscriptions
s..rks of from the reign of Candragupta II. These caves
rl::3 Gupta are yital documents since they constitute the
c: bodies earliest intact body of Hindu art in India, and
&; Ku9a4a demonstrate that by the early fifth century
i rghat is many Hindu iconographic flormulae were al-
s:i ir the ready well established.Securely dated because
an inscription on the facade mentions Candra-
gupta II and the year 8z (Gupta era), equivalent
to A.D. 4or,5 Cave 6 (Fig. ro.3) consistsof a
ly a Pradesh, small chamber orecededbv a rock-cut veranda.
az (ce. A.D. The oFcenter doo.*"y i", decorated jambs
6-reological and lintel, half-length pilastersat the sides,and
representationsof two goddessesstanding atop
makarcs above (Fig. io.a). These figures are
precursorsto the depictionsofthe river goddesses
Gairga and Yamun5, who standatop the maleara
and tortoise respectively, Here, however, the
o-4r5), the udhanas are identical, although the apparent
lnlPoftant individualiry of the two goddessesis suggested
Udayagiri, by the use of the trees above the figures, for
sa. twenty the one to the left is associatedwith a maneo ro.4. Doorway of Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh,
during the tree,the other with an aioka vee.Two quardian India. Gupta period. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).
190 DYNASTIES OF I'HE MIDDLI PERIOD
rc.S. Dt)ardpal.t to r ighr of Cavc 6 cntrancc. Uder'' ro.6. I)urg. Mahisisurarnardirrron lacadc oi Cavc 6.
agiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupt:r pcriod. CLrptr Uda,r'agiri, Mrdh,ve Prrdcsh, I n d i r . G u p u p e r i o d .
rr3 32(A.D.40r). Guptxcra 32 (^.D.4c)r).
{ieurcs (draral,aias)l1ark the door, cech stxnding elcph:rnt-hcadeddcity, is carved into rhe lcli
in a slightly ilcccntllatcdposturc with the arnr ,, , , l;,..,' ' . '1. .,. - rr '1- c.r\c J'rJ It
ncarcstthc door hclcl at dre hip, the other leanins iurageof Durqa in her Mahistsuramerdiniforrn
upon lis rvcapon(Fig. ro.5). The husky boclies - r . 5 e . , r \ .r' lr' r r i o l t rl l i o . t o . ^ \ .L J ( r \ \ c (C
l ..lc.-
L r r d d i , p l ' . , r r o . lr o. t ' . , : . ' r n r c n r .t y p i f i r h c .. r . . . - J . . . . , t .. . c . , l , c C o . , ri , . .
early Gupta style end clen(rrtratc a stylistic rcprcscntatiolr of Visnu, :incl thcrc is anothcr
progressionfrom the iruagcs of the reign of inugc of this god Lrct\\'ccnDurga ancl the riglrt
Rtrnatlripta sone tl'enty-five ye:irs errlier. gLrardiu.ThLrs,in spiteof drc sp.Ltixlirnbxlince
In spite of the nuscular physiqLres relnilllscent b c r r r , c nr l r " . l i f 1 . , r h , l . f t ' J r r 3 1 ' r r h .
l- .., ,. - ,. Lt.
"[
. .tt .,' (..rnc..
oi l{us-1ra pr-ecedcnts,thc figurcs show a new
. , . , . . , . r ,. . , , , - l
snloothnessto the fonrx oi their boclies,Iorc- r 1 . , ., - . . ' . - r n . l r r t r c l t i , ,
shndou'ing the rrore graceful depictions oi drc ' y r r r r .r r i .- L
latc fifth ccrrtury. Thc claboratc coiflurcs :lre G,rnc(a,rvho is thc sonofParvati (Sive'srvife),
also cheracteristicof developeclGuptx forns, rs casily rccognizc.l by liis corpulcncy ancl
crr.iplusizirrgclclicrte iocks of heir rrrangecl in , 1 , .J1' . ' r 1 r , . . . r .l , l . , r rr, . u p o o . . dl c , rrr.rl
Iuxuriant profilsion atop the hcad. . ,.,, \,\ . . ,., l , ^ ' . | ' f f L . r r, . . . r ' s
"1.
Othcr Iisurcs sculptccLinto thc front rvalL of hcacl ancl rcplaccd it rvidr drc hc,rclof drc first
,t.- -.... .. . . . . r : . .L r d r l l l L . ., . n . 1 ': \ :.::
crciltrlrc hc happericclr.rporrll-tcr drc Lrnfortlrnate
provide perlL;rps the earliestsurvivinq exlmplc inciclenr.As the "Overconcr of Obstecles"in
of l uniliccl rconogrlphic program in Hinclu IIindLr tliousht, Ganciais jnvarieblyinvokcd ar ::ta..::tt.:.: :
rrt (Fig ro.3). A reprcsentation of Garc(il, thc the beginninq of rr'orshipto hclp thc devotee
THE GUPTA?ERTOD 191
seeksrelease.Dtrrga's deGat of the asura, thet,
in the buffalo form, might indicate the victory
o.ver solhsaraand the defeat of death, that is,
the achievement of immortality. Her placement
opposite Gar1eia, whose worship enables the
devotee to begin this process, is therefore
fitting. Indeed, the pairing of these two deities
at rhe beginning and end of the circumam-
bulatory path in later Hindu temple architecture
is comnon. That this symbolism was apparently
already present in the earliest extant corpus of
Hindu art suggeststhat, asin the caseofBuddha
and bodhisatwa imagery, a lengthy period of
development occurred prior to its appearance
ln stone.
The Udayagiri image shows Durga in a
f,welve-armed form, indicative of the trend
toward increaseduse of multiple body parts in
representationsof divinities during this period.
In her hands she holds weapons provided by
various Hindu gods, who separatelyhad been
unable to defeat the brffalo asxra, who is shown
in this relief being upended by Durga. Her
G of Cave 6. ro.7. Vigr.ruon facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya emergence as the supr€me goddess, greater
uPra period. Pradesh,India. Gupte period. Gupta era 8z (4.o. 4or). than the sum of all the male gods whose bor-
rowed weapons she holds, pre{igures the grow-
ing emphasison female goddessesand personi-
fications that is prorninent in much of post-
trto the left along his spiritual path. As such, his image Gupta arr and perhapsindicatesa continujty
;ave and an usually occurs at the entrance to a shrine or with the prehistoric emphasis on the fenale.
Erdini form temple, on the side where the devotee begins In style, the rather stocky forms of her body
reen Ga{resa the circumambulation rite. It is likely, then, and the details of her costume agree with the
e door is a that the worshiper at this cave was to begin his early fifth-century date provided by the inscrip-
r is another devotions at the left of the facade. tion placed nearly directly above her head.
nd the right In contrast, Durga in her Mahisasuramardini The two representationsof Vipr-ru on the
rl imbalance form symbolizesthe conceptof religiousattain- facade are similar but not identical. Both stand
right of the ment or victory and normally appearson the fiontally posed with all four arms placed in a
r of Ga4eia side of a temple that the vieq/er encounters lowered position, as is comrnonly seenin Vi9lu
rent itself is after worship is conplete, that is, after the representations prior to the eighth century.
"victory" is achieved.In the MahiSasurarnardini In the caseof the representationto the dght of
srva s wrte). story, an 4sut4,a type of demon, named Mahi5a the door, his two rear hands are placed on the
'ulency and was destroyed many times but kept reappearing personified Iigures of two of his attributes
Llv acquired in new forms until he was finally defeatedby (ayudhapunsa) the gada (Gadadevl) and caba
'fhe
rn bar-resa s Durga while he was a buffalo. The buffalo is a (Cakrapurn;a) (Fig. ro.7). gada (mace)
. of the first symbol associatedwith death in Hindu thought, symbolizes the power of knowledge, which
unfortunate for Yama, the god of death; rides a bufalo. It destroys all that opposes it, while the cakn
)bstacles"in may be suggested that Mahisat numerous (discus) connotes the universal mind. In both
r invoked at incarnations symbolize the realm of sahsdra, sculptures, Visnu wears a high crown and a
the devotee the cycle of rebirths from which the devotee uanamala(garland of the forest) that reaches
',rIIl
1g2 DYNISTITS Ol llll)1)rl PFItI(lD
his knces, both of rvhich erc st:rnderd clctucnts is lurprcccclcrtccl il cxtant rnonurlcnts. Horv-
of Vaisnavitc icorrosrephl'. In st1.lc.drc hcrit:rgc cr.cr.tlre rcliqio,.rs
conccptsscerl u.cll clcvclopccl
oi I(Lrslrnr forrns is still prcsL'r1ti11 thc srock,v. br rhis nrrrc'lnd ir rltrst bc ,rssLrnrcrl tlut thc
muscul,rr treetnrcnt ot thc bodics. E,rch iigulc on 1..rirl ' tl '.dtrt) . 't rl,' r,l.,tr,'n.l.rl
rlr, ...'lc| -r r,ro I f ( ....ri].rr -..r..1', to thc Ganci:r antl J)urql im:tgcs clocurncrtts
in thc c,rsc of (l.rnc!1, .u1(l suqqcstivc o[ thc . r . | . . ' . " . . ' l ' l r ', , c l c . r . . ' r . L ,r . l . . , r .r r . ^ l -
latcr pr':rcricc of pllcinq lnrjor icorr on thc rlrc pr r-C,upte pcriocl.
c-\rcrior ol tc-rlplcs il nichcs. hr hfi:l rcrnplcs. ()nc of thc rllost import:lrlt c:r\,c\:1tUdayrgiri
thesc nic]res s()Llctinrcs bccrnrc nunrLrLrrc vr:r is Crr-r' 5. Its proriliirv ro Clvc- 6. rvlrich rv:is
siotrs of tltc wholc t.rnUlc. bLrr hcrc. onlr. thc c\c:r\.xte(l dLrrinq tlrc rcigr of Olnrlregupta
conccpt of thc si'peletion of cech hqurc is Il ' I r'' ( ", . rr'' ' l r ' t r ' t r . 'r i 1 ' t^ ' r
Pfcsarii. slrqqc\tiDq thlt it :rlso \r.a\ c\c]\'rtcd drlli[q thc
Thc right rv.rll ,r.ljrccrrt to thc crrvc {.icrrlt: rcigl of Cendlrquptl ll,rj is stroriq cvidcllcc
belrs l nichc llitlr im.rgcso1'thc "scvcn nrothcr\" thet C;rvc j, thc V:lrarlre c:lvc. wlis creitcd at
(rrryrtnrriafrlar). consorl of scvcr:rlprincip:rl I Iinclrr t]rc semc :Lppro,\ir)ri1tctilrc. sincc thc rhrce
gocls, u'ho hc'lpccl Sir:r (lcstro\ rriLrltiplc rcprc- sccln to f;rru .r clLrster'.Plopcrly speakltlg. tl-ris
'I
scnt.rtiolr\ of tlrc rrrrira ArrJh:rkl. hcv lrc crcxvrti(rr js rrrorc.r nichc than a cavc, lts llrain
fittiugll'locrLcJ ,rpposirc (irnc(r ibr. likc DLrrqlr fi'ltLrrc bcing i1 lilr!!e-\celc rcplcicntrti(u of
M . . i - . r . r . r' . . r . . I r ' . . . .r , 1 1 . . v r ' t r r . r r r V.rrahe.rlic boer lir ur oi-Visnu. *'idr acconlpxrly-
tliis cesc rher of spirittnl uisJorl (r,1111,a) o1'61 ing sccncs(Fig. ro.8). EvclLurllv, V:rralu clmc
ignolarce (,rlir/1,a)- thc pl:rcc'mcnt of tlicsc ro bc rvorshipc.l as ouc of thc tcn rlrljor illc:rrrl:1-
figuli's. .,'u-li]r:quiti srenderd in leter Ilirrclu :rrt. tions of Visuu. eech of uhich hlcl thc prrrposc
THE GUPTAPERIOD T9J
of carrying out the god's role as the preserverof right wall of the niche are shown on their
the universe, Here, Varaha appears in his Ng- respectivevehiclesagainstrepresentationsof the
Varaha form, with tle body of a man but the two streams that meet in a confuence. It has
headofa boar. He lifts the earth (personified as been suggestedethat this may be a graphic
the female goddess,P4hvi) with his tusks, thus representationof the region of Mad\ade{a, the
saving her from submersion under the ocean. heatland of the rising Gupta empire, through
The precariousnessof her position as sculpted which the two rivers flow. In their role as pro-
in rhis example reinforces the dramatic aspects tectors of their lands, symbolized by the Gaiga-
of the moment. Beneath Varaha's left foot is a Yamuna relief, the Gupta kings are similar to
ndga whose submission to the deity is shown by Varaha, the rescuerofthe earth, and it is possible
his aijali mudra,a gestureof respect.The body that such a conccpt is inherent in the popularly
of Varaha shows the same husky muscularity shown Varaha images of thc Gupta period.
that may be traced to Kuga{ra precedents of Perhaps Varaha here symbolizes Candragupta
northerl India, especiallyofthe Mathure school, himself.
and yet correlates fairly closely with textual These various interpretations of the Varaha
sources(which may be later in date) that describe relief should not be viewed as contradictory
Varaha's broad shouldersand smooth, beautiful or mutually exclusive.Multiple levels are often
body. Varaha wears the uanamala cha:.acte:rLsnc intended by the creators of South Asian a!t,
of Vispu, and a lotus appearsabove his head. who use this type of allegory not only to
The iconographic schemeis completed on the distinguish the exoteric from the esotcric, but
back and side walls of the niche, although also becauseeach individual worshipcr is at his
Varaha remains dominant due to his large size own stageof progress toward the religious goal
and three-dimensionalityin relation to the others. and, as such, a single meaning might not be
Water, that is, the ocean,is portrayed by a series appropriate to all. Panllel consrrucrionson
of wavy lines on the three walls, and the sages mulciplc levcls cxisr in Sanskrit lirerarrrrcand
who praised Varaha and acknowledged him as are used in religious texts and dramas with an
the supreme deity appear in rows on the back identical purpose.
Dt5. How- wall. The river goddesses,Gange and Yamuna, A one-faced liirga (ekanukhalinga)is the main
developed are depicted on both side walls. object of worship in Cave 4 at Udayagiri (Fig.
ti rhat the This impressive relief may be read on a ro.9), obviously a Saivite cave, but the date of
elationship number of levels, as is generally the case in this work is not ca.ily fixed. as rhcrc is no in-
documents religious art ofSouth Asia. In one sense,it might scription associatedwith it. However, the sim-
patern of be taken literally as the story of the timely plicity of the treatnent of the facc, thc careful
rescueof the earth by Vareha. However, Varaha depiction of the separatclocks of hair, and thc
Udayagiri is also the namc of a type of Vedic ritual. Thus, relatively modest alnount ofjewelry suggcstthat
rlhich was the sculptural representationmight be an allu- it was n.radcin thc first quarter of the fifth cen-
mdragupta sion to the perforrlancc of thc Varaha rite as a tury. The round face with rathcr heavy features
rnscrlPhon means of extricating the world from a "dcluge is reminiscent of Kustna types rather than sug-
tiuring the of iniguity"? as opposed to an actual food. The gestive of the urore fuid, subtly modeled {brms
I evidence suppiication of the earth goddess, Plthvi, to of the late fifth centLrry.Thcrc i: pcrhaps.no
created at Varaha upon his descentinto the ocean,as given m o r e d r a u r a t i cs y m b o l o f t h e p o w c r o [ S i v a
the three in the Vi54u Pufi4a, resentblesthc words an than the irnage ofthe /iiga, or phallus,j uxtaposed
zJ<ing, this individual devotee might say in worship, such with a rcpresentation of one or more human
ie. its main as "elevate me now from this placc, as thou heads,for it implies thc unification of the sexual
ntation of hast upraised me in days of old,"8 further sug- encrgy, represeniarivcof the entirc crcatjve
ccomPany- gesting such a parallel. energy of the universe, with the intellect. It
uaha came On srili anorherlevel.rhe Varaln conrposirion becomes,in a varicty of different forrns, one of
or incama- may be seento have associations with the secular the most cxpressivesymbols in Hindu art.
he purpose realm. The Ganga and Yamuna figures on the The varietiesof Hindu subjectssecnat Udaya-
,94 D\ NASTITS OF IHh MIDDIE PFRIOD
gid are unusual among the early GuPta remains early Gupta-period date. Iconographically, the
becausetheir contexts are preserved.However, image,is of interest as it shows the god who is
isolatedGupta-period finds at a number of other half Siva (proper right side) and half Vis4u
sites reveal a vast repertoile of Hindu deities (proper left side). Not only are the two halves -
-l
widespread by the fifth century. Most of these of the headdressdiferentiated but presumably
.onceptions reveal littlc of their forrnativc the attibutes originally hcld in the handswould
phasei.appearingas flully developcdiconswhen have been appropriate to each of the deities.
ih.y *.r. fitt, preservedin stoncexamples.This The erect liiga charactedstic of Siva is repre-
suggests that, like the Udayagiri sculptures, sented on the proper right side on1y. Such an
these works represent religious concepts that image indicates not only a well-developed
had been developing for a long time, and iconography for each of the gods. but a srage
perhapshad been depicted in works of art that of religious developnent in which both had
have not survived. been reconciled into a syncietic statement-that
An approximately humcn-sjze rePresentation, o f u l t i m a t eu n i t y i n s p i t eo f r p p a r c n td u o l i r y .
of the god Hari-Hara, the syncretic union of K1sr.ra, best known later as the eighth incarna-
Sir," Vi;o.t, fiom Madhya Pradesh may be tion ofVif+u, also appearsin sculpturesfiorn the
"oJ of thc fifth century on the early fifth century. A representationof hin from
dated to the first Part
basis of its rescmblance to the more securely Varanasi depicts him asK;5qa Govardhanadhara,
dated Udayagiri sculPtures (Fig io.ro). Thc or Bearer of Govardhana, in which the deity is
muscular but smooth body, full face, and rather shown holding Mount Govardhana with his left
simplc omrmentation are indications of this hand, like a canoPy to protect the inhabitants of
THE GUPTApERTOD 195
t- --tra. Gupta ro.rr. Krtna Lifting Mount Govardhana.From Arra, ro.r2. Nr-Varaha.FromEran,MadhyaPradcsh,
H:
lDdia-
r:i-:ilone.
Varetrasi, Ut.ar Pradesh, India. Gupra period. Ca. Gupta pcriod. Ca. carly fifth ccntury. Bcigc sand-
E
carly fifrh century. Beige sandstonc.H: 2r2 cu1.Bharat stonc.H: r86cn1-SagrrUniversityMuscum,Sagar.
r\ara rlnJvlll, vata!4s1.
6-::a1ly, the Vrindevana fron.ra dcluge sentby Indra, who had gupta to the pcriod ofthe Huna invasion around
: ::i rvho is
b e e n . ' n g c r cbdy t h e c o r r , r r r r r n i r iyn' r t t c n r i o nr o thc beginning of the sixth ccntury.ll A large
L ::lr vl5qu
him in their dcvotions(Fig. ro. r r). Krsna'snamc scuJpturcofVaraha ftorn Eran suggcstssculptural
r :-.r-o halves (Thc Jllack One) is a probablc rcfcrencc to his tics to artistic clevelopn.rcnts at ncarby Uclayagiri
t ::esumably Dravidian origin. His rolc as cowherd and during the early fifth ccnnrry (Fig. ro.r2). The
-:ds would
protector of the pastoral pcoplc suggestsfurther p o r n e ro I r l r e d e i t y i s c r p r c . ' c d i n r h c t i r i l .
f :ie deities. aflinities to the cor.v-r.vorshipingpeoplc of pre- hcavy forrls offic body and the solidity of his
i:-.: is repre-
Vcdic Indic society. His cncrgcncc dLrring the posc, which lnust havc easily earncd l.im thc
c--'-. Such an
Gupta period as a popular god rcflects the re- confidence of his human devotees.
r,Jeveloped surfacing of an ancient conccpt rathcr rhan an Latcr in datc is a pillar from lran bearing a
. :ut a stage irxlovation. In form, thc relationshipof this fig- double-sidcdiuage of Garudadrted in the ycar
c:- both had ure to early fifth-cenrirry images and Kusana- r6J (Gupta cra), ecluivalcntto A.D. 484 (Fig.
!::::1ent-that
period prccedents, like those fron Mathnre, ro.r3).12Thc specificdatc, sivcn as the twclfth
:-: Juality. is cJcar,cspcciallyin tJrcbody forrns ancldctaiis
sl:rh incarna- {"y of d," liglrt fortniglrt of the nonth of
of thc costulnc.lo Asadha (June-JLrly),indicatcsthat astrolosicai
;., from the At Eran, a Vaisnavite sitc approxin.ratcly considcrationswcrc taken into accorultin sclcct-
r -.i him from cigl.rty kilometers from VidiSa, a grear couplcx ing thc timc of thc dcdication,sincc Asadhais
rihanadhara, of tcmplcs and accompanying sculptures was associatcdwith thc srulmcr solsticc and thc
l- rhe deity is produced during thc Gupta pcriod. Inscriptions Iengthening days, which are considcred to be
; ..i'ith his left found at lran (ancicnt Erakaina) documcnt auspicious, as is the bright haif of the lunar
L-labitants of artistic activity thcrc fion the reign of Samudra- nonth. Although this aspect of thc dcclication
r96 D\NA\TlL\ul Illl MIDDII PrqloD
of tcruplcs and religiorrssctllptureshas becn ..:: .:
virtually ignorecl, sincc scholarsare often more : : - : . : : : : -:
conccrncd l,ith the ycar (an.l heirce thc chrono-
1,::: '::
"victors," rcfcrring to thcir spiritual achicvc- teurplcs.Tbc structurc restson a Jow plinth wit]r :-U-t.-i
rlcr.Lt) popularized in latcr Buddhist art are stcps at either end of tl.rc porch. Howcvcr, a -_.:,lar.e
g c n c r . , l l yr c c o g r r i z . r bbl .y' r l r c i r d i ' t i n c t i v cr r r r , - widcr intcrcolun-rniationbctwccn thc two ccn- ::::..:.:i,
/ras and thc bodhisattvaswl.ro oftcn accorrpany tral pillars of thc porch sLrggcsts that tl.retenple :-:-:br::
thcm, thc Sancr stclac arc comparativcly stancl- was propcrly approachedalong its longitudinal ::.i:: ;
ardizcd.lGln cach case,the Buddha is seatedin axis, as is the cascgcncrally iu latcr tct'nplcs,ancl .:i ...-i,
r- :. -'-.
uajraparyaikdsana ar,.ddrsphystlhyau nnrlra with not fronl thc sidcs.Massivc slabsof stone, some
his hands, inclicating a statc of dccp mcditation. as rDuch astwcnty-fivc centinrete{sthick, pl^ccd .--.ii rr:.
Thc figurcs sit upon cushions that rcst on sidc to sidc rcross the sanctlrtrrand porch con-r- :--:.'n laC
'.:.: 'l
rectangular bascsand, in two of thc carvings, prrst rhe roofof rhc .tnrtrlrc .rndcrcrtc cornices rn
THE CUITA PTRTOD lgg
r:r of the relaxation of the pose, seenin the slight bending In each of the three inscriptions, Abhayamitra
lirc_.-rla, is of the right leg, and the great delicacy of treat- expressedthe wish that the merit accruedby the
iJ:ist and ment, for example, of the halo, reveal that a good deed of this gift should go toward the
B::amber Gupta-period aesthetic had developed and obtaining of extinction of worldly existence
i loorust unified the art at distant Buddhist sites like (the goal of Buddhism) for all sentient beings,
r :: caves Saf,ci (Fig. io.rJ) and Mathura. The drapery is includhg his mother, father, and teachers.
I -l.o Used depicted in a series of regular folds shown as Such wishes were. by rhis tinre, common in
giclures. ridges on the surface of the body. Such folds Mahayana Buddhist dedications,for they rcfect
rs :,-, clairn were absentfron.r the typical drapery of Kugar.ra- the basic doctrinc of the transfcr of merit frorn
i::nple.18 period Mathura sculptures,although an cmphasis one individual to another.
r:i:e was on drapery folds prcvailcd in the Kusana art of Thc elongated, slender, graceful bodies and
tL-t com- the Bactro-Gandhara region. The style of the the re{ined exccution of the details of thc halos,
E iaen as garment too is reminiscentofthe westem Asiatic, robes, and facesof thcseimages have long been
r :i both not Mathure, fashion. However, the Buddha's considereda measureof Gupta art. Even in the
body is clearly revealed through the drapery period of their creation, the two images dated
that clings between thc ridges of the folds in a to about A.D.476 must have been considcred
characteristicallyIndic manner. Thus, the Gupta- masterful works, sincetheir identical inscriptions
t\iTH) period artists of Mathurd seem to have unified state that they were madc bcautiful through
thc two traditions into a harmonious synthesis, drc scienceof cirra.In this context, cirl4 seemsto
reconciling the classicisticsryle ofthe northwcst, refcr to the technical achievementsof the artist
emphasizing garment depiction, with thc Indic as well as the artistic exprcssionitsell Thus, the
love of the human form. acclaim that modem art historians lavish on
Mathura's cultural dominance in northern theseworks is perhapsreflective of the renown
India was virtually unchallengcd during the they achieved in their own time. Part of the
Kusaqa period. But under the Guptas, other bear,rtyto thc contemporary eye lies in the pale
sitesrose to prominence and eclipsedthe former buf-colored Chunar sandstone out of which
Kusana capital's preeminence. In particular, they (and most other Sarnath sculptures) are
Samath, the site where Sakyarnuni Buddha cawed, although it is likely that odginally they
performed his first preaching, cn.rergedas one were painted, likc n.rost othcr ancient Indian
of the leading Buddhist centers of India. The images.
Chinese traveler Fa-hsien,who visited Sernatl.l The sculptures pinpoint a moment in the
in the fifth century, noted only two largc stapas stylistic continuum betwccn the stiffer Kusena-
and two nronasteries(sathgharauas) at thc site,2r Mathula-type formulations and the more dyna-
but by the sevcnth century, when Hsiian-tsang mic representationsof the post-Gupta pcriods.
arrived, the establishmenthad cxpanded consid- Each central Buddha stands in thc abhaiga
erably, for he describeda vast cornplex in which posture with a slight flexion to the body, as
a community of r,5oo monks of the Sammitiya indicated by the bent position ofone leg and the
school lived.22 gentle thrust of the liip to one side. Thc forms
The developed style for which Serneth is so appear to bc rhytlrmic and natural. (Tbis general
justly farnous apparently emerged around the senseof relaxation is also seen in the position
third quarter of thc fifth century, asdocumented of the right hand of the Buddha figure dating
by a seriesof three datcd in.rages,onc of which from abotrt ^,D. 473, as the abhaya uudra is
is shown here (Fig. ro.r9). All were dedicated considerably lowered in position from thc
by a monk named Abhayamitra, but one of the shoulder height of Kusar.ra-periodexamples;
sculptureswas given during the reign of Kumara- thus ell-ecting a less rigid, less commanding
gupta Ii in the Gupta year r54 (ca. a.r. 473) position.2a)A significant featlrrc of the latc fifth-
while the other two, dedicated in the Gupta century Samath Gupta style is the treatnent of
:.r: Pradesh,
year r57 (ca. t.o. 476), fell within the reign of the drapery. Though fully dressed,the figures
cr. Reddish
L \'lathure. Budhagupta as indicated in the inscriptions.23 are clad in drapcry so clinging that it reveals
2'2 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT PEIIIOD
i
THE GUPTA PTIiIOD 2OJ
-: . irs. at
I ::-'n by
::r.'cific
' \::nath.
r:::c'Sent
: : - ahis
i: .,.-ncast
i:::inent
= ::1!S Of
L-_:-rjPcc-
r-. -.i dre
i il all
r rrlagcs
.. .t-^.,
---,--l
-:oP a
| '.'' ith a
r--:- halo,
c rrlages
i.: Srupr
,--t^..^l
i:ch are
c:crding
: -,i the
c pieces
;--.s.but ro.zo. Buddha- From Samith, Uttar pradesh, India. ro.zr. Life Events of SakyarnuniBudclha. Frorn Sar_
r-'undcd Gupta pcriod. Ca. 47J. Buff sandstone.H: 160 cm. 'rath-Unar Prrdcsh.India.
-- I ^,^-
Cuptapcriod.Cr. rfurdquar_
SamethSite Museum,Sarnath. L e rl r t t hc e n l u r y .B r f f . r r r d s r o n H
e .: 7 o . r . N a r i o n a l
::rendcd Muscnm, New Delhi.
u ibovc,
r'rsidiary
tr:re arc (Fig. ro.zo). Although several hand postures of the crossbar, both presumably auspicious
.,.'] ." (especiallyabhayamudra) were used during the syrnbols.
I rc\tual Kusana period to signify this event, by the Several stelae recovered from Sarnath and
Gnpta period, variations on the dharmacakrQ stylistically relatcd to works known to date
!'i thcir mudra, one of which is shown herc, bccame by from the late fifth century stresswhat had comc
-:.:es the far the most common indicators of the event to be considered the major events in the last
.-: nrost and of Buddhist teachingsin general. Also char- life of Sakyamuni Buddha. One examplc shows
::fnons. acteristic of scenesdepicting the First Sermon a serie-sof events, arranged in chronological
:: sllne a r e l h e p a i r o [ d e e r . f l r n k i n gt h c w h e c l, n d t h e order frorn the lower ro the opper rcgistersand
::.1), is a disciplcsto whom Sakyarnunipre.'chcdin rhc l i o m l e f r t o r i g l r r( F i g . ' o . r , i . A , , h " b o , r o , , . ,
l:.rIl1tzes panel beneath the main figure.2t The treatnent l e f r .Q u e e nM a y a r e c l i n c so n . r c o r r c ha, r r c n d c d
ofthe ccntral figure and its halo is nearly identical by maidservants,while the elcpl.rantthat heralds
to that of the 473 ir.nage. The throne bears her- conccption of thc Buddha-to-be appears
rcpresentations of rarnpant winged lconine to her. At the lower right, Maya gr"rpr th" jal
l.rrnatn creatwes (ladilas) supporting the makarq-end.s tree while thc Buddha-to-bc emcrges fron hcr
2'4 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT PERIOD
righr side.ln the cenrerof the lower register. leading to enlightenment. Here, his greatness
the infant bodhisatwa stands with his right at tJfs stage of his life is distinguishedfrom the
hand in the abhayanudra while being given his earlier events by the relative increase in scale O$er
first bath by two nagas.The secondregister in his depiction. The upper scenes show the b€dd€s
shorvsthe bodhisattvaatop his horse,Kanthaka, victory over Mera at the left and the First and sir
in the GreatDepartureepisode,then cutting his Preaching at the dght. A fourth level may have cailf p
hair when he takesthe vow of the ascetic,and depicted thc parinirva7a at the toP. The rather nnF.er
finally, at the right, he is in the final meditation free arrangement of sceneswith one blending Brcrra
into the next is characteristic of fifth-century
isEcro:
life-scene stelae,although by about the eighth flfe t
century and later it was replaced by a rnore EIi:L
ordered arrangement with separate comPart- u.i rt
ments for each scene. Sgrco
A particularly fine cxample of the Sarnath iE i!.
treatment of the bodhisattva (Fig. ro zz) shows loEre (
Klasarpapa Avalokiteivara standing in the iil*-r '
slightly relaxed abhaiga pose. In accordance :iut ir
with textual descriptions,this form of Avalo- H:dd2-
kiteivara is decked with ornaments, has a iooeir
smiling face, apPearsto be about sixteen years l(fI o[
of age, and holds a lotus stem in his left hand, Bo.ldh
while lris right displays the uarada (gift-bestow- fu-r
ing) nuilra. Adorning his jotlnukuta hair style C'andh
is a representation of Amitabha/Amitayus in de Bu
his characteristicdhyana mudra, signifying the
family from which the bodhisattva emanates.
Beneath the right hand of Avalokiteivara are
two preta figures, ghosts of beings who were
greedy in past lives and whose doorn it is to be
hungry forever. Avalokiteivara's cornpassionfor
all crcaturesis dcmonstrated by the nectar that
flows from his gift-bestowing hand to feed
these ravenous beings. A somewhat parallel
generosiryis cxpresscdin the donariveinscrip-
Ion ^t the bottorrrof thc scttlpttrre. offeringrhe
merit accrued from the giving of the image
for the attainment of supreme knowledge for
all sentient beings. The slender, elegant body
garbed in diaphanous draPery suggeststres to
the three late fifth century Buddha figures, and
probably indicates a similar date for this image.
Lik" thir. Buddhas, the gentle countenanceof
this in.rage with half-closed eyes suggests an
inner calm that makes the Gupta idiom at
Samath one of the most appealing of Indic art
styles. A relative sinplicity in terrr,s of adom-
ment parallels the treatnent in Gupta temple
ro.zz. Khasarpa4a Avalokite(vara From Samath,
Uttar Pradesh,India. Gupraperiod. Ca. 475. Buff sand- architecturein which a balanceis struck between
stone. H: r37 cm. National Museurn, New Delhi the rnain forrrt. and surfacedecoration.
TIII CUTTA p!RIOD 205
li
L']uJdhasin nranv snr:r]lcrerristic conccptions
(Fig. ro.r9) is sivcn e lircrriucsshcrc as thc
lrunrur t'orshipcr finds hirusclf drvrrfcd by
thc gi{:irrtic im:rgc. Thc creltion of such cnor-
rnous inegcs is associ:rtcrl u'ith thc cu]t of thc
Brlrol ((lierutic) Brrdrlhn,rvhich rvas prcvalcnr
in South Asia ls rvcll ls in othcr rcqronsrn:rt
4', wcrc iuflucrcc-cl by Incliln Mahayana liucl_
-Ihc
<lhisnr.?6 avaihblc cviclcnccof ihc iuscrip-
'*' tior-rsencliconogrephic contcrts of thc survivilg
. inragcs inclicatctlut this cult rvrs spccifically
..4.'
rclxtcrl to Vailocane,thc Bucldhein whom thc
_:..:
,i; totality ol thc univcrscis pcrsonificci,ancl rvls
cxprcsseddrrough drc siganric sizc of thc
trqLucs.Oniy roLrqhly carvcd fi.onr thc soft
l: .. stonc-nlatrix, drc rlcteiling of thc clrepcry rvas
crcltcd by molding :r mucl rnixttrrc oir thc
surhcc of thc imlgc th;it rvas thcn coverccl
with iinrc plastcrencl paiDt."Ihc dr.rpcryfolds
rvcrc creetccl by suspcndilq ropcs that wcrc
r o . r \ . l J L . . l d. l , \ . J " . 1 r . . : , .l j r r . r . . . \ : r r r r rr , l
thcn covcrccl r,vith mucl plistct to forn-r thc
I r f r l tr ! r r ) r | \ . H r r . ) r , r . riclqrs of thc qxrmcrlt. Thc chuuing eppc:Lrancr-
ot thc qxrnrent, rvhich rcvc:rls thc forn-r o[ tjrc
IJuddha'sbody bcnceth,suqqcststics to Gupt.r
fifth ccntrrry. Onc oi thc uost imprcssivc irt in Lr.lix propcr. alrhoireh tire folds ltr..d
clrvings is thc cnormous Budclha tlrlrt stands style of thc robc erc clearly brscd upon cariier
ncarl) flfty-five mctcrs tall c^rvecr :lr orlc cl1cl Kusera-perioclnro.lclsof thc nortLwcsrrcgron.
ofthc vrllcy (Fig. ro.:5). A sirrilrr figurc on r A l . r . q et r , j r , , r c . r r i n ..tr r r p , . , t I t " l o
sliqhtly slrrallcrscr]cis locetcclat thc othcr si.lc 1i,r,rblra-
, t . ' . a n tJlo. lt o L , t t dr l ' . l r . . , , l . , r r .1l . , . , d y , r l r c D r r d _
of the groLrp of clvcs ebout a kilornc,tcrancla dlre wxs piilstcrcd.rnd pailrtc(lto complctc thc
l r r l i . , r r , v .l r r c c o l o . . , r j . . r r . . ,l.rr,r. r ei . n . , rj r r . r
iconogr:rphyof the frgurc. J)ropcrly spcakrnu,
e siqn of grruciioscconccptiorrbut is a clclibeiatc
tlrls lniirqe :lnd othcr rcluaiiltsit1 t]rc northtvcsl
xtlcnrpl to cxpressin :rs litcral lrtntlcr 1ls reqion ntay bc studiccl ls p:rrt of thc art of
possiblcthc spiriturl sizcof a Budclha "
comparccl lntrcr Asia rather thin ancicnt Inclia,althouqh
to thilt of iitr orclineryhuman. Thus, t]rc sm:rll
thcy reprcscrlrr logicai outgrorvrh of what is
sizc of thc clevotees shorvn acconlpllylrlq , ' . . n r r . ' l l y . r r I n d i r r c l i 3 i . , u .c o r ) . ( p f i ^ r .
Ht r,rl u TE I,rp rr A t t c H l t t c t u n t
As part of tirc grorvingpopuhrity of Hinduism, thc grorving Hindu relision, ls rvcll es scctlriln
tcrnplcstlcdicetcclro veriousHindu clciricslvc-re rirttcrenccs, ucccssitatcd thc dcvcloprncut of
corlstrLlctcdthrotqhout nortjrcm ano norttr_ indiviclLr.rit ) P \ 5 ^ r r ( ^ [ r h . . l o r r . r . r . . r ] c , r
ccntrrl lnclir.clur.ingthc Gupre pcriod. Usuxlly, stnlctrlres t]rar ntust hevc existcd prior to thc
t l r . . ,' r r . r r, r r r . i . r - c, rr 5 , r l - l ( , J . r rl icno: rr , ,c e r r, i n fifth ccntury but l,hich hlvc bccn lost, atd
phvsicelchar:rctcristics as rvcll as thelr rctatron_ o r l t c r ' r . t . r r 'l r . r r r .b r r ' n c , , n p l , r . . l y r r r n n r . r t i r , .
ship to latcr forms. Regionalpxttcrnsrnry luve A. I rr ,.,'.r;,i.., .,g:crr r 1 . , .r i c l . r r c . ,
:rccouDtcclhlr sorne of thc clifcrcuces betu,.ccn ,,cl"crcd
ot tlre Llcvcloprnq lorrr\.
rcmpic rypes. but, in adclirion,rirurl necdsof Siirci Tcnrplc r7 (Figs. ro.i6, ro.r7) servcs as
THE GUPTA PEP.IOD 202
:- a:ftlons
::: .1r d1C
, -,-I 1.,
i:, - !-nor-
::-: ..[ the
:::r'elent
= :ri rnat
i. B.rd-
!::iJcrtP-
- rl..ll.,
:--.ir and an examplc of one charactcristictypc_of Gupta featurcs in this rcgard,.sinccits tall, apparently
:: errher tc'rple. Although its ties to Buddhism arc r
curvilinear shapc a'ticipatcs tlr" j"',r"lop"i
,
evident, structurcs si'rilar in form, size, and northcrn-style ir[,Lar,l. Its danage.l st"t", hiw- i
decoration from the G'pta period are found in ever, precrudesfulr anarysis,,ni rho, rrr" pr".c ii
:--: Bud- a Hindn contcxt as well.z?whilc the issueof of thii tcmple in thc devclopnrcnrof rhe nirrh- ]
!:.r'!e tlle whctlrer or not this ty-peof tcr'plc originally etn-style likharc rnay nevcr bc knorvn. ll
ludasuPerstILrcturc-ofcphenrcraln-ratcria]sorThemains1rrineoccupresthcccnterofa
r r:ahwest onc.that was planned but never cxccuted is not squareplinth (Fig. ro.z7) tirat is accessibrcon arl
:: art of scttled, by the cnd of thc fifth ccntury or the four siJes by rt"-i.c"r", witir senricircular bases
bcginning of thc sixth, a type of templc with sonetiurcs rcferre,r ro asrDoonsroncs.orisina|v-
: '.r'hat is a tot'er (-i1fr/rara)
was r,vell developcd. four smallcr subsidr:rry ,hrir,", *"..
i..r"ri,
I l:1. Onc exarnplc is dre Visn'tcr.nple at onc at each .or,,.. of thc plinth,,o ir"r,h"
_such
Dcoglrlr (fig ro.z6). corrrrronly irnd rrris- rernprci" of rhepanrayaraaa (i-rvc-sJrrrne)
variery.
takerrly) called .],1eDaia^tarc bccarse it was Each shrine w", proirbJy dcJicrtcd ro a di'f-
originally tholght that the iconographicprogram fercnt Hindrr deity, although their iclentitiesare
referred to tlre ten incarnatio's (daiauataru)of unknown beca'se rhe si'ctrrrcs arc corallv
,iictarlan visnu. Although thc patronsand donorsinvolvcd destroycd cxcept for rheir bascs.Further, it i's
nlnt of in its ercction arc not kno*'n, on stylistic imposibrc to dctermine the origi'al forms of
:. rellect grounds,. the structurc may be dated thc thc buildings, although thcy nr"ay havc bcen
r: to thc -to
carly sixth ccnt'ry.28 In many ways, the for.r of miniature vcrsions of the nr"i' t"rrroi".
-osr. and thc templc shows considcrableadvancemcnt in The tcmp]e is oricntecl to thc ivcst, whcre
:oYattvc. the deveiop.rcnt of.Hindu tcr.nplearchitecnrrc, thc i'rprcsive, decorated doorway to thc
richness a factor tl.t has lcd somc to conclude that its shrinc is locatcd (Fig. ro.zg). In contiast to the
datc is much later. Thc forn.r of thc tower is carly Gupra-typc enrraIrce sccn at Udayagiri
lr-MS aS one of the most intcrcsting and highly dcbated (Fig. ro.aJ, th.-D"og"rh ,loorw"y i, g."""tly
"
2Od DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
elaboratedensemble.The lintels and jambs have probably required the devoteeto circumambulate
been multiplied, and these are replete with the temple to view the three major sculptural
well-oldered foliate motifs, mithunas, guardian panels on the exterior. lach of the three
figures, and the river goddesses,Ganga and ieliefs decorating the main body of the temple
Yamuna, placed respectively at the top left and is placed in a niche that consistsof decoraied
right of the doorway and clearly defined by lintels andjambs flanled by pilasters(Fig. ro.z9).
theii nahara and tortoise vehicles. At the center, The subject matter of the sculpturesreveals the
above the entrancCway, is a panel showing order in which the devotee would view them.
Visr.ruin an unusual form, seatedatop the coiled In this case, the viewing order of the major
body of a serpent with the open serpent hood sculprures would be the reliefofVisnu Nareyaqa
behind his head while Lakgmi, Vi5gu's consort, as Anantaiayana (or Sela:iayana)on the soLrrh
massageshis foot, and two other forms of (Fig. ro.z9), that of Nara and Narayana on the
Visqru hirnself appear, the man-lion (Nrsirirha) east (Fig. ro.3o), and the sculpture of G_ajendra-
and the dwarf (Vamana). The multiple figures mokga on the north (Fig. ro.3r), thus moving
in this small relief demonstrate the growing the devotee in a counterclockwise direction
complexity of Vaisnavite iconography, and (pra-yuya).This assertion,which is contrary to
perhapsprovide a clue to the original dedication the commonly held belief that in Hindu worship
of the temple. circumambulation is alwavs oerformed in a
Before entering the single-celled shrine clockwise marner (pradaksira), is based on the
through the decorated doorway, ritual practice internaJ messageof the reliefs, their accompany-
TrrE GUpIA PTRTOD 209
ro.29. VisnLrAuanta(ay:rn:rclicl
... . l)cogerh, on south, Vjsnu tcnrplc. l)cogarh,
: .',lrl1 sixth Uttar Pradcsh, Indir. Ca. early
- -:::rrlrbulate
: :hc three
: decorated
. Frq. ro.z9).
:, :r-1'calsthe
. .-rawthcm.
: :h. rDajor
.:: \irayana
:: rhc soutir
rl ,fY'
.. rla on the
: G.r.jcndra- J3
:-:r nloving
, -' .lirection
' - rnarxry ro
:::r.'il in a
.,.-I on the
,,:,)nlPany-
G
'I'I{E
2] d DYNASI'IES oF MIDDLE PERIOT)
:::-_i:::
0r030
o5
temple format in use at the time, howcver, for it is the oldest known temple of thc sandhara
it is a double-storiedstructure resting on a plinth class of Hindu tcmplcs that are in fact char-
with an enclosedcircumanbulatory P:rssagc, the acterized by this feature. Light was admitted
outer walls of which are norv lost (Figs. ro.3z, into the ambulatory by three windows, one on
ro.33). This buiiding is apparently the earlicst eachside cxccpt that of the entrance,which was
surviving examplc of a structural temple with opcn, and some light was also admitted into
an cnclosedcircumambulatory passage,and th.rs the main shrine through windorvs in the am-
THE GUpTAPERTOD 21'
bulatory passagewall. The secondstory covered
only the temple shrine (not the passageway)
and may have contained a representation oi
a deity. Perhaps specilic ritual needs neces-
sitated the double-storied form. No signs of a
iikharu or other fugh supersrrucnrre exrst,
"forms
although the original of the roofs of rhe
temple are unknown. The doorway of the
structure.which is orienredto thc west.is Jmong
the finrst in all Cupte an (Fig. ro.34). and ii
general, rhe rrcllislikc carved windows and
miscellaneoussculpturesfound at thc site testify
to a high quality ofworkmanship. An intercsting
Gature of the plinth is the delibcratelyrusticate;
blocks ofstone that have beencarved io resemble
a rocky landscape,complete with animal life
(Fig- ro.3z). The depiciion of such stylized
landscapes,although unusual in this location, is
also seen_in the paintings of Ajanta (pl. 8) and
in carved renditions of stylized landscape,for
example,in the Nara-Narayana reliefat Deogarh
ro.34. Doorway, on west, "ptrvatt,, temple. Nachna_
(Fig.
Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. cariy sixrh cen- _ro.3o).Here, a rcGrence to the tempi-eas
tury. a replica of Kailasa, the mounrain abode of the
god Siva, secmsto be implied.
Although brick and terra corta have been ro.3o). Eachside of rhe remplehasa projecring
popularly used since the eariy discovery of tay. creatrngwhat is known as a triratha(three
pottery t€chriques in ancient India, the fragile
rutha) dcsigtt.Thc number three is obtained by
nature of the material has led to the destruction co-untingthe two sectionsto the ]eft and right
of nost early examples. However, during the of the bay, which form the wall of the str"uc-
Gupta period, interest in brick and terra cotta ture itself, aswell asthe outer surfaceof thc bay,
led to the construction ofa number of important whiclr run. parallelro tl:cm. (ln five rarftn,seven
monum€nts, some of which have survived. The rathd.anCtothcr systemswhere addirionalbayr
brick temple at Bhitargaon (Fig. ro.35) o one extend out from the centcr of each preceding
ol the besrpreservedcxamples.in spire of the
I lact that it was damaged by lightning in the
.lastcentury. Its date is difiicult to fix as therc is
bay,..the count cxpands to include tbe lengti
of all new parallcl wall sectionsformed.) S;h
ofiietting of the walis of a tcmplc bccame
no inscriptional or other evidence of its dedica_ a standard feature in many later schools of
lion. but on stylistic grounds. a datc of the architecture. A secondary shrine chamber is
te sardhara firsrhallofthe fifth centurymight bc suggested. present above the main shrine, although this
iact char- Burnr bricksjoined by mud rnorrar were used feature is not readily apparentfrom the e-xterior
r admitted in the conshuction of the building, and the because of the rising, vcrtical shape of the
I'S, One on walls reached a thickness of -ore than two iikhara, which is one of the earlGst extant
rvhich was meters. The temple faceseast, as may be deter_ examplcs of a northem-style tower. Niches
rined into niTi by the remains of a portico on rhat side, on the exterior of the body of the temple and
n the am- and rt rests upon a square plir.th (jegati; Fig. the supersrructure contained sculpted panels,
2-1I DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PTRIOD
ro.3J. Brick temple from southeast. some .o
Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh,Indii. Ca. are ?art
fust half 6fth century. the con
true all
preferer
Froqr e
ancient
date bu
sroDs.P
lhet
d
a
,temp.
terra co
temples
rmPr€ss
slze re
G,;'g,
rle ent
probab
dxth (
besn h,
o'hich I
$one (
-i-j:
F-r
sPDr
Or
irn!1
T--.
rr.-n
.-:
in:rc,
eI:];a
::i,
5S(
:ierc,
ro.38.Vitnu on Garuda.FrorrrnorthernIndia,prob- ro.39.RarnaandLak;ma4a. FromnorthcrnIndia,prob-
abiy Uttar Pradcshregion. Ca. Iifth century. Terra ably Uttar Pradeshregion. Ca. fifth century.Tena I
cotta.H: 3r crn.BrooklynMuseum,New York (Gift cotta.H: 40.6cln. Asia Society,New York (Mr. and t€ ci
of Dr. BertraurSchaffner). Mrs.John D. Rocke6ller3rd Collection).
r:e (
A-E-a
-.osr
as decoration on temples,One such architectural in stone. The outlines of the eyesand eyebrows, "*t'
fragment shows the god Vifr.rrl riding atop his for example, have been createdsimply by using 6rou
winged vehicle, the bird-rnan Garuda (Fig. a sharp tool ro incise in wet clay. crearinga iifrcr
ro.38). Only Visnu's two left arms are preserved; senseof dynamism and calligraphic line that is 5s.el
one holds a bow while the o-ther brings his not apparent in works produced by the slower 5 CU
characteristicconch to his lips, as if the god is and more painstakingprocessof stonecarving. ani r
blowing it like a trumpet. The conch, whose A secondterra-cotta sculpture, also probably eleEe
fleeting sound sometimesservesas a symbol of intended to be used as architectural adornment
_ -- : _
the transience of the physical world, here and also probably from the Uttar Pradesh uons
probably indicates a war call, for the god and region, shows Rama, the hero of the Ramayatla, .-'rign
his companion seem to be in battle-ready posi- and his yorurger brother, Lakgmana, as if in As
tions that suggest that dre relief representsan conversatioll (Fig. ro.39). Rema came to be cdDfr:
attack on an unseen adversary. Although its considered the seventh incarnation of Visnu, tlllrot
findspot is not knowr, the piece is of a type and stories narrating events involving him are &oug
generally identified with the Uttar Pradesh commonly included in the repertoire of subjects aldot
region, and such works are generally attributed adorning a Vaigqavite temple. However, as a
to the site of Ahicchattra or, alternatively, to cult deity, he never acfuevedthe statureofother Fnor
Bhitargaon, two of the most well known and incarnations of Villu, such as K1gqra.When at De(
well preserved sites that have yielded Gupta- depicted in art, he is generally showr, as here, -uller
period terra cottas in northern India. But it is in a two-armed form that stresseshis hunan, P)-raf
likely that the monuments at these two centers rather than his godly, characteristics.The panel curse(
were not urique at the time of their creation, apparently records the period narrated in the ie re
and that sculptures like this may document a Ra rayqltdwhen, after Rama had been banished brick .
broadly basedstyle and art forrn current through- from the kingdom to which he was rightful n€ger
out north-central India. The curly hair style of heir, he lived in the forest, for the two brothers iuced
Garu{a suggestsaestheticassociations with stone are dressedasforest dwellers,rather than princes;
art of the Gupta period, though the techniques their earlobes,stretched from years of wearing
used by the terra-cotta artist differ considerably heaq' ornaments,are unadorned, and their hair r:+I_
from those of his fellow craftsmenwho worked is tied into simple topknots. The figures are \-aiot
THE GUPTA PERIOD 217
Mrr.tr IuacEs
Although some metal images are knorvn frour reach to the knees,are dictated by iconographic
carly periods of South Asian history, few have considerations.Yet the scnsitivity to the anaton-i-
survived, and thcrefore they providc only a cal forms is remarkablc, although not controlled
very incon.Lpletepicture of this art. Even Gupta- by an adhercncc to rules of anatony ot a
pcriod remains arc scant. Howcvcr, a hoar.l of scientific approach to thc hunlan figurc. Some
metal images found at Chausa, Bihar, contained srlggestion of thc later Jain preference for
examplesthat cierrly sccnr to be of Gupta date. abstract, gcometric forrns is seen in thc chest,
One reprcsentatiolr of !.sabhanatha, the Jain which, fiom the front, aln.rostanticipates the
tirthahkart, espcciailyreveals the grace of form trianguiar form so charactctistic of latcr Jain
and naturaiism associatedwith Gupta art (Fig. exan-rples.
ro.4z). Certain fe"turcs, such as the arms that
Corqcrusrox
Works of art surviving fron.r pre-Gupta pcriods clurinq Gupta tirncs, the usc ofstone had bccorne
provide an inconrplete picturc of thc n.rajor so rvidcspreadthat it mry be essurnedthat thc
artistic trcnds in style and iconography. In surviving lnonuments provide r fairly dctailed
contrast, the Gupta period is rclatively rvcil ovcrviclv of the rnajor lrtistic trcnds. Yet thc
rcprcsented by architectural :rncl sculptural re- survivilg rvolLs, especiallv from the early
nuins. Although cphemer:Ll n:lterials must Gupta period, shoulclnot necessaril,v be viervcd
have continucclto bc used for art production es narking rvholly ne*' developments,partic-
THE GUPTA PERTOD 219
ularly in the Hindu religion. For just as the the Guptaperiod,however,thereis little doubt
earliest survivins Buddha and bodhisattva that all threemajor Indic religions,Buddhism,
onograplnc images of the Sak-a+"rthi"n and Ku;dga periods Hinduism,andJainism, werenot only foudshing
he anatoru- may not represent the initial formulations of but were also fostering the development of
t controlled such icons, early Gupta-period Hindu works, significant artistic creations, though they are
lomy or a like the examples at Udayagiri, may reflect perhapsunevenlyreflectedin the survivngart
zure. some the crystallization of trends that had been works.
ierence for developing for decades,if not centuries. By
r rhe chest,
icipates the
f later Jain
had become
rei that the
:.v detailed
.is. Yet the
; be viewed
::1rt. Paruc-
t
CHAPTER ELEVEN I
E
The GuptaAftermath
v-
Tur DrsrNrrcnarloN o F T H EE M P T R T
The Gupta king Budhagupta probably lived in India, while another branch of the Hu4a
Tonm:
until around a.D. Joo. This date serves as a family, led by the famous Anila (d. 453), was
Fdhi.aj
convenient,althoughnot absolute.turning point wreakins havoc at the courts of Ravenna The de(
in South Asian history, for it marks the begin- and Constantinople. But in spite of Skanda- ooce et
ning of the disintegration of the Gupta political gupta's defeat of the invaders, the difiicult s,tro. q
state, after whiah northem India wai fragmented military efforts must have drained the royal
up Se
into numerous principalities. The turn of the treasury, as suggested by the fact that fewer Budhag
sixth century also may be seen as a kind of eold coins were minted under him and the lDe tlr
watershedin the history oflndic art after which lold employ.d was lesspure. BudhaguPta,who gu]rr s
regional developmentsbecameincreasingly well ruled in the last quarter of the fifth century, r$a.ra <
defined, undoubtedly as a corollary of the also managed to hold the empire together al- colossal
decentralizationthat occurred upon the breakup thoush he faced the extemal threat and internal ro,tf+
of the Gupta empire. Although intemal prob- difiicultles as well since feudatories and minor IlreErS
lems, especially the disputed succession after rulers in the eastemportions of the empire and h€!- R
Bu&agupta, may have accounted for some in the west were gaining strength, and the srating
of the weakening of the empire, a rnajor factor Vakagakaswere already a strong political factor. his brn
wastheadventof the Epthalires.orWhire Hdnas By the closeof his reign, it was evident that the and qi
(Huns).who had begun to make incursionsinto Gupta enpire was past its glory.
on rle r
the Indic regions in the mid-fifth century. Evidence of the Huqa incursion is found at
lEg- r
Skandagupia(reigned ca. 45s-467)is reputed to Eran, where a large image of Varaha (Fig. rr.r) oi &e r
have been victorious in holdinq back the Hu4as bears an inscription dated in the first year of on de
THI GUPTA AITIRMATH ?27
:::1! Hina
Toramana, the Hur.ra,who is called a Mahara- Toramlna's first rcgnal year, the datc given
:_i:), was
jadhiraja, indicating his rulc in thc region.l on the inlge, rurst have occrirred around the
Lavenna
The dedication ofthc boar and the templc which end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth
: Skanda-
once enshrined it was n.radeby Dhanyavisr.ru, centriry, at lvhich time the donor Dhanyavisnris
,. Jiilicult
who, with his elder brother Matrvisnu, had sct allegianceapparcntly transfcrrcd fiom lludha-
: :-:i royal
up the Garuda pillar at Eran in the rcign of gLlpm to Torandna. Such shifts arc not unusual
: : _,rfewer
Budhagupta sonre years carlier (Fir. ro.r3). in South Asian history, and were it not {br the
: .rnd the
The templc, now in ruins, was a small rcctan- common belief that thc H[na incursion had a
r r'-rl, who
_: aencury, gular structurc prcccded by a portico w'ith a dran-raticallydestrucrive impact on the culturc
- ::rher al- torana on tltc cast. Once cnshrincd rvithin, thc of ancicnt India, this dcdication lvould sccnl
colossal representation of Varaha, sirown as a p e r l e c t J yn o r r n . ' 1l.n r d d i t i o r r .' i n , , r h e i r r a g c
.: - internal
fourJeggcd theriomolph, is morc than lour and thc tcrnplc (as nuch as can be determincd
:.-l minor
nleters it1 length and stands ovcr three nletcrs of it) easily fall within thc paranctcrs of Indic
:::ire and
high, Rows of figures cover his body, repre- iconography lrld style of the late fifth :rnd
, ,nd the
senting the sages who sought shelter anong carly sixth centudes,it is not possibleto suggcst
, :.1lactor.
his bristles, as dcscribed irt the Visnu Purdna2 an inflLrenceon tlle art that is specifically as-
: :hat the
and which arc comparablcto the figures arrangecl s o c i a r c Jr v i r - r t l r c H u n . r s .5 i n . p l 1 . t l r e r r u c
on the rear $,'all of thc Var-ha cave at Udayagiri c f f c c ro f H t r r ' . ,r L r l ei r r ; n c i e n t I n J i . ro n . L r r i . t i c
: Irnd at
(Fig. to.8). As in anthropomorphic vcrsions devclopr-ncntsremains to be cxaminccl, but it
r-1,I r. r.)
- : r'ear of of the subject, the carth godclessis borne aloft is likely that rnuch untruth surrounds the conr-
on the tusk of the boar. m o n l l I L c l d v i c w r h a r r h c . c L , r e i g n e r sr v c r e
PERIOD
222 DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDLT
Tbe \t
O u r c s o w r n s o r r s t G u p r ' t I D I o M S( c A J J o - 7 o o ) oi hori
=; qq
pire. regionalPatternsalong Iinguistic' artistic'
The polirical unity imposed-by the Guptas on regirJ
lnd culi.,r"l lines increasingly became the hall- h -,ie ,
-ucli o[ no.th"m and norrh-centralIndia was
em- mark o[ lndic civilization. While such regional
only ternporary, for upon the collapseof the
TH3 GUPTA AFTERMATH 22'
vadations have been identifiable in South Asia was particularlytrue after the decline of the
vinually from the earliest human remains imperial Guptas in the eastem ancl western
known, the unity of the political state under extremesof the empire,wheredifferentbranches
the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously after
apparent overlay of commonality that was the death of Budhagupta,and clearly defined
quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This artisticschoolsquickly emerged.
I e sr ; n x I l o r e
The Gupta empire reached as far east as what travel account4 is a main source of historical
ate today the Indian statesof Bihar and West information for the period, assertedthat Saianka
Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar, was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known
which includes the ancient Magadha heartland Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism,
ofthe Buddhist and Jain religions, had long been and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist
important in the mainstream of Indic artistic himself. While Har;a's capital was at Kanauj,
and historical developments.But Bengal, further in what is now lJttar Pradedr, his influence in
to the east, emerged as a force on the political easternIndia, especiallyMagadha, seemsto have
and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought been significant. Although archaeological evi-
furto the GuPta sphere primarily by Budha- dence has not vcrified Harsa'sputative associa-
gupta during the fifth century. Aftet the cessa- tion with the artistic developmentsat nunerous
don of strong imperial control by the Guptas sires, in particular Buddhist monasteries.in
in the east, there was a scramble for power Magadha during fus reign, it is probable that
among numerous competing dynasts, many of the developmentsrhat occrrrredwere in some
whose only apparent claim to fame is the pres- ways indebted to his tolerance and encourage-
ence of their names in the lists of dynastiesin nent. Saianka is also credited with artistic
ancient history books. The situation became activities, as he is said to have founded the
clearer duriug the seventh century when two not- Lingaraja temple in Orissa,but he is alsoblamed
able rulers emerged, Sa{anka,who is reputed to for the destruction of some Buddhist rernains
be the Iirst king of Bengal, and Harga (r. 6oG such as the Mahabodhi tcn.rple at Bodh Gaya,
647), of the Vardhana family, who established which has since been restored on nLrmcrous
hegemony over much ofnorthem India includ- occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha
ing parts of present day Uttar ?radesh, the was formalized in his assumption of the title
easternPafljab, and western Bihar. These early "King of Magadha," an appellation possibly
seventh-centuryrulers are known mole through chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside
literary and historical sourcesthan through art, of the Indic regions and thus such a titlc was
however, and much legend surrounds their perhapsusefulin the forrnulations ofhis "foreign
rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose policy," especiallyhis relationswith the emperor
ls sug-
travels throushout Buddhist India coincided or t -ntna-
lf:.
with the perlod of Harga's rule, and whose
l-::acteristic
The Magadha region had remained a stronghold ally helped by Buddhistsfiom other parts of
of both Buddhism and Jainism virtually since Asia, such as China and SoutheastAsia, and
the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira, thus the Buddhistholy land wasnot dependent
sic, artistic,
regardlessof political situations in the region. solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to
me the hall-
ln the caseoI Buddhism,the region was materi- maintain itself. During the Gupta period and
och regional
THX GUPTAAFTERMATH 22'
variations have been identifiable in South Asia was particularly true after the decline of the
virtually from the earliest human remarns imperial Guptas in the eastern and western
known, the unity of the political state under extremesofthe empire, where different branches
the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously after
apparent overlay of commonaliry that was the death of Budhagupta, and clearly defined
quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This artistic schoolsquickly emerged.
EAsTIRN INDIA
The Gupta enpire reached as far east as what travel account4 is a main source of historical
are today the Indian statesof Bihar ard Wesr information for the period, assertedthat Sa6anka
Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar, was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known
which includes the ancient Masadha heartland Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism,
ofthe Buddhist and Jain religioni, had long been and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist
important in the mainstream of Indic artistic himself. While Harsa's capital was at Kanauj,
and historical developments.But Bengal, further in what is now ljttar Pradesh,his influence in
to the east, emerged as a force on the political eastemIndia, espcciallyMagadha, seemsro have
and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought been significant. Although archaeological evi-
into the Gupta sphere prirnarily by Budha- dence has not verified Harga'sputative associa-
gupta during the fifth century. After the cessa- tion with the artistic developmentsat numeroLts
tion of strong imperial control by the Guptas sires. in parricular Buddhist monasteries.in
in the east, there was a scramble for power Magadha during his reign, it is probable that
among numerous comPeting dynasts, many of the developmentsthar occurred were in some
whose only apparent claim to fame is the pres- ways indebted to his tolerance and encourage-
ence of tleir names in the lists of dynastiesin ment. Sasairka is also credited with artistic
ancient history books. The situation became activities, as he is said to have founded the
clearer during the seventh century 'when two not- Lingaraja temple in Orissa, but he is also blan.red
able rulers emerged, Sa5anka,who is reputed to for the destruction of some Buddhist remains
be the first king of Bengal, and Harsa (r. 6o6- such as the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya,
647), of the Vardhana farnily, who established which has since been restored orr numerous
hegernony over much of northern India includ- occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha
ing parts of present day Uttar Pradesh, the was formalized in his assumption of the title
easten Pafrj-b, and western Bihar. These early "King of Magadha," an appellation possibly
:, Madhya
seventh-centuryrulers are known more through chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside
rturl'. Beige
literary and historical sourcesthan through art, of the Indic regions and thus such a title was
however, and much legend surrounds their perhapsusefulin the formulations ofhis "foreign
rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose policy," especiallyhis relationswith the emperor
rre rs sug- travels throughout Buddhist India coincided or \-nlne.
aracteristic with the period of Harsa's rule, and whose
The Magadha region had remained a stronghold ally helped by Buddhistsfrom other parts of
of both Bu.{j'lhism and Jainism virtually since Asia, such as China and Sorrtheasr Aiia, and
rc, altlsttc, the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira, thus the Buddhistholy land was not dependent
e the hall- regardlessof political situations in the region. solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to
:h regional In the caseof Buddhisn, the reqion was maten- maintain itself. During the Gupta period and
224 DYNAS'fIIS OF THE MIDDI I IEITIOD
sr properly
ince it was
i Although
enr may be
. in Bactro-
,{ until the
'hich often
ard liberal
r-rsang tells
iupposedly,
been iden-
_;r. laid the
rhere. This
Iinq in the
he place as
iisciple of
trga there.6
rv ra-nslen
i fronastery
:nJ after.
,n: are fre-
n :-. a rule.
:r rhe king
t :re not
Lt' such as rr.4. Stnpa/ Temple 3. Nalanda, Bihar, tndia. Ca. late sixth,early
ei:.:.. and a seventhcentr,rry,Brick and stucco,
?26 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
h s1lt.
Bud&
shors ,
rng inr
AtM
archire
lavislrly decorated with stucco architectural the sir
mouldings and niches containing figures of
Buddhas and bodhisattvas (Fig. rr.5). Bricks
with Buddhist inscriptions used in this phase
are believed to date from the late sixth or early
seventh century, around the time of Harga's
reign or slightly earlier, on the basis of paleo-
graphy. In style, the sculptures also fit this at-
tribution, for while they still strongly relateto
Gupta material from sitessuch as Sarnathin the
slender,gracefully posed figures, their clinging,
near transparent drapery, and the style of their
costumes, the slendemessis perhaps greater
than that seen at Samath. This is visible in the
very thin faces especially, wbich anticipate
the sryle to be seen in subsequentsculpture at
Nalanda. This core, revealed by archaeologists,
was not the latest addition to this monument,
for two more layers were added, posibly not
long after the fifth. Stucco, like terra cotta, n
r highly frrgile medium. lts nse. as tllat of
t
brick, was popularized during the Gupta period,
both in the eastern and western outreachesof
the former Gupta empire, possibly as an eco-
nomic measure.The populariry oF stucco may rr.6. Buddha. From Sultengeflj,
fl
Bihar, India. Ca. seventh cen- {..
be relatcd to Inner Asian practicesthat grew up
tury. Metal. H: ca. zoo cm. Bir- rr--- Ka
where stone was scarce.However, its adoPtion rningham Museurn and Art Gal- .eveoth
at Nelanda and other sites in Magadha where PaBla -\ll
THE GUpTA AETERMAT]J 227
npa / Temple stone was abundant nust have been due to human-size and weighs more than a ton, was
'. lndi:. Ca.
other considerations. found during railway excavationsin the nine-
'enrh century.
Metal must have also been a popular artistic teenth century. Undoubtedly, it was not a
medium in eastern India, although it too is unique creation and others of similar ambi-
barely representedamong the known exarnples tiousness must have existed, but since metal
of post-Gupta art. However, an extraordinary corrodes and can be melted down and reused
image of a Buddha from Sultanganj in eastern for other purposes, many of the rrnages pre-
Bihar indicatesthat not only was metal technol- sumed to have been produced have been lost.
ogy an advanced sciencein ancient India, but Stylistically, the figure strongly relates to the
that craftsmen were able to use it to advantage Nalanda stuccos and a seventh-century date
(Fig. rr.6). The image, which is larger than may be suggestedfor its production.
In spiteof the fact that Magadhawasprimarily controversial inscription from Mu4de$ari gives
Buddhist,otherportionsof the easrcrn regions the year thirry of an unspecified era,? often
show evidencethat Hindu worshipwas becom- thought to be the Harsa era, which began in
ing increasinglypopularin post-Guptapedods. A.D.606, thus giving a date equivalent to 636;
At Mundefuari Hill in Bihar, for example, and it is possiblethat some ofthe artistic produc-
archirecrura]andsculptural remainssrrggest
that tions found at Mundeivari date from this period.
the site was an important Hindu center, A An image of Karttikeya (Fig. rl.7) and another
529,
rr.7. Kartrikeya. Fron Mundeivan, Bihar, India. Ca. rr.8. Surya. Frorn Mun{e(varr. Bihar. India. Ca.
GJ- seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H: 68.5 cm. seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H:48,5 cm.
PatnaMuseurn,Petna. Patna Museum, Paha,
226 DYNASTITS OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
Certain artistic developments in the western rather stark and plain. Further, the use of large,
regions of ancient India that arosein the wake heavy blocks of stone in the construction of
of the decline of the imperial Guptas provide the temple, often also seenasan "early" element
important insights into the earlier history of refecting associationswith Gupta temple archi-
the region, especially the heritage of Western tecture, seemsin this caseto be a regional form,
classicisticsyles. Probably the oldest surviving since later ternples as well maintain this type
structural temple in the Saurasprapeninsula of of construction. It is not known to whom the
Gujarat state is the so-called Old Temple at temple was originally dedicated, as no image
cop (Fig. rr.ii), which is thought to have been was found in the shrine and most ofthc extcrior
built between 575 and 6oo, when this region decoration is lost. Originally, thts sandhara
was under the sway of the Maitraka dynasty. shrine was enclosedby a circumambulatory pas-
Its form and style, while unusual in terms sage, as was the "P-rvati" temple at Nachna-
of the mainstream developments in northem Kuthara, although, like that of the earlier
temple architecture(nagara).is an inreresting temple, this enclosureis now in rurns.
episode in the development of westem Indic The Maitraka dynasty, which may have been
styles, deriving both fiom earlier traditions in ruling SauresFaat the time the Gop tcmple was
the west, as well as from Gupta modes. Rela- built, forms a puzz\ng chapter in the history of
tionships between the Gop tenple and later South Asian art. One of the most durable ofthe
Ka6miri forms, as well as earlier Bactro- new statesthat arose upon the ruin of the im-
lia. Ca- third Gandhara architecture, have been observed by perial Guptas, the Maitrakas seem to have been
D.
scholars,and the temple is usually classi{iedas establishedby the late fifth century (their earliest
belonging ro the "Candheric" type since it presently known land grant is dated to around
preservesa number of elementsfiom the north- Jo2). Yet, in spite ofa rule ofover two hundred
westem tradition of the Kusana period. One and {ifty years, little is known about the art of
of these is the so-called "penthouse-type" this dynasty. Over one hundred temples in Sau-
roof (actually a pyramidal roof rising from ra;ga have been identified as bclonging to the
a square base), known as the phathsanatype. Maitraka period, although none can be speci-
This forn is laterro bc seen in Kairnrr, suggesr- fically tied to the patronage of the rulers them-
ing an early widespread dispersalof the con- selvesand none is datableon the basisofinscrip-
vention-10 tional evidence. This pcculiarity is especially
The temple at Gop sits atop a high terrace notable becausethe Maitrakas in general left
(jogati) that ts squarein plan except for a projec- extensive epigraphic records, many of which
tion on the east (Fig. rr.rz). Originally, steps describe their generosity to and patronage of
at either side of the extensionwould have given religious establishnents. By all standards, the
the devotee accessto the templc. The increased rulers must have been wealthy, since Valabhi,
plinth height, in comparison, for exanple, with the now-ruined Maitraka capital, was at that
the Visnu temple at Deogarh and the "Parvati" time a seaport and a major tradc center linking
temple at Nechn5-Kuthara, anticipates later ancientIndia with the Persianand Mediterranean
developments in northem temple architecture. worlds. Recordsdating from between about J3J
The bold form of three false dornlcr windows and 7oo document donationsmade by individuals
(cadraiala) decorateseach slope of the peaked to specifically nan.redBuddhist establishments.ll
roof, creating a dominant motif on the monu- Hsiian-tsang, who travelled to Valabhi in 64o,
ment. In general, relative simplicity prevails, spoke of the flourishing of Buddhism in the
perhaps indicating the early date of the area.lz And yet, virtually nothing has been
ta. Ca. third temple, although in this casecaution should be recoveredfiom Valabhi and its vicinity to testify
9r.5 crn. Mrs. exercised in making such a judgment, as to its former glory. I-tsing, another Chinese
numerous later templ€s in this region are also traveler, who visited India during the Maitraka
rr.r2. PhD of Old T.nrpic. Gop,
GLUar.t,Lrdi:r.Mritrrka pcriod.
THE GUPTA AFTTRMATH 2'T
supremacy (although he did not visit Valabhr),
mcntions that the two pron-rinent centers of
learning in India at the time (lateseventhcentury)
were Nalanda in the east and Valabhi in the
west,13
Thus, an important chapter in the develop-
ment of Indic art as known Gom historical
sourcesis a virtua] blanl<to us. A good portion
of the materials must have been plundered, for
the collapse of the Maitraka enlprrc was ac-
celerated by a marine invasion of Arabs from
Sind, and this was only a prelude to the largc-
scaleadvent of Muslims whose iconoclastic zeal
is well known as onc of the contributing causes
of the decline and destruction of nonumental
art in northern India. But undoubtedly, future
discoveries will help us to better understand
this important phaseoflndic art.
The distinctiveregionalcharacterofart in west-
ern India and the merging of the earlier Bactro-
Gandhara inlluence with north-central Indian
Gupta modes is visible in sculptureand architec-
ture alike. A number of sites in Rajasthanand
northem Gujarat have yielded interesring sculp-
tural remains, usually carved of the distinctive
greenishblue or greyish blue schistIocally known
^s pireua stone. SeveralGmalc figures found at
Tanesara-Mahadeva, about fi fty kilometers from
Udaipur, reveal aspectsof thc style that was
apparently current throughout southwestern
Rajasthanafter the Gupta period, in around the
sixth century. Although they are usually identi-
frcd as matykasand have been presuned to have
been part of a sapta,flabl<agroup, they may
insteadrepresentthe six &rrrl&asor foster mothers
of Karttikeya, also called the Skandamatas
(Mothers of Skanda).raSupposedly,Karttikeya's
six faces developed so that he could drinl the
milk of the six mothers, who comprise the con-
stellation Pleiades.lsIn style, the figures betray
a Hellenistic flavor combined with the Gupta
heritage. The depiction of one Skandamata,for
example(Fig. r r. r3), shows a rather solidly built,
almost muscular looking female reminiscent of
Ku954a and post-Kus-na portrayals of won.ren
from the northwest. The drapery is highly rr.rJ. Skandam:ta. From Tanesara-Mahadeva.R:_
naturalistic,with heavy, three-dimensionalfolds jasthan, India. Ca. sixth century. Greenishblue schist.
that recall Bactro-Gandhara types, as does H:76.4 cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art,
the curly hair. The child al.o ha, a Hellenized Los Angeles (Nasli and Alice HeeramaneckCollection).
2J2 DYNASTIESOl: THr MIDDIE PERIOD
rr.r6.!:
rr.r4. Sxivite kst,dpald.Ftot.lrSa rxl:ji, Gujartr, India' rr.rJ. Vilnu VlavartPa.At Nilaka4lhaMahadcvatcD-
\ 1 . 1 h r : . !: i
Ca. secondquarter sixth ccntury. Grey schist H: 93 J ple. Samalaji,Grjarat, India. Ce. sccondquartcr sixrh
cln. Princeof WalesMuseurnof WcsternIndia, Bon1bsy' centurl'. Blue-grcy schist.H: ror.6 cn.
ne\i c:
appearance,undoubtedly based on crotes and shows thc rem:rrkably high quality ofcraftsrnan-
oiher .hild depictions that had been freely in- ship of the westernIndian sculPtor(Fig. rr.r4).
corporated into the western Asiatic rePertore' Thi hcavy drapery, like that of thc figurcs from
,::..'; c.
Yci clearly, these forms, lvhile indebted to Tarcsara-Mahadcva, revcals a classicisticheri-
Bactro-Gaudhara precedcnts, reveal the grace, tage, but thc delicatecarving and graceful forlns
:,.lit c-
chanr.r,and delicacy of the Gupta tradition, as d e r i v c f r o r n t l r e C u p t a r r . r d i r i o nl.h c ' t r o n g
doesthe dcpiction of the clinging.garments' rclationship of this {igurc and other sir.niiaroncs
-:::a: -:
At Samalaji in Gujarat, a nutnber of impres- to cxanplcs frorn the Mandasor region (Fig
sive stone sculpturcs wcre found- T}Leir datc r t . . z )' r r g g e , tb r o . ' d t r r t . t i c t i c ' . r r l t o n gs i r c ' i n
::::1::
and patronagc remain controvcrsial However, thc rl,'esternand northr,vcstcrnregions.Howevcr,
"they
stylisticaily, seem to bclong to thc sixth the posc of the rnair-r{igure is even more exag-
:-, . i::
gerltcd and thc entire configuration more orn'lte
..lrarry, ,ttort probably thc second quarter of
that century. A Saivite in.ragepcrhaPsrePresent- r l ' . r r rr h c M r n d : r o r . c t r l p t t r r cs. e c t t i i n gt o a n r i -
rrtg a ksetrapalo(r kind of Protective deity) cipate more fully d.re stylistic directions of the
THE GUPTAAFTERMATH 2,'
r'elief in the center), Brahma (beneath him),
auata$ and tyuhas ol yisnu. himself, and India
and Surya.r6As Viivarupa (Having All Forms),
Visnu appears as the Universal in whom ail
things are embodied and from whom all thines
emanate.This form of Vi5nu, while known in
a number of Hhdu texts, is describedperhaos
mosr poignantly in the BhagavadGlr;, a woik
appended to,rhe Mahabharai, which is basically
a dialogue berween Arjuna and hjs charioteei.
who is none other rhan Visnu in his Krsna in_
carnation.The dialoguerakesplaceon the eve
of rhe great battie of Kuruk5eria, when Arjuna
is overcome wirh doubt about rhe righteouiness
of the.killing that will occur the ne"xrday and
begins ro-questionKrsna. In responseto Arjrrna..
request that he reveal himself Krsga manifests
himself in a forrn that embodies every asoectof
the universe, and rhus fills Arjuna with awe.
All various coiors. alJ moving ind unmoving
trungs,many mouths.eyes,ornaments.weapons.
marvelous garlands,garments, perfumes, and
olntments are contained within Arjuna,s vision-
While such a vision would be impossible to
porrray in a work of arr, the ard;rs of this
carving. have clearly attenpted to suggest the
multiplicity inherent in it. The stvli-of the
figures, though somewhat dificult io discern.
fall: wthm rhe definitionsof the sixrh-cenrury
l:hadeva tem- rr.16. Stele. Ar Baredeviche Deul. parel (Bombay), school at Samalaii-
quafter sixth Maharasfra, Irdia. Ca. frst half sixth cenrury. Stone. The
H: 348 cm. -regional styles developing rr vanous
parts of westem India following the breakup
of the Gupra empire were
_highJ/dependenroi
wnat must have been earlier artistic traditions
irr each locale. Thus, while some general .,post_
,f craftsman- next centuries,particularly those to be seen in Gupta" featuresmight be common to works of
(Fig. rr.r4). the art of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Thus, the art produced *noughourthe region, Iocal peculi_
tgures from Samalaji sculpture rnay be slightly later, and may an esare atsolound. and thesein turn form the
icistic heri- have been made as late as around a.u. 55o. basisfor the highJy distilcrive sryles*ut emerged
rceful forms The trend towards increased elaboration is rn- arouncl.the seventh century. A huge stele
The strong even clearer in a representation of Visnu Vij- (Fig. rr.16) found at parel in the Bomb--ayarea
siadlar ones v_arBpa.also from Semaldji, which probably migk appearat first glanceto relare stron;ly to
region (Fig. dates from around the same rime (Fig-. rr.r5j. the Viivarupa image from Samalaji (fig. ilr5),
ong sites in Xight-armed and four-faced (the fourth implied but this is largely due to the coincidence of
s. However, at the rear), Vis4u sits atop the serpentAn-nta, their emanarory iconographies a:rd the general
more exag- wears an elaborate crown, and is accompanied similarities arising from rhe lact rhat bJrh are
rDoreomate by a seemingmuJtirudeoffigures, most ofwhom western Indian works ofabout the sixth centurv-
ing to anti- seem to emanate from his head. These fisures The Parel stele,however, finds its closeststylistic
tions of the inclode the ayudhapttrr^, SiV" (.t th" top of th" counterparrs in the caves at Elephanta
lFigs.
2)4 D Y N A \ T I L \ O I T H T M I D D IL P I R I O D
r r . r 8 . B r a h r ) a . F r o r l B r a h m a n a b a d ,p a k i s t a n . C a . s i x t h
ccntury. Mfial. H: 96.5 cnr. National Muscum, Karachi.
THX GUPTA AFTERMATH 2'J