J5d TATER SCHOOLSOT THE DECCAN AND THX SOUTH
Hoysala ornate style. Xrected on the orders of
Vi;nuvardhana himself to cor.nmcmorate his
victory over the Colas at Talaka{, the deity of
the ternplc, in fact Visnu in his Ke(ava form, was
n a m e dV i j a y a N a r e y J n l( V i t o r i o u s N a r a y a n a ) ,
in an apparentplay on both the name ofthe god
(Narayanais ViSpu) and Vignuvardhana'svictory
over the Colas. In addition, the name may
rcfer rc the acaryawho is gencrally credited with
converting Visr.ruvardhanato Vaisnavism, Re-
manuja, who is also known as Vi;nu Narayana.?
Dcdicated in rrr7,8 the templc stands as the
principal rnonument in a complex of later
temples within a large courtyard. It cousists
of a pillared nan/apa that takes on a crucr-
forrn shapc duc to rlrc rarfia-likeprojections
of thc walls, an antechamber, and the shrine
proper (Fig. zz.z4). Like other ornstr:-style
Hoysala tcnples, this structure restson a plinth.
But unlike examplesin nrany other Indic stylcs,
where the plinth would be rectangularor square
regardlessof thc contour of thc tcnple, in this
and otber Hoysala ornate-style structrres, the
shape of the plinth follorvs that of the teinple
itsell As a result of offsetting the walls of the
ten.rplc and plinth, more spaceis provided for
scr ptural decoration, resulting in rnuch of the
richness associatedwith ornate-style Hoysala
teilples. Staircaseson the exst, south, and north
side of the plinth flankcd by pairs of miniature
!.,hrardsgivc acccssto thc tcrnple and correspond
with the three doorways leading into the rra4-
dapa. The srrpersr nrcrltre of the eiatanair no
longer present, giving thc temple an overall
squat appearance that was not originally so
pronourced (Fig. zz.z5).
In its original state, the na4dapa had a tuore
porchlike appearance,for the spacesbetrveenthe
pill,Lr. supporring tlre roof rvere lelt open.
Howevcr, during the reign of the Hoysala king
tsallala II, pierced stone windows lvcre added,
giving tl.represent more closed appcarance(Fig.
2 2 . 2 6 ) .T h c ' c w i n d o u " . r r h i l e n o t p x r t o f t h e
original scherne,fall within the scopcof Hoysala
art xnd ultimxtely r.nay bc dcrived from tradi-
tions of the Deccan, cspeciailythat of the Early
Westcrn Calukyas and monuncnts such as the
Lad Khan temple at Aihole. In addition to the
carved window screcns,profirsc sculpting of the
-t
aa aall+
a fr-1-t-aaaa
vl
l
{. .l
. at:4a . .-. .-
rr oool
ilI IF
zz.z4.Planof Kc(avatemple.BEl[r, KarnetaLa,
India.
Hoysalapcriod, reign of Vignuvardhana.Dedicated
in r rr7.
exterior of the temple walls provides this monu-
ment with the characteristic richness of omate-
style Hoysala works (Fig. zz.z7). In a superficial
sense,the abundant carving on the temple, both
inside and out, is suggestiveof northern styles,
such as those of the Candellas or Solankis.
Indeed, it is possible that the preference for
intricate forn-r ultirnately derives frorn northern
associarions.Houever. rhe delicacy of the
carvings and their often miniature scale is
characteristic of Hoysala art. It is generally
believed that the close-grained chloritic schist
used in building the Hoysala monuments was
particularly conducive to such detailed work.
The carvings are generally deeply undercut so
that the {igures and other n.rotifs stand out
sharply against thcir shadows. Decorative ele-
ments, such as female figures or inllabited vine
scrolls (Fig. zz.z7) generily run in horizontal
rows continuously around the ternple wall,
creating a higliy organized, controlled design
Paficrn.
Some of the most acclaimedsculpturesof the
Ke6ava temple are the bracket {igures, called
 IATER DECCAN SCHOOTS JJg

E .5i

::. Xrrnttaka, IDdia.

22.25. Kcieve tcrnple from east.Belir, Karnat:ka, IDdia. Hoysala
:::r3na. Dedicated
period,rcign of Visnuvardhana. Dedicatedin rrr7.

:'.:ics this monu-

._less of omate-
-.lnasuperficial
--- t"..^1" h^'t'
: :rordrcrn styles,
,, or Solankis.
:. --.reference for
:, :iorl northern
:.'-rcacy o1 the
:::::tr-rrescale is
ii is gencrally
: chloritic schist
:::otlutnents was
: ictailed work.
: : - \ ' u n d e r c u ts o
:--.iifs stand out
Decorative ele-
: :rhrbited vine
-:: in horizontal
:: cerlplc wall,
::--irollecl design

. l-."." ^f il'^
: rrgures, called zz.z6. Ke(ava templc, from thc southcasr. Belur, Kar4alaka, hldia.
Hoysal: pcriod, reign of Visnuvardhana. Dedicated in rrr7.
 IATER SCHOOI-S OF THI DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

22.27. Dctajl, exterior wall, Kelava telnplc. BEldr, Kamttaka,

India. Hoysala peiod, reign of Visnuvardham. Dedicared in r rr7,

22.28. Fenalc brackct figurc, Ke6ava terlplc_ Be)ur,

Karntraka, India. Hoysala pcriod, reign of Visnuvar_
dhana.Dedicatedin rr17.
 IATIR DICCAN SCHOOTS J61

22.3o. Pillar capital 3nd cciling sectioD, latdald oi

Kc(ava tenple. Bahr, Karnataka, India. Hoysala
period, reign of Vi;4uv:rrdhana. Dedicatod in rrr7.

'. t.
a-.

22.3r. Entrlncc to shrine arca, Keiava rcnrple. Bchr,

Karnataka, Iudi.. Hoysah pcriod, reign of Visnuvar-
dhana.Dedicatcdin rr17.

?:;

r :. lJelau,Karne-
: \ i5nu\'3rdhanr.
562 LA.IEI- SCHOOLSOF THE DTCCAN AND TI{E SOUTH
and omate as the exterior' Each pillar of the :hc orders oi r
madanokais in the Kanna{a language of the re- ..^-JL^-^ :.
qion, which are placedbencath the overhanging nntl(apa ts finely carved, some with figures and
othcr elements,others simPly in round patterns le:rrs later, :
iool of the ^ondipo. originally. there were Forry
(Fig. zz.z9). [n the center of the nandopa' a bay .rchirect of \i
such figures, although now there are thirty-eight'
In con."pt, the bracket figures can ultimately i . . r . " t " d b y t h e f o t r r c e n t r a l p i l l a r s 'r b o v e
which is a highly detailed, carved ceiling panel, PercY Brosl
be tr"c"J to the art of the Early Western Calu-
reminiscent of examples found in northern ::radon, one <
kyas once again. One example shows a woman
piesu-ablyloosening her garment to get dd of templc .rylc. (fig. 22.3o).female bracketfigures
(Fig. zz.z8). pl".ed at eaclt corner of the central bay --: nlo virtu;
sco.pion, shown below her feet ".e
"
The figure stands io an accentsated tribhaiga The entrance to the shrine area is flanked by a
pair of LargeVaiftravitcdvdrapalas and is deco- ::ms of rheir
posture and is virtually nakcd except for her
-ornaments zz.3r). Thus, -.-o cruciforr
and the loosened cloth around her rated with an elaborate lintel (Fig.
associa- the entire ternplc, from the exterior to the :Jc ro the loi
hips.Tlre fullnessof her figure suggests
such as the interior shrine, is a highly ornate, rich form.
tions with western Deccan traditions,
earlier art of the Ra;grakotas and Vakapakas' At Halebid (ancient Dorasamudra), the Hoy- :iference in i

The dceply undercut foliate motif behind her sala capital, the most prominent structure is the
lacelike and is very eff-cctively Hoysaieivara temple dcdicated to Siva (Fig.
"pp""r, "l-ort :z.jz), *onu*.n, of rhe omrte srylc
seenagainstthe dark shadows. "norhe,
The interior of the Ke(ava temple is as rich Believed to have bcen begun around rrzr by :: ;,:. Plan ..: I
:.:. H:,cbtc.
--: . !:,a per:.:

zz.3z. Hoysalelvara tcrnple fron the northeast. Ha]ebi{, Kar4agaka,

India. Hoysala pcriod. Ca. 112r-60.
 rATXRDECCANSCHOOTS J6J
h pillar of the the orders of one Ketamalla, an ofricerofVisnu- later addition or had been modified in later
nrh figures and vardhana, it was apparently completed some times. As in the caseof the Kc(ava temple at
round pattems years later, around 116o, by Kcdaroja, the Behr, the plinth of this templc csscntiallyfol-
nn4lapa, a bay architect of Vis4uvardhana'sson and successor, lows the outline of tlrc strucrures.In plan, each
pillars, above Nlsirirha I (r- ca. tt4z-l3). [r the opinion of separatetemple is similar to the earlier tcmple
j ceiling panel, Percy Brown, this temple "is, without cxag- at Belur, consisting of the pillared mandapa,at
c in northem geration, one ofthe most remarkabiemonuments antechambcr, and thc shrine proper.
' bracket figures ever produced by the hand of man."e It consists Since the towers over the shrincs are mrss-
he central bay. of two virtually identical but separateternples ing, the overall appearanceof the temple com-
i' flanked by a on a large singleplatforrn, comected at the inner plex is low and squat, although this was not
ia. and is deco- arms of their transepts(Fig. 22.33). h plan, the thc original intention on the part of the mak-
l. 22.3r). Thus, fwo cruciform temples create a double cross, ers. Following the pattern secn in the Beltr
:rrerior to the due to the joined inner arm. Preceding each of temple, tlre entranccs have tniniature uintdnas
:. rich form. the temples is a pillared Nandi pavilion. The flanking the stairs and largc, ornate duanpalas
:Jra), the Hoy- differencein form between thesetlvo srrucrures attending the doorways (Fig. 22.34). Perhaps
srructure is the is unexplained, but it is possible that one is a even more profusely carved than thoseon carlier
:. ,-.
ro )rva (rtg.
re ornate style.
round rrzr by 22.j3. Planof Hoysale5vara
tcm-
pie- Halebrd,Karnttaka, India.
Hoysalaperiod.Ca. trzr-6o,

ffi

tl I
.J
f r r
LfI
l

Fo .llt=l'
s ! to l5 2a 2a 30 35 .O
564 TATER SCIIOOLS OF THT DECCAN AND THL SOUTII

t_

22.14. Sorth enlf:ulcc, H o , v s a l c \ v r r ] te,rrplc.Ihlebid, Kar4t!aka,

Indir. Hoysrh pcriod. C r . r r 2 r - 6 . r .

tcnrylc. HaLcbtd,Karn.rgekr'
22.35. Tcnrpie rval1,Hovsalc!r';rra
India.Ho,vsrlapcriod.C3. rrzr-60-

H
i--
E
22.36. Transept connecting rwo remples. looking south, Hoy-
saleivaraternple.Halebid,Karnaraka.India. Hoy:ala pcriod. Ca.
\t2r4o.
Hoysala temples, the figures are literally en-
crusted with minutely detailed decoration. yet
all the elements are controlled within their
appropriate context so that the effect is highly
organized. The bodies of the figures are even
heavier and fuller in appearancethan earlier ones
and stand in gracefully swaying postures. A
strong relationship can be seen between the
sculpture style of the Hoysalas and that of the
neighboring Kerala region, in both the heavy
figure type and the abundant omamenration.
The walls ofthe temples(Fig. 22.35)have delicate
strips of sculpted fiiezesrunrring along the base,
including a row of elephants proceeding in
clockwise direction at the bottom. In contrast
with the massivescaleofthe elephantfrieze ofthe
Kailasanathatemple at Ellora, these animals are
shown in miniature in keeping with the overall
scaleof carvings. The middle part of the walls
bears figurative sculpture including deities and
women in vadous postures. For the most part,
thesefigures are in animatedposesand are heavily
LATER DXCCAN SCHOOTS J6J
laden with jewelry, yet the effect is highly or-
ganized as each figure occupies a specifically
defined space.The upper pariofthe walls has a
to\)\/ oI mLmature rtmanas.
A rather spaciousfeeling pervadesthe interior
of the temples,although once again, the interior
is richly embellished with carved pillars and
derailed cciling coffers. The transepr;onnecring
the two tcmplesis a long hall (l-ig. z:.30) lit at
borh endsthroughrhepoih openiig. arihenorth
and south sides of the temples. In format and
treatment, the entrancesto the two shrine areas
are similar to rhat at Belur, althoueh the scale
is greater (Fig. 2237). The Saivirc narure of the
shrine antechamber dvarapalasis clearly indicated
by the snakeentwined weaponsthey hold.
Temple building under the Hoysalascontinued
at an active pace during the twelfth and thir-
teenth centudes.At the same time, the Hoysala
empire was expanding both to the north and
the south. In the latter half of the thirteenth
century, the empire was partitioned so that
 sourH
566 LATERscHools oF THE DEccAN AND THE

tcrnple'
22.?7. Shrine entrance,southern buiJding, Hoysalc(vara
Karnataka, tndia. Hoysala Period Ca 112r-60'
Hati;d,

ea.ch
the temple consistsof three separateuiminas'
Nrsiriha III f. ca rz54-92) controlled and shrine, with a singlc'
of dre Hoysala h"ui'nn ..Il"-ber
north€rn regions, that is, rnost "n ".t smaller'
thc ,lr r"i ,o1rlopo, which is precededby a
,"rritori"r, air,l his brothcr Ramanatha ruled zz Each vinana
Nlsirirha pillarcd porcir (Figs.2.2.38. 4o)'
i"rrlil hoi,lingr. Temples built under i, ropped by a moderately
i. ri"tt.r. ln plan ind
fi irr.lod. ti. f"m.d Ke(ava temple (called pro-
"Som:retha" in an inscription) at Somnathpur' sized tower (-aboutnine meters high)' thus
vidinq an extrnt examPleofwhat may have.been
a Vailnavtte monument' as rrs rnme irnplics' (Fig.uz4L)'
the , r y p i . . , lH o y . : l , t o * e , f o t n t
of,h. o.n"r. style. Both the temple and ind
,ln
ro(ltllern styles
lz68 colr;Jst to both norchem
town of SomnathPur were founded by
of the same tinc, the Hoysala
by Soma, a generai of Nrsirhha III The tcmple "pproti-",.1y aftcr extravagant height'
of thc extmt aia
is pcrhaps' Jre most complete "..trl',l., ""t'rtrive Dcccan-dcrivedstyles'the
-or-rot t"nts and its small size and A, itt otlr", Da.."t or
Ho'yra1"
it one of the {inest io*"r, an interr-nediatcform betwecn the
g"irlik" ."ruing render "r"
,i"J,*oroa southenl-style superstructurcsand
Hoysala structurcs north-
,h" E".rer.llv curvilinear spiresfound in
ih" K.6".r" temPle at SonutthPur is a triplc-
it.hit".,or". Thc dctailed trcatrnent of the
shrine strLlctule contained within a rectangular ".n vertical'
:a::'i: c:

(Fig. zz.3r). A single gateway (nnia- ,".f"". .f the tower, especially the
rrocred rib', i. rlso relninisccnr oI nort]rern
"ou.,yrta ternple
irut"i o" ti.7*t pio',id"' at"et' to the
i: Oi-:3
sotne
(l-iq. zz.lq). ln contrarrto 'outhern- fo'r,t'.. ,ugg"',ing rhe lrybrid-izationrhrt clo:i
The
"o*oornd the .o,t,"n,l liitt" ,lrn o loi''',. of architcctr'rre
,,yl.q"prrrr' ,ihi.h ".. uindna-likeitr fortrt'
siito ul
that follows
in rlrc cnrranccwry sugge't' temgle rests upon a low plinth of o: .
oiofurion ofpillrtt
iHoysa\t na4lapa In plan' the tL" lh"p" of the tenrplc, including thc intricate
il" fo.ttt
"f "
 LATERDrccAN scHoors j6Z

r- Fl
tr-r
tix

nlnf
xrr-

!'iafids, each
'. ::h a single,
:.-a smaller,
E:ch uimana
. moderately
: . drus pro-
.:r' ]ravebeen f,xr nlI
;. ::.4r). In
::rern styles
:1.- Hoysala
;:nt height.
=li
-0 .5 'A 7 pl"" of Keiava (Somnerha)tempte. SoDl-
-Jl.:s.
:j srvles,the
r0 ,5 ,0 - nathpur, Karnataka, India. Hoysala pcriod, reign
:.-fl!een the I of Nrsiftha III. Foundcdby 1268.
:icturcs and
--: in north-
:::tr'nr of thc
:-1:'vertical, forrn ofthe star-shapedvim-dnas,ar,Ld
circumam- These shrines must have once contained Vai,\-
:: northern bulation can be performed on this plinth. (As 4.aviteimages, though the images are no longer
: :hat sonre in other Hoysrla monumenrs.rlrere ir no en-
Presem.
:.,-irtre.The closed ambulatory passage.) The temple is The arrangemenrof sculpturaldecorationon
: -,:i follows surrounded by a pillared cloister (Fig. zz.4z), the exterior of the temple is similar to thar
::e intricate off of which open sixty-four subsidiary shrines. seenin some other Hoysala ornate-styletemples,
{6f, |{ R \cHoort or rHL DrccAN aND IHE roL tH

JI
l

-jq
;JT
=
22.19- Erstern g:rtclvay to l{eilvl (Sornnatha) tenlFlc, lrorl1 wesr.
Sonuathpur, I{arrla!.}ka, India. Ho,-sela period, rcign of Nrsirirha
IIL CT. 1268. -

I l-
--

'
*at

::.4o. Kelur (Sornn.rthr) tcnrple s seen liom r,rof of eastcm

g a t * v e , v . S o m n a t h p L r r ,K : r r n . q a k i . I n d . L I o l s r l ; r p e n o c l , r e i g n o f
Nrsirhhr lll. Ca. 1268.
 LATER DECCAN SCHOOTS J6g

22.4r. Vihanas of Kesava (Som-

natha) temple, from south. Som-
narhpur, Karnalaka, hrdia. Hoy-
sala period, reign of NSsirhha
IIL Ca. 1268.

zz.4z. Pillared cloisrer on norrh. looking

east,Kefuva (Sornnatha)temple. Somn5th-
pur, Karpaqaka.India.Hoysalaperiod,reign
of NrsirhhaIIL Ca. 1268-
570 LATER SCHOOTS OT THE DICCAN AND THE SOUTH

22.43. Ganc(a on south sidc, I{eaava (Sonlnadra)

lenrple. Sornntthpur, Karn,taka, Indi:. Floys:la
pcriod,rcign of NpsirnhaIII. Ca. r268.

22.44. Erotic Iigures, south side of enlrancc porch,

Ke(rvr (Somnrtha) rcllplc. Sonnrethpur, KarDtlakr,
India. Hoysala period, rcign of Nrsirnha III. Ca. 1268.

*X*

:..', :

SonxrarhDu:.
 IATBR DECCAN SCHOOTS 57t

a (Somnatha) consisting of the srnall, detailed horizontal the principal form a{ier whom the temple is
dia. Hoysala friezes,abovewhich are deitiesand other figura- usually called in the west. As Venugopala,
tive carvings. Sculpturesinclude what are by Kggr.rais shovrrnplaying a fute with which he
this time familar subjectsin Hindu art, such as enchants his companions, the cowherdesses
a dancing figure of Ga4e6a(Fig. zz.4). An (gopis)andcows,therebyinstillingdeepdevotion
interestingfeatureof the sculpturalprogram of in his followers. In this form, Kgqnastandswith
the temple is the presenceof erotic imagery on the weight of his body on one leg with the
the south sideof the entranceporch (Fig. 22.44). other leg bent and thrust acrossthe stableleg.
While not uniqueamongHoysa]aexamples,such Janardanaand Ke6avaare two of the standard
figures are generally de-emphasizedor absent twenty-four icons of Vi;4u, which are differen-
from south Indian and Deccan imagery, in tiated bv the oosition of the attributesheld in
i - i -, -
contrastwith their popularity in many northern the hands. Each of the figures standson a high,
styles,such as the art of the Candellasor in complex base with a representationof Garu{a
Orissantemples. beneath. It is likely that the multiple-shrine
Inside,the temple is similar in treatmentto temples of the Hoysalas (and other Deccan
other Hoysalaomate-styletemples.The ceilings familie$ reflect a speci{ic form preferred be-
are elaboratelydecorated(Frg. zz.a5), asare the causeit allowed worship of multiple aspectsof
entrancesto the three shrinesand shrine ante- deities without combining them into composite
chambers.The images in the three shrines are forms, in contrast with what was done, for
eachslightly smallertlan human-sizeand consist example,in Ka(mir with the popular Caturmarti
of Kpqraas Ver.rugopala in the south shrine(Fig. rorm.
22.46),Jatard,anaYignu in the north, andKe6ava,
orrance Porch,
xrr, Kaqre[aka,
a III. Ca. 1268.

22.45. Ceiling panel, Keiava (Somnetha) temple. 22.46.Krsna Ve41lgbpalain south shrine,Ke(ava(Som-
Somnathpur, Kar4elaka, India. Hoysa]a period, reign natha) tenrple. Somnathpur,Kamataka, India. Hoysala
of Nrsirhha III. Ca. 1268. period, reign of Nrsirhha III. Ca. 1268.Srone.
572 LATER SCHOOI-S OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
Concrusrolr
Ultimately, the partitioning of thc Hoysala
en.rpircthat hacl taken place in the lattcr half of
the thirtccnth century was reconciled, although
not bcforc a great deal of damagewas done and
the cmpirc had become significantly weakencd.
Ballala III (r. ca- tzgz-44) annulled the parti-
tion and reunited the kingdom, but by this time
the Muslim threat was so grcat to the Deccan
and the south tlrat it was impossiblc for hirn
to carry orlt his plans to rcbuild the Hoysala
kingdom. In r3rr Malik Ka{iir had attackedthc
Hoysala capital of Dorasamudra, and although
Ballala III rvas ablc to ellect a temporary agrec-
ncnt with his encrny, another Muslim expedi-
tion in r3r8 and an attackby Mohamned bin-
Tiighluq in r326 madc tlre demiseof the Hoysala
kingdom inevitable. Whcn a Muslim sultanate
was cstablishedin nearby Madurai, the Islardc
conquest seemed nearly conplete. However,
under thc Vijayanagar rulers, the Deccan and
the south rnadc oue final resistanceto thc foreign
rulers and protected the indigenous culturc
from destmction.
)orary agree-
ulim expedi-
ummed bin-
f the Hoysala
Lim sultanate
. rhe Islamic
:. However,
Deccan and
o the foreign
rous culture
CHAPTER T'WENTY-THREE
The Vijayanagar
Period(ca.r336 to r565)
The Muslim forces that drew to a close manv
chapters of Hindu hisrory and art in northern
India would probably have done the same in
the south and the Deccanwere it not for the rise
of the kings of Vijayanagar. The successand
strength of thesekings, who ruled in three suc-
cessivedynastiesfrom the city of Vijayanagarl
during the time that the Muslims were establish-
ing various statesin the norrh, enabledthe south
and the Deccan to continue the indisenous
Hindu tradirions. although with ,o-. o-v.rl"y
of Islarnic culture.
Vijayanagar, the "City of Victory," was
founded at Hampi by the brothers Harihara and
Bukka, Hindus who had been appoirrted gov-
emors by the Muslims to help quell Hindu
resistance.zHowever, after embracins Islam
(or perhapsmerely pretendingto do so in order
to gain power), the brothers "reconverted" to
Hinduism and founded an empire whoseprimary
rnission was to hold back the Muslim forces
and foster a Hindu revival. Within two decades,
the kingdom extended acioss the Deccan from
57J
sea to sea and, at its height, encompassedan
area that included the former territories of such
powerful dynastiesas the various Calukyas, the
larer Colas. and the Pandyas.Becauseof this,
the art produced d-uringthe Vijayanagar hege-
mony srrongty reflecrsthese earlier traditions.
Rather than being a synthesis of them, however,
regional variations incorporating rhe local
tradrtrons are apparenr and, properly speaking.
Vijayanagar-period art should be studied in
light_ of these geographical concerns as well as
developments over time. Thus, Vijayanagar
temples and alt works in southern India mav be
viewed asa further stepin the Tamil continuum,
while in the northern Deccan and Andhra
Pradesh,the Calukya heritage prevails. In con-
trast to the Calukya artists,however, the Vija-
yanagar workers prefcrred the harder graniiic
stonesusedprimarily in rhe sourherntraditions
and this was used throughout the kingdom.
In spite of its importance and abundance,
Hindu art and architecture of the Vijayanagar
period has been a much neqlected'area in ihe
574 LA'IEF. SCHOOLS OF THE DLCCAN AND THE SOUTH
study of South Asian art listory. Yet one can
harclly travcl in the Deccan and the south with-
out corltinual rcmindcrs of the Vijayanagar
craftsmcn, who left their products virtually
cverylvhcre. Since n-rost Vijayanagar n-ronu-
ments, including lofty gopuras, multipillared
ttaxdapds,aud n-ranysculpturcs,arc charactcrizcd
by tl.reir htgc scalc, thc Vijayanaear heritage
has great impact. Size alone, of course, is
not an inclicator of quality in art, but thc over-
wheln.rirrgcflect of enorrnous sculpteddeitiesor
buildings that dwarf thc viewer cannot help but
assertthc might and vigor of their makers and
the religion for rvhich they lvere rr-lacle. In this
way, the art ofVijayanagar perfbctly rcllccts one
ofthe main motivating forcesbehind its procluc-
r i o n r h c r c . r . 5 c r t i oor f H i n d r r p o u c r . r 3 - i r ) s t
the Muslim intruclers.Cariccl along on thc crcst
of a reiigiotrs rcvival, prin.r:rrily Lhakti h char-
acter, thc buildcrs producccl new strLrctllres,
lavishly decorateclwith sculpturcsanclpaintings,
and reftubishc.l aqd added to numerous older
m o n l r r r r n r )r l r r o r r g h o r ]ctr c e r r r p i r e1. 1 . 1 1 'o1f
which had bccn dcstroyed by Muslirn attackers.
It is inportant to rerlerlber, however, that
the Vijayarugar state was not without its own
internal political and religious dissension.Trvo
ofthe threc scparatedynasticlincs of Vijayanag:rr
were foundccl rvhcn rninistcrs overthre\,v their
predecessors. I{cligious conllicts also plagued the
rulers, sr-ichrs thc far-r-rous onc bctween the Jains
and Vaisnavitcs during the reign of Bukkr I
(tZs6 ll), rvhich lcd to his proclametion that
in thc cycs of the state ell rciigions were equal
and rverc to be protected.Lltriguc,.ttcn-rptsat
fratricide, and othcr such cvcnts punctu:rt€
Vijeyanagar history.
Thc city of Vijayanegar, rvhich covered en
areaof :rtlc:rsttwenty-sixsquarekilomcters,wasa
glorious monument to the kings :rrrdthe erDpire.
Aftcr the Battle of Talikota, rvhich took placc
in 1565 whcn thc four allicd MLrslin sultans of
B i 3 r p r r r .A l L r r r e d t r r g . ,Gr .. , l c o n d . , .r n d B r d a r
dcfcated the Vij:ryanagar army and ca,-rsedthe
demisc of the clynasty,pillaging of Vijayanagar
continucd for r-norc than six months. Yct, in
spite of this, a trcmcndor-rsaruount of thc city
survivcd,which hasled son-re to spcculateabout
horv vast it originallv nllrst have bccn. The
glories of the clty .rre known through the
accounts of nuncrous foreign travelers who
visitcclit, including Nicolo Conti (Italian, r4zo),
Abdur Razzaq (Pcrsian, 1443), and Domitrgo
Paes and Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese,t5zz and
rJ3J, rcspcctively). All were apparcntly in-
pressedby its wcalth, grandeur, and fortifica-
tions. According to the eyewitness account of
Razzeq,the city l-Ladsevenconcentric enclosurcs,
each of rvhich was hcavily fortificd-the outer
three enclosurescotrtaineclthe cultivable lands
and thc irurer four enclosedthc city proper and
the palace arca. The ruins of the rvalls extant
toclay reveal their grand scalc, for some are
as much as ten neters high and as wide as a
modem two-lane road. Razzlq furthcr renarked
that city r,vas"such that the pupil of the eyc
has never seen a placc like it, and the ear of
intelligence lus ncvcr been informed that thcre
existecl anything equal to it in thc rvorld."3
Paes,who visitcd Vijayanagar during tl.Lereign
of Krsnaclevaraya,the foremost ofthe Vijaya-
n . r g . , r , r l c r . .r n i d l r c t l i , - , u g l rttl . e c i t ) w " s a s
largc as Romc and Jradcountlessinhabitants and
was the best provicleclcity in all thc world. He
saw onc roon in the palacethrt was made en-
tirely of ivory fion.r foor to roola Such sights
and accountsbrought back to Europc rnust have
stimulated the agc of cxploration in Europe and
the scarchfor better rorltcs to thesefabled places.
It is of interest to 11otethat drc abandonnent of
the city aftcr thc battle of Talikota was so
complete that Cacsaro Federici, an Itrlian who
visitcal it trvo years later, rcrnarked that "thc
hotses strnd still but enptic, and thcrc is dwel-
l i n g i n t h e r nn o r h i n g .a ' i ' r c p o r t . d .b r r rI y g r c .
anci othcr rvild beasts."5Both sccular buildings
(such as the elephant stabics and che Queen's
bath) and rcligious monunents survivc, Iargely
arrangcd into two centers,one roy:rl, the other
sacrcd.6In addition, nun-rerousbuildings show
the clcar inlluence of Islamic architecturc, al-
though thcsc latter are outside thc purview of
this volumc.
Pcrhapsthe rrrostirnportant Vijayanagar ruler,
espccially insofar as art and archttecturc are
concerned,was Klgqadevaraya,rviro ruled frolt-r
rJog b rJ3o. He was a patron of literaturc,x
social reforner of sorts, x11dis crcditcd rvith
 THE VIJAYANAGAR
PERIOD 575
1 through the numerous building projects both at Vijayanagar allowed a separateworship area dedicated to
lravelers who and the nearby town of Nagalpur, as well as Durga (Figs. t+.\3, r+J4). Also an important
i lftalian, r42o), throughout the provinceswhere he is saidto have Gatnre of late south Indian temples, tlre kolyara
:nd Domingo been responsiblefor the creation of countless ma4(apaor "mattase hall" was invariably placcd
'.:ese,IJ22 and
plllared na4lapas andgoparas(usuallyspec.fically to the front of the main tcmplc and dightly to
::parently in- calledraya gopuras). the sidc. This type of hall, usually the most
. and fortifica- The Viqthalasvami temple at Vijayanagar bc- elaboratc and lavish of all the structuresin thc
: 3 S Sa C C O U n t O f longs mainly to his reign and is consideredto temple complex, asis the casehere, was usedfor
:!ric cnclosures, represent the finest of Vijayanagar architecture. the performancc of certain rituals. On some
:'i.d the outer Perhaps begun in r5r3, and possibly never occasions,the malc and fcn.ralc dcities of thc
-rldvable lands
completed (somesay due to the sack of Vijaya- temple and Ammau shrine, which were fre-
::n proper and nagar), this complex contains the essentialele- quently made of bronze and were thus portable,
:: rvalls extant ments ofa typical Vijayanagar-periodtcmple, in- would be transportedfrom their usualabodesto
:or some are cluding the main temple itself and its pillared bc placed in the kalyatlamatl/apa{or cxhibition
l.rs wide asa halls,subsidiaryshrines,andother accessorybuild- and worship. Squ.rrcin plrn and containing a
:iher remarked ings. In addition, its elaboratelydecoratedpillars ccntral raised platforn-r surroundcd by rows of
:rii of the eye with figural carvings and rearing animal motifs intricately carved pillars, this open but rich
.rd thc car of typify Vrjayanagar-period trends. The temple pavilion is one of thc gcms of Vijayanagar art.
::etl that there schemeconsistsof a large rectangularwalled en- The nrain ternple. dedicrted to Vitthal.r. a
rhe world."3 closurc containing at leastfivc scparatestructures form ofVis4n, is con.rpriscdof an ardhanap/apa,
:ring the reign within the capaciouscourtyard (Fig. z3.r). Three a ma1/apa,andt maaa(Fig.z3.r). Viewed from
.rf the Vijaya- gopurasprovrde access to the courtyard, although the rear (Fig. 23.7), the granite wall and baseof
:: city was as the main entrance is through the gateway on thc building sccm to stop abruptly, for thc
nabitants and the east(Figs.23.2,4.3). A typical but snall dinrinutivc brick towcr over rhegafihaglha docs
:::.ervorld. He example of the period, this gateway is built of not reach to the edges of the base, iudicating
l'as tlade en- granite on the lower level and has a brick super- that it is probably a substitute for what was
:.: Such sights structure that rises in receding storiesin typical intended to be a much larger, grander super-
:-roenlust have southern fashion. Directly prcccding thc main structure. Had the roof and tower been corr-
i1 |.rlrope ano tcmplc on thc cast (Fig. z3.r) is a ch;rriot carvcd plcted, thc ten.rplc would indccd havc bccn
: ribled places. complctely of stone (Fig. 23.4). Modelcd after one of thc fincst cxamplcs of southcrn Indian
::ndonment of woodcn cartslikc rhorc ured ro carry irrragcs architccturc. Somc of thc claboratcly carved
-rk6ta was so ofdeities in processionin south India, its wheels pillars in the na4Qapa preceding the shrine
:n Italian who are reputed to have movable parts. Its towcrcd arc "musical" and sound different notes when
'-<edthat "thc
superstructLrre, visible in the illustration, a pho- hit with a rvooden stick. "fbe garbhagrhahas
rhereis dwel- t o g r c p ht a k c ni n r 8 5 r , .i s n o w l o . t . an enclosed circun-rembulatory passagcxt thc
:.j. but Tygres Two other typically Vijayanagar-pcriod ac- courtyard lcvel. Hou'cvcr, sincc the dcvotec
--:r1arbuildings cessorystrrlcturesto thc tcmplc are the ArDman must dcsccrd dark staircascsfror.n the levcl of
i rhe Qucen's shrine (Fig. 23.r) and the kalya4ana4lapa (Frgs. thc na4lapa lloor in ordcr to circumambulate,
-:rlive, largely 23.5,4.a). Usually resemblingthc main tenpie, it createsthe impressionof being urderground
r.-al, the other although on a smaller scalc, an An.rn.ranshrine when one is insidc thc templc.
'':ildings show
is dedicatedto the feminine consort of the male Besides thc numcrous structurcs that were
chitecture, al- deity of the temple, and is normally placed to founded and built initially by thc Vljayanagar
:.- purview of the northwest of the principal shrine. Inclusion kings, their nobles, and other individuals at
of a specificresidencefor thc female divinity in Vijayanagar and elsewhere,a numbcr of already
,..-anagarruler, Vijayanagar art is a logical culmination of the cxisting monumcnts wcrc addcd to during
';hitecture are
growing importance of the female, which had this period. Since these additions werc not part
-:o ruled from been developing over the centuries, visible as of the original plans of the ternples,they some-
early as the Pallava period *here, for example, times prescnt a nonintegrated appearance.Most
;redited with at Mdmallaplrram, the Trimtrti cave temple commonly, Vijayanagar-period additions in-
 576 LATERScHooIs oF THE DEccAN AND THE soUTH

ffi
ffi
AN?]IV]AN
SHRINE

,i

:_t-2- \tie.
\ll'ar,an.ag
p€do4 m

ffi ""o"o, E
tiird dec
K A L Y A N AN 4 A N D A P A

9 ro 59 rg0 rlo 2go -=

M

23.r. Plan of Viqhalasveni telllple. Vijayanagar(Hampi),KarlEtaka, Vijayanag

India. Vijayamgar period, mainly reign of Krsnadevaraya.Ca. period, pr
second-third d€cadesofsixteenth century. third dec:
 THE VIJAYANAGAR PEIIIOD

2j.2. View looking [ortheast, Vittha]asvanri lenlple.

Vijayanagar (Hanlpl), Kan]5taka, India. Vijayanagar
pcriod, mainly rcign of Kr5nadevariya. Ca. sccond-
third dccadesof sixtccDrhcerturv.

4.3. East laptoa from rvest, Vitthrlasvallli tenrplc.

Vijayir:rgar (Hrnlpi), Kartt!aka, Irrdia. Vijayallagar
pcriod,probablyrcignof Krstadevaraya.Ca. sccond-
third decadesof sixteenthcenturv.
578 LATERSCHOOLSOI- THE DFCCANAND THI SOUTH

23.4. Stonechaioi in courtyard of VilfhalasvtrDi rcn.]le, as it ap-

pearedin r8J6. Vijayanagar(Harnpr),Karn,taka, India. Vijayanagar
period, probably reign of K;gqadevaraya.Ca. second-thirddecades
of sixteentbcentury.

4.5. Kalyata naljdapd,from wcst, Vilghalasvamitenrple, Vijaya-

nagar(Hampi), Karn.!aka,L1dia.Vijayanagarpcriod, probablyreign
of Kgg4adevaraya. Ca. second-third decadcsof sixreenthcentury.
 THI VIJAYANAGAR PIRIOD J79

2J.6. Inleior fronr wcst, kalya\d natdopa, V;t-

thalasvani temple. Vijayanagar(Hampi), Karna-
taka, India. Vijayanagar pcriod, probably reign
of K$nadevareya. Ca. sccond-third decadesof
sixtecnlh century.

E :
-.
G*A

2J.2. Vitthalasvamitemplefrolrr r,r,-esr.

Vijayanagar(Hanpi), Karna-
taka, India. Vijayanagar period, probably rcigtl of Krsnadevaraya.
Ce. second-thirddecade'of rir,recnrh (enurv.
J8O IATER SCHOOTSOT THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
;$t
cluded large gopuras,plllared ma4{apas,kalya4a
matldapas, and ternple chadots, that is, the main
Gaturesofthe typical templesofthe Vijayanagar
period. Usually, thcse elements were added in
large scale,often at thc expenseofthe ernphasis
on thc oigil-:a'l limafid.
Perhaps the most conspicuous display of
Vijayanagar rulership is found in the enormous
gopurasthat lrerc ^ddcd to form entrancesto the
courts or prccincts of innumerable south ludian
temples. Most of tltc gopurasadded to tcmples
during thc Vijayanagar period arc commonly
credited to KJ5ladevaraya, although, as in the
caseof A(oka, who is credited with the erection
ofcighry-four thorrsandstiipas,thi. ascriPtionis
undoubtedly apocryphal. one such example is
from north-
23.8.Southerngoprrra
east, Ekambarc(varanethe tem-
ple. Keiicrpuran, Tamil Nedu,
India. Vijayanagar period. Ca.
sixteenthcentury.
_: : : : , : :
the southerngoparaof the Ekambare(vararntha
temple at Karcipuram (Fig. 23.8). Its ten stories
risc to a hcight ofrnore than {ifty meters.Clcarly
the descendentof south lndian structuresseenas
carly asthe Pallava period, the rectangularstone
b.''e is roppedby :r pl r,midrl brick rowcr ri'ing
in dir.ninishingstoriesand having a barrel-vaulted
structurc (jala) at the top. Much taller than
gateways of earlier periods, such as the Cola
period, such popurasliterally drvarf thc central
s h i l c c o J l i n ga t t e n r i o r r
s h r i n c .o f o l d e r t e r r r p l ew
to rhe religious site by their visibility for great
distanccsaround.
Tlre piilared nan/apas of tl.Le Vijayanagar
period are usually called "thousand-pillared
nandapas"rcgardlessof how many pillars they
 THE VIJAYANAGAR PERIOD 58'

23.9.Pillar carvingshowingthree figureswith four 23.ro. Pillar carving of searedlion, at Virabhadra

legs at Virabhadratemple.Lcpaksi,Aadhra Pradesh, templc. Lep:ksr,AndhraPradesh,
India.Vijayanagar period.Ca. sixteenthcentury. period.Ca. sixteenrhccnrury.
,-r iion north-
:rrnathx tem-
Tanil Nadu,
: period. Ca. in iact possess.These too were added to rnany
already existing templcs. Often, they obscure
thc basicplan ofan older temple and overwhelm
the viewer or devotee,
:rcivaranetha The architectural irnpressivenessof multi-
I:s ten storles pillared halls and tor.veringgatewaysfrequently
:erers.Clearly overshadowsthe sculptural decoration of many
a:urcsseenas Vijayanagar-period monunents, yet sculpture
;:1grlar stone was an irnportant part of the ovcrall decoration
i :owcr rising and iconographic prograrn of virtually cvery
)trrrel-vaulted tenrple of the period. Ptllars tn uandapas,for
I raller than example, arc invariably carved with a rich
. re (-ota variety offorms, many ofwlich arc cye-catching
:- the central and sorneeven amusing. A typical Vijayanagar-
-:rq attention period sculptor's device was to create a motif
l-i:r'for great in which prrt of onc objecr or figure is incor-
porated into the design of another. A pillar dec-
Vijayanagar oration from the Virabhadra temple at Lcpaksi
:':-nrl-pillared in Andhra Pradesh(Fig.23.9)showsthree figures
-. oillars they who share four legs, yet eacl.rfigure may be
India. Vijayanagar
viewed as being complete. This device, known
throughout the range of South Asian art,?is not
new in this pedod, but it is nowherc more ubiqui-
tous rlor lnore fully exploited with variety and
ingenuity than during the Vijayanagar period.
Another common pillar decoration is a forward-
facing squatting lion (Fig. z3.io), which is seen
virtually without variation on pillars throughout
the Vijayanagarterritories.In this and thc prcccd-
ing example,it n.raybe noted that thc figures are
carvcd in very low rcliefand give tire appearance
of being little nrore than linc drawings rather
than fully three-dimensionalcarvings, and often
this is true, especiaily in halls where litcrally
hundreds of pillars have bcen carved. Some,
howcver, are quite elaborate, such as a repre-
sel1tatiol1of Ma]reivara in tbe kalya\a uapdapa
at the Lepeksi templc (Fig. z3.rr) in which the
rnultiarmed deity standsin an claborate architec-
tural construct.
562 LATXR SCHOOIS OF THX DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

'-'t'"":':
-'l:'

23.rr.Mahelvara tem- z3.Iz. Baby K1;4a,on rvell of Haz,re Rlrrra lemple

in kalya\!ntd44apa,ytabhadra
pl€. Lep,ksi, Andhra Pradcsh,India. Vijayanagar Vijayanagar(Harupr),Kart,taka, India. Vijayanagar
period.Ca.sixrccnthcentury. pc od. Ca. sixtecnthccntury(tcnple bcgunr5r3).

Temple ,,rrllr of the Vijalanagar pcriod also
be.t ..i,lptures.As in orhcr soLrfhlndian srylcs.
these often consist of dcsigns of single figures
or motifs in nichcs or separatcdby pilasters.A
fisure of baby KgSr.rafrorn the Hezara Rdn.ra
teir.rpleat Vijayanagar is an examplc of this type
of dicoration (Fig. z3.rz). Carvcd in deep relicf
asainsr the pl.,in brckground .tnd scr off by
,li.or.,r"d pii.r.ters.thc-chubbl figtrre i' lively
and finely carvcd. Such carvilgs tcstify to the
fact that Hindu art traditions were hardly in a
dccline during the Vijayanagar period, although
so often this period is describedas being deca-
dcnt or of diminished vigor.
Also at the Hezera R-ma tcmple are at least
two walls of sculpturesin a fornat that is quite
t p p c a ri'n p a i n t i n g
u n , r s r * il n 5 o u t l tA , i a t l. ' r tb L r a
a n d s c u l p r t t r co f t h e V j j a y a r r a g aprc r i o d ( l i g .
2 3 . r 3 ) .E . s e n t i r l l y, p i c c o r i r lr : r r h e r J l . r n' c u l p -
tural concePtion, this cxanple shows rows of
figures and animals in a procession,single file,
,.parated into distinct registersthat scrve also as
sround lines.This forn.rat is somewhat similar to
ihat secnearlier in Hindu art (for example, it is
used at the Kailasanathatemple at Ellora in the
narative carvings of the Ramayar.La 2;rrdMaha-
bhanta), brt here, the evenly spacedelements
secn.r subservient to thc overall scheme and
lack the livelinessof thc earlier rePresentations.
Typical of Vijayanagar-period sculpture are a
nurnber of largc monolithic carvings found at
various sites.Thc reclining Nxndi located sone
distanceto the northeasrof the Lepaksi tcmple,
for cxample, is more than eight metersin length,
morc tha; four metersin height, and is believed
to be the largcst monolitlic Nandi in India
(Fig. z3.ra). Even more impressive, pcrhaps,
is a gigantic represenation of a seatedUgra Nr-
sirirha or "Angry Nrsirhha" (Fig. 23.r5) at Vija-
yanagar.A figure ofLaksmi was originally seated
 T}Itr VIJAYANAGAR I)IRIOD JdJ

,. .ir.,'
.. ,:t ' .,

. :r:r rcrnple. 2j.rJ. Lxsr rrr1l, crLerior,Hazrrir Rlnra rcnrplc.Vr-

I. Nnl3r1:rgrr jav:ungar (Hlr14ri), Krrn.t.rk:r, Lr.ti;r. \rijryrnagar
: iir3). pcriod.Ca. sixtccnthccntur,r'(terrrplc
begLrnrrr3).
23.r4. N:Lndi, to rrortLc.rst of Vrrrbhadra rcrlrplc.
Lcp.ksi, Andl)r.r Pr:rdesh, lnclia. Vrj.rl rLnagar pcriod.
Ca. rirreclrth cerllurv.
.inelc file,
' ,- r r-c llso as
r sirlilar to t.
: : , n r p 1 ci t, i s
: orr in the
..nrl rValra^ Fil a J'
:i

..-i .-lcrucuts ']}

.-_-r.'Drcucl ; ::,,'f,
_ttiL'rltations.
: ' , r t L 1 r ' ea r e a
: -r iound at
'ir:tcd sonle
'.-tt.
:asr tclllPlC'
:. in length,
.- r. bclieved
:-:i iu Inclia
r. PcrhxPs,
-: Ugre Nr-
- r j) xt VlJr-
::r.;J1,vse:rted
58I IATER scHooTS oF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
tt
:;li{..
,,
;;,
:J1tl
23.rJ. IJgra Nrsirnha. Vijayanagar (Hanpi), Kart.[ak.,
Vijayanagarperiod, reigDof Kf9qadevar,ya.I j 28.
upon the deity's lap, as may be seen from the
arm that remains around his waist. Dedicated in
r5z8 during the reign of Klsnadevaraya, this
monolithic imagc measures about six and a
half meters in height, literally dwarfing in
human worshipers. Thus, while Vijayanagar
sculptors used carvings sparingly on their
temples,at leastcompared to many Deccan and
northern schools, independent sculptures such
as this give testimony to their skills and the
impressivesizesuggeststhe Vijayanagarpower in
1:T
l:
\
,l
I
{
t
Irdia.
the face of political threats. A number of othcr
huge images were produced at Vijayanagar,
notably a gigantic representation of Gane3a
enshrincd as thc rnain deity in a Gane6atemple.
Perhapsbecausethe Vijayanagar period is fair-
ly recent in terms of South Asian history, rnany
paintings have survived in a number of differ-
ent temples throughout the forner kingdom
and it is possible to samplesome of the trends
ill this medium. The heritage of the painting
stylesis rooted both in the Deccan, for example, ::: tr, ..,

at Ellora, and in the south, as in Cola painting.
In addition, vcry strong evidence of shared
stylistic features with painting traditions of
wesrem India. such a. in manuscripts
"ccn Jain
of the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries as
well as with Rajput paintings of the sixteenth
century, arc also to be found. These lattcr are a
subject not covered in this volume, for they are
better left for a full examinarion of artistic
developmentsof the Mughal period. However,
it should be pointed our that painting schools
of the south shared what might be considered
to be certain pan-Indic Gaturesprevalent during
this time. These include an emphasis on line,
usually through black outlining of figures and
other elements in the composition, use of a
profile point of view for thc heads of figures
(generallyshown with a full front representation
ofthe eye, which is usually large and prominent,
and sometimesa detachedfarther eye), little or
no shading, use of exaggeratedposesand body
forms suchasnarrow waists, swelling chests,and
I fully formed hips. Other characteristicsinclude
lack of spatial depth, arbitrary arrangement and
scaling of elements in the composition, use of
fat, primary colors, auimation of the figures,
and abundanceof dccorative detail.
Paintings wcre probably used throughout
ma1lapas,shrines,and other parts ofthe temples,
especially on the ceilings. At Vijayanagar, a
\
large composition on the ceiling of the ma4dapa
of the Vir[p.ksa temple (Pl. 34) is divided into
I rectilinearcompaflmenrsof varying sizes.pro-
viding an abstract schematization of the nar-
rative scenesportrayed. This format, like the
sculptured reliefs at the Hezara Rema temple, is
in strong contrastto the earlier painting tradition
seen at Ajalta, for example, where one scene
::5er of other flows into another without constraint of such
Vijayanagar, divisions. Although the colors are to some
,i- of Galeia extent obliterated, red, blue-green, black, and
i::eia temple. white predominate. Figures are drawn in a
::riod is fair- black outline and color is applied in a flat marner
--,riOay,-"nY with no modeling or shading apparent. The
-,::r of differ- scenesshow Vidyararlya, a spiritual master in-
:,:. kingdom strumental in early Vijayanagar history, along
I :: the trends with episodesshowing Arjuna, Rama (Pl. 35)
: ;he painting and incamations ofVisnu. Typically, the figures
--^- ^-- --l^
are shown with faces in profile, large frontal
THE VIJAYANAGAR
PERIOD 58J
eyes, and narrow waists, and in thi way, they
are related to pan-Indic developments, seen
particularly in dre miniature painting traditions
of Cujarar. Raja.than,and neighboringregions
of approximately the samc date.
Perhaps the best prcserved and best known
paintings of the Vijayanagar period, however,
are those found at the Virabhadra ternple at
Lepaksi. The temple is presumed to have been
built during the reign of Kr;4adevaraya's half
brother and successor,Acyutadevareya, who
rulcd from r53o to rJ42. Yet a number of
aberrant Gatures about the templc that arc not
fully ascribableto the ruggcd, irregular terrain
suggeststhat it may have been built over a
ionger period of time. The painrings.at least
t]rosein the rahgamandapa with which we shall
bc concerned, however, probably date from
rhe secondquarterofrhe sixreenthcentury.
The ceiling panels of the ruiga matldapaare
delirnited by the beams and pillars used in the
construction of the building. A number of the
narrarivcpanelsare as grearas elevenmerersin
length (one is in fact eighteen meters). Often,
painted borders with abstractrnotifs (pls. 3G-37)
set the compositions of from their architecturai
settings.Thc Lepaksi paintings are charactedzed
by the earth tones of the palette and the nearly
complete abscnceofblue (and in fact, the absence
of primary colors in gencral). The femalc at-
rendantsto Parvarr(Pl. 3O)in one compo"irion
are similarly conceived but are also notable
becauseof their varied costumes and elaborate
hairstyles. The forms of their bodies and the
details of their costumes are outlined in black,
and colors are applied in a flat manner, rn
contrast with early painting styles, such as that
at Aja+te. The faces are essentiallyprofiles to
which a "detachcd" farther eyc has been ap-
pended, giving the suggesrionofa tbree-quartir
view. One of the mo"r publishedsectionsof
the rahgd mandapacei)ing is rhe nerrarive of
Kitafirju iyan," Arjuna'sPenance."One episode
(Pl. 37) shows a boar running through a stylized
landscape while a number of male figures
try to escapeat thc left. The figures and the
boar are animated, but little emotion is expressed
and all the faces look alike, Trees, rocks, and
other elements of the landscape are arranged
J66 rATER scHoors oF THr DxccAN AND THE souTH
almost like textile designs,filling in the space
and serring the scenc withour arrempring to
capture the likeness of the physical world. As
in earlicr Indic traditions, "realism" is not the
maln concc[],
In addition to the architectural, stone sculp-
ture, and painting traditions of the Vijayanagar
period, r.netalworking continued as an lm-
portant south Indian craft. A nearly life-size
figure group of Krsnadevaraya and his two
queens,Tirmalamba and Cinnadevi, eachidenti-
fied by an inscription on thc shoulder, has re-
ceivedjlrst praiseand much attention (Fig. 4$).
In contrast to images of dre Cola period, which
were solid cast,thesehollow statuesare executed
in a rcpouss6 technique, being made of two
beaten sections joined to give ,the figurcs a
solid appearance.Each figurc stands frontally,
with hands tn aijali murlra, obviously paying
leverencc to J now losr irrr:rgeof a deity.
The figures are extremely slender, as has been
the general type seen since Setav5hanatimcs
in the sorrth. Probably. rhese figrrrcs raere 23.r6. Kfgr.rad€var,ya and his clueens.Believed to bc ac
Sri Venkarcivara terlple. Tirupati, Andhra Pradcsh,
executed during the reign of Krs4adevareya
India. Vijayanagar pcriod, reign of K$lradevafya or
or shortly after, around r5z5 35, yct they de- slighrly larer. Ca. r5z5 35. Repoussdmetal. Nearly iife-
monstrate that metal imagery was still vital.
U:cn rl:e
B::r,e or T;-
CorqcrusroN -; t een ;:-
:!i1\ eI \ aCi

Like other late Hindu traditions in India, the rnoluments ]ravc oftcn bccn disparaged,though :a:enCenC!-.

art of the Vijayanagar ernpirc has oftcn bcen the art remains at the city of Vijayanagar i*elf,
ignorcd in the literature about thc history of where the richnessand vigor ofthe Vijayanagar
-r,hich ii::
South Asian art. Yet the presenceofVij;ryanagar pcriod is everywherc in evidence, have been
art is felt virtually evcryrvhere in south lnclia rightfully accorded their justly dcserved .--;borad..::
and the Deccan, both becauseof tl.re usually admiration. Reccnt excavationsat Vijayanagars rclcme. Li-i:
grand scaleof Vijayanagar productions and thc continue to reveal the impressivenessof Vijaya- .;ied io ,
near ubiquity of Vijayanagar-period structures nagar culture and promise to assureVijayanagar eil].rred:l;-
throughout these regions. Oftcn viewed by period art its rightful place among the most inr- D.rrine ii:
earlier writers as despoilationsto earlier monu- prcssiveand domirant artistic traditions of South
menrs.Vijayanagar-pcriod .rddirionsro exisring Asia. rcrm rha:

organisns.
11_erc(anc \:
lithin rh.' :
Four br,:n
at Madurai.
establishinc
oncc politic.
t,
I EuIt
F
r t*rrg t
D e t a i la f 2 4 . 1 1 .
!nr
'Ils. C H A P T E RT W E N T Y - F O U R
-3-
:Er,{
The Nayak Period
: ..d lo bc at
::-: Pradcsh,
r.:al araya or
. \carly lifc-
Upon the collapse of Vijayanagar after the
Batde ofTalikola in r565, the Nayak princeswho
had been their viceroysl took advantagc of the
power vacuum and assertedtheir political in-
eed, drough dependence.Esentially, south Indian art under
riagar itself, the Nayaks representsa continuation of tradi-
\'l.layanagar tions fostered by the Vijayanagar kings, but
havc been which the Neyaks pushed towards lurther
,- deserved elaboration, greatcr scale, and ambitiousncssof
iriayanagars scherne.Like the Vijayanagar kings, the Nayaks
s of Vljaya- added to existing monuments by building
\-ijayanagar pillared halls, gopuras, ard other sttucturcs.
:-i most im- During the Nayak rulc, many south lndian
:ns of South temples took their "final form," that is, the
form that they assumed during their last
major period of construction. These "living
organisms," built over centuriesin many cases,
were (and still are) imporrrnr. rhriving ccnrcrs
within dre daily lives of the peoplc.
Four branchesofthe Nayaks ruled respectivcly
at Madurai, Tanjore, Gingee, and Ikkcri, thus
establishing separate cente$ throughout the
once polirically unified Vijayanagartcrrirories.
587
Many of the most important structurcsand art
works of the Nayaks belong to the reign of
Tirumalai Nayak (1623-59), the most famous
of the Nayaks. A number of portraits of him
exist and his personality is well known. Tiru-
malai's capital was Madurai, which he orna-
nented with a number of new temples in
addition to expanding and adding to a number
ofalready existing monumcnts. Sincethis whole
period hasbccn scarcelystudied, littlc is known,
from an art historical point of view, about
Gingee and Ikkeri, and distinctive trelds among
the four capitals have not been defined. How-
ever, it may bc assumcd that the geographic
location of each capital and associatcdart sites
was a determining factor in tlrc utilization of
earlier traditions in the stylcs.
Of the four Nayak ccntcrs, Tanjore and
Madurai are most renowned for their art pro-
ductions. An extremely fine example of a com-
plete ternplc from this period, but one of modest
scale,is the Subrahrnanyatemple in the north-
'west corncr of the compound of the Rajarajei-
J88 TATTR SCHOOTSOF THE DTCCAN AND THX SOUTH
24.r. Subrahnraqyatenrple in northwest comer of RajartjeSvara
tem?le conrpound, frorn south. Tanjore, Tamil N,du, India'
Nayak period. Ca. seventeenthccntury
vara ar Tanjorc (Figs. 24.r, 2r.22). Its datc
of creation is estimatedto be in the sevcnteenth
ccntury, although there is no inscriptional evi-
denceto support this.At first glance,tirejcwellike
precision of the carving and high quality of
work lanship throughout the tcmple suggests
that it could be a monument ofthe Cola period,
contcnPorary perhaps to the Grcat Temple tn
u h o . c , h " d o u i t s t . , n d ' .B u t c l o s cc r : r r t t i n a t i o t t
reveals that the atchitcctural and sculptural
decoration are clcariy of a later period.
The temple consistsof a shrinc preceded on
tlrc east by an enclosed nandapa ar.d a porch
that is acccssiblcby stain on both the north and
south sides(Fig. zr.zz). A torver ofabout sixteen
meters in hcight riscs abovc the garbhagrha,its
basic shape and structurc being clca y derived
from south lr,dian vinanas seen as early as the
Pallavapcriod. However, much greetcr elabora-
tion ofarchitcctural fcatures,suchasthe inclusion
of rniniaturc shrines,pilasters, and nicbcs nay
be secn, and there is greater three-dimension-
ality to n.rany of the elements. Il addition,
figurativc sculptures, also highly three-dimen-
sional, play a major role in thc iconography
and form of the superstructure-The crowning
:t:.
elencnt is also elaborately treated with surface -.'..
decoration.s The wall treatnent of the cxterior
of thc tenplc also bears rescmblanceto earlier 1e:e
traditions, such as thosc of thc Pallavas and
Colas, yet may be distinguishedfrorn them by a
nurnber of features.Compared to the Rajarejei-
 THE NAYAK pERroD J8g

24.2. Subrahmanya(Kartdkeya),in Dicheo11south side 244. Dvarcpalaflanking cnrranccon east, Subrah-

of Subrahnanya terrrple.Tadore, Tamil Nadu, India. rna4yatcruple.Taljorc, Tamil Nadu, hdia. Nayak
Nayak period. Ca. scvcnteenthce{tury. Stone. period. Ca. seventeenth century. Black stonc. H:
ca.I5o cr1.

. .r1vcd vara tenple, by whosc sidc it stands,anclrvhich to whotr thc temple is dedicated(Fig. z4.z). As
,- ,! tlle must have influenced thc later Nayak artists to in thc cascof the niche figures on the Rajaraj-
: :'ora- some degreeat least,this templc, alsoornamentcd e(vara, thcsc are carved of a diifercnt type of
:ttoD with niches and pilasters,appearsmore dclicate stone than the tenplc itself, and luve been
:114y in its trcatmcnt. While this efi-ectmay be due inserted into the niches. Abovc the niches on
;: : iarn- in part to its decidedly less nassivc scale,it is the exterior of the temple arc model temple
. : lil. also duc to the rows of decply carved n.roldings roofs of thc barrel-vaulted(jala)typc that occurs
! - ::1- of the base,thc cxtren.rclyslenderpilasters,and as thc crowning elemcnt in the typical south
tr :'\' the tidy arrangemcnt of vcrticxl and horizontal htdiar. gopura,
. :-ing e l e r n c n ri ns r or n e a . i l 1d i ' c c r n c dp : r r r e rcno r t r i n g A pair of black stotc ilvarapalasflanling the
- . ::tice thc surface of thc structure. Instead of the d o o r J e , d i n gi n r o t l r c i n r r r i o r o [ r h c r c n r p l e .
r.::arior blockish piiastersend nichesof the older tcmple, onc of which is illustrated here (Fig. 243), n y
: :.rrlief hcre round pilastcrs and more sleuder propor- be comparcd to the Cola-peiod guardians on
, .i and tions create a lighter appearancc-Each of the the Rajarajeivara tcmpie (Fig. zr.z5). Similar
.::1by a principal niches on the three sidesof the rfurana in pose, the {igurcs share a number of fcatures,
: : .rrtJei contains an image of Subrabmanya(Karttikeya), such as bcing full-bodied and animated. How-
5OO LATER SCHOO]-SOF THT DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

] S U N D A F E S V A R AT E M P L E
2 M I N A K S ID E V I E N ' I P L E
0 r00 :00
F, 3 TANK OF GOLDEI]L]LIES
0L t0 30 60 I TIF]UK]ALA
SI C A U L T F
IV1

24.4. Plan of Grear Templc. Madurai,

Tanil Nadu, India. Nayak Period,
mainly reign of Tirumalai Nayak. Ca.
rnid-seventeenthcentury.

I
r
24.J. View of Great Tcnplc fron sourh. Madurai, Tanil Nrdu,
India. Neyak period, nrainly rcign of Tirunralai Nayak. Ca. mid-
sevcntccnthceD!urv.
ever, the Nayak-period versionsarc much more
detailcd and ornate in $e carving of drapcry,
jewelry, and hair. It is clear that the Nayak
imagesgrew out ofthe eallier traditions yct thcy
are also distinctivc in their own right.
One of the major artistic achicvementsof the
Nayak age is thc crcation ofthc Great Temple at
Madurai. This titanic project, largely cxccutcd
during thc rcign of Tirunalai Nayak in the
mid-scvcnteenth centrun stands as thc prime
example of Neyak architecturai schemes,and
indeed, is one of the grertest tcr.nplecomplexes
in all of Sor-rthAsia. Trvo tenples are erclosed
rvithin tl.re walled compound. (Fig. 2,1.,1);thc
primary shrinc is dedicatcdto Siva as Sundarei-
var:r (Bcautiful Lord) and thc second temple
(in essence,an An.rlnan slrrine) is dedicated to
THE NEYAK PTRIOD 591
his wife in the forr.n of the goddess Minaksi
(Fish-Eyed one). Often, thc cntire conplcx is
called thc Minaksi tenple aftcr the consort of
the god. The irlrer sanctuariesof these two
structuresmay bclong in Part to an early period
of the tenplc's history but thcy wcre razed to
thc ground in r3ro during Malik Kafur's cx-
pedition to the south and wcrc later rebuilt on a
vast anclambitious scaleby thc Nayaks.
The outer rectangle of thc tcmple encloses
the Minaksi and Sundarc(varatemples, a huge
tank (Tank of thc Golden Lilics), nLrmerous
pillared lnlls, and great lengths ofcovered walk-
ways (prakarus,Figs. 24.4, 24.5). The fout oLrter
gop rds arc the largcst of thc eleven at the tem-
ple (that on thc south measuresabout forty-
five rrctcrs in height), and arc aligned on axis
 I-ATIR SCHOOlS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

:i
24.6. Wcst loylrds of Grcat Temple, ftonr southeast.Madurai, r-
Tamil Nedu, India. Neyak period, maitly rcign of Tirumalai
Neyak. Ca. nid-sevetteenth certury.
-

<
with the Sundareivara tcmple rathcr than the tir.nc and probably adheresstrictly to canonical
center ofthe respectivesidcsofthe enclosure.By tcxtual lnaterials. Thc large tank (Fig. 24.7),
set slighdy off axis to the main tempJe (Fig.
.-'
Neyak times, the entrancewayto a tenPlc com-
poun.l had bccomc visually the most inportant
elenent in tl.re south lndian ten.rplc and this
24.4),is atrothcrinpressivc featureoftJris tcrnplc.
Surrounded by stepsand a pillared portico, the
tank was uscd for ritual bathing; its grand scale
ll
tenple was no cxception. Rising from a high
gr"oit" bnt", the brick and painted stucco is a pronourccmcnt of thc ambitious schemcs r\'
,=,,p"r,tru.,ur., o{ thegopurcstaper with a slight of the Nayaks.
:t
c.orr. and end in rhe barrel-vaulted (!ala) roof Thc interior corridors, pillared halls, and
( F i e . , r , l . o ) .N o r v t n o r c n L r n l c r o t l 5t l l r n e v e r shrine arcas of the templc complex present an
b c 6 r c , r l r es r o r i c d. r r n i r i s lirn s i z e" ' t l t e y . r s c e t l d ' almost bewilclering array of heavily ornamcnted,
The structurc nolv srvarrnsrvith sculptedfigures;
virtualiy cvcry space is fillcd r'vith surface
carviugs of niches, pilasters, and othcr forr-ns
The ifonographic program, still not "nalyzed,
undoubtedly rellccts tl,c highly structured
monumentally sculpted forrns to thc devotce.
Ternplc oficials cstinate that there arc a3 urillion
sculptures.t the tenple, although this may be a
gencrous estinate in spitc of thc elaboration of
tlrcgopurasor the detail secnin the interior (Fig.
A
pantheon crystallized in Hinduisn by dris 24.8).The enornrousstonepiers are eachsculpted

-

wirh numerous larger than hum.an-sizefigures,
primariJy depicting forms of Siva. that ovep-
whelm and dwarf the beholder. Concentrated in
this one area alone, there are more individual
sculptures than exist from sorne other major
periods of South Asian art; yet this ternple and
others of its type have barely begun to be
studied. While this is in part due to tte fact that
many such temples are still used for worship
and are therefore inaccessiblefor scholarly study,
it must also be ascribed to a feelins of defeat al-
most before one even begins due to the enormiry
.i THE NaYAK PERIoD Jgjt
_-.
of dre task tbat has led to such neglect. Detailed
photograplx and architectural drawings of the
two main temples remain to be made before the
architectural forms can be more fully studied.
The uimatta towers, however, suggest that the
temples may resemblethe Subrahmanya shrine
at Tanjore or a similar structure, although they
are much larger. Virtually no atternpt to deal
with the stylistic; historic, and developmental
aspectsofthe sculprrrraland architecturilforms
of this temple and most other Nayak pedod
monunents has been undertaken. Instead. thev

nonical
24.7),
e (Fig.
remple.
co, the
d scale
chemes

s. and
ient an
oented,
evolee.
million
rlbea
rion of 24.7. Latge tank at Great Temple, frorn sorthwest. Madurai,
Tamil Nedu, India. Nayak period, mainly reign of Tirumalai
rrlpted Nayak. Ca. mid-seventeenth century.
J9.I ]-ATERSCHOOTSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

x3
b \

24.8. Carved stone piers at Great Ternpic. Madurai, Tanii Nadu'

tnclia. Nayak period, nrainly rcign of Tirurrralai Nayak Ca nrid-
sc\ieDlecD!hccntury.

24.9. Fenale musicien, on pillar in "thousand-pillared
hall," Great Temple. Madurai, Tamil Nedu, India. Na-
yak period, probably reign of Timmalai Ntyak. Ca.
rnid-seventeenth century.
are sonetimes considereddecadentexamplesin
comparisonro earber works. Yet it is certain
that theseworks ofart, too, have a story in their
meaning and religious purpose, and represent
both a link with thc past as well as a distinct
contribution to the art of South Asia in their
own right.
An incredible standard of craftsmanship was
maintained in spite of the scope of the project.
This may be seen in the carved pillars of the
so-called "thousand-pillared" hall, which con-
tains some 985 pillars and is located in the north-
exstcomer of the compound. Now servingas a
museum, this hall seemsto be a .seaof pillars
(Fig. za.a), many of which bear figures as great
as three mete^ in height (Fig. 24.9). Virtually in
the rouud and nearly free of restraint by their
archirecrural setting.the figuresassumea variery
THE NTYAK PERIOD J9J
of poses.hr spite of the hardnessof the granitic
stone, much detail has been rendered in the
omamentation of the figures, for the garlands
and sashesthey wear are generally deeply un-
dercut. Thus, while still part of an architectural
context (ashad been the caseas early as Pallava
tirncs in the south where figures were dominated
by pilastered niches or other architectural set-
tings), the figure has now been released,nearly
every image taking on the strengthand vigor that
had previously been reserved for shrine or
primary deities.
Set at an angle to the main temple compound
and outside of it to the east is the rectangular
pillared hall called Tirumalai's ca ti (Fig.24.4).
Built by Tirumalai Neyak betwecn 1622 ar'd
i633, this hall bearslife-sizestatueson the pillars
including portraits of the Nayaks of Madurai
and Tirumalai himself. Tirumalai has, in fact,
been immortalized in a number of portrait
statuesat the temple, one of which is illustrated
(Pl. 38). In a worshipful pose, the figure carries
on the tradition of royal portraiture identifiable
since Pallava times in the south. Tirumalai is
rendered in a naturalistic manner; his distinctive
mustacheand corpulency are known also from
other contemporaneous portraits of him and
thus the artjst apparently attempted to capture
his actual physical appearance.In contrast, the
female figures on the adjoining side of the
pillar, presumably the wives of Tirumalai, are
shown in a much more stylized fashion,resembl-
ing many of the more typical {igures of the
I\ayaK penod.
Even a brief glimpse at the Madurai temple
revealsthat the temple in south lndia during the
post-Cola period was nuch more than simply a
piace of worship for a king or Gw chosen in-
dividuals, Built at enormous cost and over
considerableperiods of tirne, the ternple was a
focus of south Indian life and a.major factor in
the economic and social lifc of the people. It
nrs r city trnro irsc]f. somcrimcscontaining
market placesin its outer courtyards and always
activewith crowdsoI people.Suchan insrirurion
needed constant rather than occasional sources
offirnds, large permanentstaflsofpricsts, temple
oiicials, and workmen to maintain the place
aud build new structures. No longer simply a
506 IATIR SCHOOIS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

t
fr
trt
lolFl

. I .. .. . . ..1
I l:,.. fi L
I . .,a) r

['l -a

n 1i . : : : : l:- J ll
IL _-
I ,

t- ai I r

ite rerrrplccity Srrr'rrigrrn'

:4.ro. Plan of four inner cnclo'ure'. Vri:r.rar
Tamil NadLr,India. Variousperiods.Mainly lhirtecnth seveDleenthcenturies'
 THT NAYAK IERIOD J97

'1r.:
!:

2 4 . r r . H " r , c C o u r r . V a r ' n r , r rrcc r r p . r, i r 1 . i n r r n q , r r .T " n ' , 1

Nadu, India. Probably Nayak pcriod. Ca. sevcnrcenthccntury.

personaioflering ofa king rvishing to gain rucrit have bcen about ninety rnctcrs high if com-
or proclairn his night, the temple bccamc an p l c r c d . l n . r l l . r l ' e r <, r e . t v t r r r o n c e n r r i cr r r -
institution greater than any inclividual or his tatrgular cnclosurcs, thc ollter tl-rrec of lvlich
single contributions. Thc sociological and cul- are norv buiit into thc sr-rrroundingtown arca.4
tur'.l aspcctsof sor-rthlndian tcruplcs arc subjects (The onter tltee prcikarcsarc not visible in the
propcrly witirin the sphcre of the art historian's plan here; the tcn.rplcproper beginsat thc lourth
quest to understand the tlomrn-rcnts being praftara.)Constructed over a long periocl of tirre
studicd, {br :rlong rvitl.r traditior.Lalart historical xs \v:rs the casewith many south Indian tenplc
4reasof invcstigation slrch as style ancl history, citics,important periods ofbuilding included the
thcse other areasnust elso be consdered.s Pandya pcriod of the thirteenth ccntury, the
Even more imprcssive in terns of size thau Vij:ryanagar pcriod, ancl dre Nayak ascendancy.
the MaclLrraitemple is thc Visnu tcn.rplc-city at Thc tenple is peculiar in that it is built along a
Srirangam, thc largest soudr Illdian tenlple north sorrth a:<isratircr than having thc usual
(Fig.z4.io). Its outcr rcctarrslcmeasures878by c . r . l \ \ L . r . { l i g r f i rrrr r n f l j r o . l H i r r , { r r c m p l c " .
7JJ rncters a[d it ]ras tlventy-or1c lolnrot) rrot As in tl.recascof thc Great Teruplc at Maclurai,
all of rvhich wcre compietecl. Thirtccn of thcse this tcmplc is uscd for wonhip and nany arcas
. , r co n . L r .rr ' , r r 'l i r r e, , v i t i tr l ' c n r r i n . , r ' . L r r . ' r y . arc rrot accessible for scholarly study. One ofthr:
One r-rn{lnishctlgxteway on the south rvoulcl lDost fanlotls portions of tlie teurplc is thc so-
506 LATER SCHOOLSOT THE DXCCAN AND THE SOUTH

si
l.-. .,.:}

1-:' . .:,',;'1
.:

Navak
:4.r:. Temple corridor. Ramcivaratn, Tamil Nadu, India
pcriod. Ca. sevcnteenth centurv.

-
 THr NAYAK pERtOD 5gg
called Horse Court near the east sate of the
fourth prakaru,wirh its rampant horsecarvings
(Fig. z4.rr). Although the Horse Court is be-
lieved to belong to the Nayak period, the
rampant horse motif was based on a model
developed under the Vijayanagar kings whose
own rnilitary strength depended on the rnight
of their cavalry, especially Arabian and Persian
horses,which they imported. The animals here,
each with a rider and attendant figures, are
executed on a grand scale for they are nearly
life-size. More than simple architectural forms
supporting a roof, these piers are dramatic
expressionsof the sculptors' art as it reachedits
culmination in south india. Like their northem
counterparts,the southem artistsfeared nothing
in the stone and boldly carved away the matrix,
releasing figurcs fiom the qualried stone. No
block seemedtoo large, too hard, or too un-
manageablefor these workers.
In addition to the new temples built under
the Nayaks, and th e gopuras ," thoasand-pillared'' 24.\. Mithu&a.Ftol'il Alagar temple,near Madurai, Ta-
halls,and other structuresaddedto older temples, mil Nadu, India. Nayak period. Ca. late sixreenth
century. Ivory. F{: ca. rJ cm. Madurai Temple Mu-
a major contribution ofthe Nayak artistswas the seum,Madurai.
building of pfikaras at many temples. These
roofed ambulatory passagewaysserved to con-
nect various parts of the templeswhile enclosing
certain areas.In addition, they must have created than seven meters. Each pillar is elaborately
a dramatic effect on the devotee who walked cawed with a great variety of motifs,
along them on the way to worship. Typi- Small objects,especially ones of ivory, frorn
cally, a Nayak prakaru has massive columns the Nayak period have also survived. This does
with elaboratecorbeled bracketsand exensively not mean that ivory carving was a new or
carved (and sometimespainted) surfaces.One of revived art in SorrrhAsia at rhis rime, sinceit
the most famous of thesepassageways fiom the is probable that the craft had continued since
Nayak period is at Rameivaram (Fig- z4.tz)- early times; simply, since the Nayak period
Although this must indeed be one of the most is close to rnodem times, more exampleshave
memorableportions of the temple. rhe rest of survived, many of them having been preserved
the complcx is largely unphotographed and un- among the belongings of various temples. One
studied,and thus this corridor,which has received example from the Alagar temple, near Madurai,
just praise,should not be thought of in isolation. shows a traditional Indic theme fiom religious
The temple is built on an island now connected art, a flithuno couple (Fig. z4s3). Yet the treat-
by a railway bridge to the mainland of India ment of the figures, especiallythe bo&es and
and was probably plarured and built in a fairly the faces, suggests something of a European
concentrated time during the Nayak period. stylistic overlay. This is not at all surpdsing,
Approximately r,ooo meters of corridor length for by this time Europeans were well estab-
are estimated to exist at the temole. with lished in south India for trade, religious, and
breadtlu ranging from five to .ix meters; the other purposes.The unjeweled, unor:ramented,
height from foor to roof, including pillars and and naked, figures are unusual in the Indic
their basesand capitals,reachesa height of more context,
6oo r-l'ttx scHools oF THE DEccAN AND THE sourl{
Paintings fior.n the Nayak period have also
survived at a nunber of temples. Again, these
were sonetimes part of thc dccoration of new
buildings, but oftcn, paintings were added to
refurbish older structures.
At Cidar:rbararn, paintings were addcd to
the cciling of the nindapa preceding the Siva
shrine in approximately the seventeenthcentury.
Narrative scencsshowing Siva in his Bhikgaqana
forrn and Vi94u as Mohim are arranged in
strict registe$ of varying widths (Pl. 39) The
subject is particularly apProPriate at Cidam-
baram, the site associatedwith Siva's cosnic
dancc, for Siva wandered as Bhikgalana with
Mohinr just prior to pcrforming his famous
dance. And indeed, Siva is shown performing
his dance in another section of the paintings.
The figurcs and main eleinents of the com-
position, such asthe architectureor trccs, apPear
almost as silhoucttes, ligl.rt shapcs being used
againstdark areasand darker forms being placed
CoNcLUsroN
The story of Bhik;a1ana and Mohini, in
which Siva disguiseshin.rscifas a naked beggar
and Vi94u takesthe form of a beautiful woman,
is not new cluring the Nayak period. Nor, for
that mattcr, are most of thc subjectsof paintings
and sculpture that dominate the temples and
stnlctures of thc Nayaks. Most of the forms of
againstlight. To the devotee, sceingthesefrom
bclow, the forrns are clcar and easy to discern.
The minimal use of line, visiblc only whcn the
paintings are seen close up, is lost to the naked
eye of the devotee vicwing the paintings in the
d . , r k e n e idn t e r i o ro f t l r e l r a l l .T l r c p a i n r i n g a
. re
also characterizedby a somewhat lirnited palette
rather than a full range of colors, little or no
shading, and quite anin.ratedand exaggerated
posesthat are clearly PercePtiblcfiom a distance.
Figurcs are actively posed and bodies appear
:rs :r seriesof angtrlrr slrapes narrow waists.
broad hips and shoulders, faces in profile ln
thesc ways, the paintings sharecharacteristicsof
the minirture paintings of Orissa,western India,
Rajasthen,and othcr parts of South Asia of the
samcperiod. It is an important arca ofinvestiga-
tion to attempt to understand the pan-Indic
nature of some of thcse stylistic featurcs while
defining what are indeed local traditions.
the sculptures, tenples, and paintilgs also do
not representsignificant dcparturesfiom earlier
styles. Thus, this period, with its abundancein
terr.r.rs of nun.rbersof things produced as rvell as
prcscrved,might be secnasa sort of culmination
of earlier developrncntsand as a display of the
d s p e c ro. l ' s o t r t hI n ' l i . , na r t .
n r . r n i f o la
 i -'l -_. r ..:.
. i ,i ' . . . :. :l l.:,
:L1
. . il:

: - : _a l . t . Detail of PI. 15.

iii.

: i r.1i.
' I1L!' CIIAI 1'IIt TwEN'I' Y_]JIVtr

The Kerala Region

. llo
,lr,- Sep:rratecl {i-onr the rcsr of soudr llcli:r bt tl.Le
:--- il1 u.esternGhet mountains.thc rcgion of Kcrela
- .ti corrsists of r r.thcr nxlrorv strif of llrcl aionq
: .:l rl) the Arabian See. l'hc clrl-ilLtc in this rcgion is
- .1... tropicel,rvith firtilc soil conclucivcto -qro$.inq
spiccssuch:Lspepper,c,rrclernon-r. end nurrur:q.
ancl nrorc then 6oo varictics of trccs. Mxhl'
p - o r , t . . i r r , r r r l i r r qi r u r r . , t . l . u ' . u , i ,
c\poftcd by thc l(c'rrl:r people, rvho l'crc in
trlclc contectat v:rriolrstinrcs rvith thc Phocni-
ci:Lris,Roman.s. Arabs. Chinese, l)oltuqLresc,
Dutcb, Errqlish,encl otliel non-Indic pcop1es.1
Extcrnalinlhenccsresultingfrorn suchcontects
erc i.lcntifiablc in tl.rc ert of Kerale. :rlthouirh
inveriably, these wcrc cluickly rrrcclificrl to sLrit
thc local trstc. In acldition,I{crrlr ert cxhibits
associatiorrs rvitb both the treditions of thc
Temil soutir(irrcluclirgrvorksin the sn.lcsol the
Pallava,Pandye,Coia, Vija,varuerr.arLclNayJi
peliocls)and sorlthemKxrnataka.cspccirllr'thc
arr o{ t}rc Ilovsalas.,Tics to othcr wc\r co:rst
Indic stvlesuly also be noted, possibll rrisrng
lrour scacontect rvith (ir5:irat :rict otller: rrcrls.
Yct, in spitc of :rll its associ:rtions,"r,itb othcr
artisticschoois,l{crlle ut cleveiopecl into rvhat
cen onlv bc considcrcde hiqhlv disrirrctivclnd
oricilriiL idiom. fhc prcscrt cliscussiorr rvill
''. r ' . o f l . . . . , .1
:rrr anci lrclrifccnrrc rvhilc irrcluclingninirnal
,:liscLrssiotr of its tics to othcr schools.lMost ol'
the nlorrunrortsto bc r:l-.iarlitrcrl arc rc]ltivclv
Ie(jrt in dxtc comp,rrcdr.,ith tltc lrt stLtLlicii[
othcr pilrls of South Asil, higcl\'- rs ,t rcsuit of
drc prob:Lblcloss of eerlicr-rcneins. but eLso
chrc-ro thc pcrsist.rlc.of :r strong. vilblc .ut
traclitiouitto urockrn timcs. Tocler. Kn'lle is
notccLlbr thc stricmcssof tirc FlirrclLr lcligious
obscrt'enccs practicedby its pccplc 11 rts rllo,:c
than tto thousendti:ruplcsof ectivc rvorship.
Ilol.evcr. ruost of thcschayc not bcen stuclicrl
sincccntry is folbirltlen to xnv(rre othcr thll
r c l r . r o r I' r . r L r ' r . .r . : . i l l . 1 . , ) ' f l . r . r 1 r o r " i
ing ercalbr firtnre rcseerch.
The Cere pcople,as thc inhrbrturtsof Kerrle
arc gcncr:rllykrrc,rvnirr Inclic historicel docu-
rnents.ilrc lnclltior-icdis cxrlv e! the Maurve

6 a1
6oz ]-l.tl.|p scHooLS oF THE DEccAN AND TI{E sourH
:.t,l

-,:,:I

2J.r. Krgta ternple complex. Vertikkavalla, Kela]a' India'

rcst of tlle structure was made of wood, brick,

oeriod. However, a contiluous art tradition a
ir-rn-n frottt extant exanPles has not been or other materials. Sonetimes, the stone basc-
it
nr.entis all that remains of an early tcmplc while
traced back that far' The megalithic burials
the walls and other Pxrts are later replacements,
found in significant numbcrs in-Kerala indicate
and in son-recascsmore rccent shrineshave been
that stone, at leastin relation to tunerary monu-
built to enclose the entirc shrine of an earlier
rnents, may have bcen used tnore than two
structure. Kerala temples are notable for their
thousand years ago in that region' Apparently'
dramatic roof shapcs,which may have evolved
ho*"t"t, it n"rr"i b.."-" as popular asin other
as a rcsponseto the heavy rains of the region,
regions, perhapsas a result of specific religious'
,r,,1 *itich were made of various materials
ori.ti""l.
'm"nt, or aesthetic concerns Early rnonu-
in easily perishable materials havc dis- including copper or brassshceting,wood planks,
not or tiles.
appeare.l almost without a trace end it is
the eighth century that tlle art The K19r-ratemple at Vettikkavalla shows a
,irrj,il
"roottd less obscure' ap- t v p e o f " r r r n q " m " n t c o m m o n l yf o r r n di n K e r a l o
traditions of Kerala become
,lirpl" .o-fl"*.t (Flg. :5.r) .A rccrrngular
parently through contact with thc Pallavasand
cloisrcr,colleda nalnn,bilan' encloscsrhc central
the resultantincrcasein the useot stone'
sanctuarv, which in this case is square in plan'
The tcmples of Kerala generally consist of tradition of a
In cootr"rt to temples in the Tamil
several buildings unified into a single conplex complex does
a comparable date, ihe Kerafa-stylc
by a walled cn;losurc. The main shrine, called thoogh
shapes, including oot i"ve tall, cornmanding foPuras,
liikaril, cnr be of various
gateways rnark the entranccs to the various
square, circular, rectangular or apsidal' .Often' 'enclosures
ivalled in a typical temple lnstead,
te'mpleswere built uPorstone basemcnts,but the
 THE KERAI,A REGION OOJ

2j.2, Siva temple complex. Ponneri, Kerala, India.

bc:i. perhaps the most distinctive visual feature architecture of other regions of South Asia, are
L-.e- of the complex is the form and arrangement well known in Kerafa, as seen in the famous
r:Je ofthe roofs ofthe jrilaril, which extend beyond ir*atil o{ the Subrahma4yatemple at Payyanur
trents, the walls of the temple building and seem to (Fig. 25.3).The apsidalshapehasa very ancient
r been dominate it. In this case, the irtfrolil has wvo history in Indic architecture; it is first preserved
roofs, in the rock-cut caitya halls of the Buddhists of
"rlier
rheir Also square in plan, double-storied, and cn- the second and first centuries 1.c,, and those
olved closedby a nalambalamis the !fika1)il of the Siva monuments in turn must have been modeled
.,€1o[, temple complex at Ponmeri (Fig. z5.z). As is after wooden structuresof an even earlier date.
rerials generally the casein multistoried Kerala build- A few exampleshave been preservedfrom early
lanks, ings, the upper level is smaller in areaand height periods, such as the small hall at Chezarla (Fig.
than the lower story, providing a senseoflight- 9.28) or the "Nakula-Sahadevarutha" at Mamal-
)\v5 a nessto the structure, though the diminution of lapuram (Fig. 14.28), indicating that the use of
ie:ala the upper story is much more pronounced than this plan for temples in Kerala was not in-nova-
E:ll in the Klsna temple at Vettikkavalla. The walls tive. The Subrahmanya temple at Payyanur
c--:::l of the temple, like many others in Kerala, are faces east and is built primarilv of laterite and
:--_1, articulated in a typically southern fashion, wirh wood. The roof, along with othersin the temple
l::: pilasters,niches,and other architectural elements complex, has been covered with copper sheets.
i :::i constituting a major decorative motif, creating The temple is of the sandharatype and is notable
c:::: an evenly punctuared and systenraticorganiza- for having two enclosed circumambulatory
rrous tion on the wall surface. passageways.Preceding the main temple is a
---l Apsidal-shapedtemples, rare in the surviving detached, matl/apa, called a namaskaru maxdapa
604 LATERscHoots oF THE DEccAN AND THn sourH

''.-:-:::'.:

I
**

l,

zs.:. Subrahma4yatemple. Payyanur, Kerala, India. Ca. seven-

tecnth centurY.

o-*'',''Lq , 30 40
F
? .- rp rF
Mo_
25.4. Plan of SubrahmanyateDlPle Payyanu!, Kerala, India Ca.
seventeenthcetrtury.

25.5. Stikoril of r llrndu temple. Cochin fort, Kerala, India.
ia Kerafa (Fig. z5.a). Although there are no
inscriptionsremaining that shedlight on the date
of this temple complex, on stylistic grounds, it
may be assignedto the seventeenthcentury.
Though the square and apsidal temples of
Kerafa easily find counterpartsin other South
Asian artistic traditions, the use of a circular
format for the irileouil is more distinctive to
Kerala. A single-roofed example of a circular
temple is tire examolefound at Cochin fort near
the Jewish ry*"go^gr", which is visible in the
background of the photograph illustrated (Fig.
25.5).As in the caseof shrinesof other shapes,
the roof overhangsthe walls by a considerable
margin, protecting what must have once been
richly paintedwall surfaces.
One of the most imDortant of tte Kerala
templecomplexes is the Vatakkunnathan tempie
at TricDr, which housesthreeltiLauils,two a{
which are circular, and one of which is square
(Fig. 25.6).Possiblyfounded errly ai the
eleventh century, the present"scomplex, like
THE KERAIA REGION 6'5
many others in Kerala, underwent reconstfuc-
tions at least into tte nineteenth centurv. The
three shrinesfacewest and are aligned.in J single
row rdrc|unthe nalambalam that deftnesthe inrrer
enclosureof the temple. Although the extemal
shapeofthe three .irtkauilsvaries,allhave square
gafihag1has.Each temple is precededby a de-
tached,pil1arcd,
ndmaskara ma4(apa.At the north-
em end of the series,the circular ternple known
as Vagakkunnathan is dedicatedto Siva; that
at the south is dedicatedto Rama.The central
of the three remolesis dedicatedto Sankara-
Narayaqra(Hari-Hara),rhe combinedform of
Siva and Viggu, and is an excellentexampleofa
double-roofedcircdr lrihbvil(Fig. zj.;). The
diminishedsizeofthe upper story createsan al-
most caplike effect over the swelling form of
the lower story roof. Though the walls of the
lower story have been protected by a modern
enclosure,the general appearanceof the struc-
ture may still be discerned.The smoothsurfaces
of the roofs contrast with the walls. which are
606 r/irtp scHools or rHE DEccAN AND TIIE sourH

ll Er- "_r- -l--

,:En:;
tl
il.''I
li 1
il..."1
| l . a*.--a .

ro=@
L$m
u..tl

ffi
E
lr----:-- i--at

-ll'.
".]l..'.11,#
''firu
t..r.{

F
q...9 T0
M
2J.6. Plan of temple complex, Velakkunnithan temple. T c[r,
Kerala, India. Probably founded in eleventh century; reconstruc-
tions continued through nineteenthcentury.

j/t[oril at VarakkuDn,than telnp]e.
2J.7..Saikara-Narayana
Kerala, India.
enriched by sculpted pilastersand other forms,
and painted surfaces.
flte VataIkururarhanrenrple i. :rlso fanroLrs
lor one ofits subsidiarystnrcrures.
a holl especi.rl-
ly createdfor theatricalperfornances (Fig. z5.S).
Called a kuuanLtalarr, srrchbuildings consrirure
a major clement in many Kerala temple com-
plexes.aThe kuttaflftalamwas used foi the per-
lormance of a type of Sanskrit drama called
Ki faryatt. Theatcrs of this sort were usrally
n.raintainedby privatc patronage. Perfornanccs
took placc on festival days or for special pur-
posessuch aspetitioning the gods that thc bless-
ing of children might be given to a childless
woman. The Vatakunnathan thcater, the largcst
and one ofthe finest knowl, hasa dramatic roof
that alnost seems to hover above thc pillars
and thc open, r,voodcn siatsof the walls; it do-
rr.rinatesapproxiraately two-thirds of the total
height of dre building. Thc interior of thc hall
is open and airy, sincc the high ceiling pro-
THI KERALA REGION
Tricur,
vidcs a feeling of spaciousness(Fig. 25.9). A
separateroof covers the stage arca, which con-
sists of a raised platform with three lacquered
teak pillars at cach corner supporting the rool
The inner sidc of the entabulature above the
stage is richly carved with representationsof
deitiesand other motifs (Fig. z5.ro). In a general
sensc,the stage is similar to what is oftcn thc
fornr of tlre central par of a pillated nn4dapa
in other tenple stylesofsouth Asia, although the
specifictreatrncnt of the roof and pillars and the
surrounding room is different.
Comparisons to the architcctural fornx of
Nepal, parts of SouthcastAsia, and cven China
andJapanhave becn made by scholarsdiscussing
tl.re architecture of Kerala. Sone contend thai
the forns dcvelopcd in this southern regron are
unique and that such resemblancc is trcrcly
s u p c r 0 c i a al n d c o i r L c i d e n t aOl .t l r c r , n r . r i n r " i n
that these styies are variations on what must
havc once been a widely current tradition
60.( rarlx scHools oF THr l)ECcANAND IIfE sourH

{
{
T

.:

-l

Tricnr' Kerala'
2J.9. Irrtcrior, k,tttatliralnt ' V xttkkiLrnathal tcnple
IDdia. Lrst reconstructed in r letccnfi centurv'
 THI KIRA+A I]ICION 6og

z5.ro. Carving on inner side of enrablature above staqe iD krl/arr-

6alarn, Vatakkunnathan temple. Tricrlr, Kcrala, India. r/r'ood.

throughout ancicnt India and India-rclatcd ofa pair from Kaviyur (Fig. 2J.rr). The fangcd
countrics. Thc ansrvcr to this conplcx problcm gua(dian is relatcd iconographically to angry
rclnains to bc discovered, and au'aits a fullcr forms found in south India since PalJavatimes,
smdy of thc I{crala idior.n in particular. but the hcavy treatrncnt of tl.rejerveled girdle,
In sculptural stylc, Kcrala's individuality as crown, earrings, necklaccs,and thc strands of
rvell as its rclationship to othcr art traclitions is gems tlut almost cloak tbe torso is charactedstic
casily seen. Sculptures in metal, rvood, ivory, of Kcrala in.ragcs.A very strong stylistic as-
and stone are found ir.rKerala, with rvood being sociation bctrvccn thc Kerala work and sculp-
the most popular mcdium untloubtedly cluc to turcs &orrr K:rmataka, espccirliy of the Hoysala
thc abundanccof timber locrlly. In sty)e, there is pcriod, is seenin the treatmentofboth the body
a great clealof consistcncyfrom onc ncdium to and the ornantentation. This relationship exists
another. As in tlrc discussionof architecture, i r r w o r k r r n v r r r . , L r r. n c d i . t i.n c l r r d r n gp . t r n r i n g .
exarnples founcl in Ker:rla of typical Tamil and indicatesthat ilnportant relationshipsamtins
stylcs, such as Pallava, Panclya or COla-typc r l r e r - t r r r d i t i o n .o f f l ) ,. . r i e i g ' r b o n r r r r e gg i o n .
rvorks, will not bc ilcludcd hcrc. Thc indigenous may have existed.
type, lvith its characteristically robust and Woodcarvings of Kerala consist both of
J L c .1, t f i g r r r e .' r n d. r b u r r . l . r n r- n r r n c n t . r r i . cr n. ' n . , p . r r r r .i r r r r g c s . ' nldr r l t i r e c r r r r o
r lr n . r t ) l c I l r t i o n .
be seenirr a '"voodenfigure of a tluarapala,orte including tlccoratcd pillars, nichcs, and ceilings.
610 LA'IER scHools oF THE DECCAN AND THE sourg
zS.\\. Dvarapala.
Kaviyur, Kerala,India. Ca. seven-
teenthcentury.Wood.
A fine example of a carved rvoodcn ceiling is in
the nandapa of the Anandavalliivara ten.rple
at Quilon (Fig. z5.rz). The rich carving and
elaborate ornamentation of the figures are char-
actcristic of the Keralr style. The ceiling is
divided into nine squarc cofrpartrncnts contain-
ing a central image of Brahn.rasurroundcd by
thc crght dikpalas.Thc nilrc-sqrure design,while
popular in Kerala, is cornnonly found in other
architectural traditions of South Asia, includiug
northcru, Dcccan, and southern styles, fiom at
l.'"r rh".i.tl' r '' ^ ,
"."
Metal was also popularly r:scd as a sculptural
medium in Kerala. In gcncral, the stylistic pro-
gressionofrnetal imagcry p:rrallclsthat of r,vood
and otlrer n.redia.A striking pair of tlu7rapalas
l r o m l r a n i k r r ] . r n ri -. , r o b r b l yd a r i n g l r o n r r h e
seve[teenth century, reveals t]re samc lovc of
detail and richly ornan.rcntcd surfaccs sccn in
woodcarvings from Kcrala (Fig. 25.13). The
full-bodied figures are typical of the Kcrala
idiom, as is their enhancementthrough the al-
most lacelike cncrustation of jervelry over the
figures.The bulging eyes,fangs,and lines around
the mouths give thcn-r thc allgry countenancc
so well known in south lndian fuarapala im-
agcry.
In Kcrala, many of the craftcd objccts used in
religious cererlroniesand performancesare pre-
served, providing a glirnpsc into aspectsof the
Kerala traditiol of a type that is frcqucntly lack-
ing for other Indic subculturcs. A beautifully
carved exarnplc of a clancer'sheadpiecercveals
the same richncss seen in otl-rcr contexts m
Kerala art (Fig. z5.ra). Such claboratcand en-
ormous headpicccs,ancl other dranatic costumc
clcncnts, are virtual hailmarks of the dance
and dranu idions of Kerala. Thc central motif
of this carving is a hcad of Bhairava, a ficrcc
form of Siva. The god's bulging cyes, long,
curved tusks, lnd serpent ortlaments rcveal l-Lis
i r n g r yn . r n r r eT. r a c r . o I r ' c d r n d g r c c r rp . ' i n ro n
the mask, which nay have bccn nade ascarly as
the iate sixtcc[th or early seventeenthcentury,
suggest its original appearanceand scrve as a
rcminder that thc wood sculptures of Kcrala
wcre all undoubtedly oncc polychroned.
In aclditionto elaboratccarvingsthat dccorated
thc interion and extedors of temples and other
buildings in Kerrla, rvalls l'ere frequcntly cor.n-
plctcrl by painting. The exterior walls of thc
jriftoril rvcrc often painted, so tLat a complicated
array of arcbitcctural,sculptural,and painted
forns conliontcd thc vicrvcr. as sccu in a detail
ofthe jriAalll wall ofthe Thirunakarratcmple at
Kottayar.n(Fig.25.r5). The ellicst paintitgs yet
discovcrcdin thc Kcrala rcgion arc on the rvell of
t n(ddpa xt thc Siva cavc at Timr.randikkara.
O n c f r a g r r r e n' ltr o r v .r l r eh c r , {o I r f i g r r r eq e a r i n g
an elaborate hair style and jcrvcled nccklaccs
( F i g . : 5 . r t ) . D - t r n g f r o r r f l r e l . r f f c rp . r r (o f ! l r c
eighth or early part of thc ninth century, the
painting bcarsa striking rcscmblanccto exan-rplcs
ofthat approximateperiodin other partsof Asia.
In particular, compxdsolr may bc macle wit}r
paintings fron.r T'ang-dynasty China, Japan, and
Inner Asia. The very full, roundcd facc dcpictcd
in three-cluarter view witli thc hcad slightly
 THT KTRALAREGION 611

2J.r2- Crrved u'ooclen cciling ir nandapa of Araudrvrlli6vara

t c n r y l c . Q u i l o r r , I { c r : r l a ,I i : r .
6tz trt:lxscgoors oF THE DEccAN AND TIIE sourH
rrrh }llt'ltrrr't'
-r{.r4. lr'r'cLr's l-erdpiecc
ir"'1, r".1" t,,rt'' c' l r t ' ' r r t ' c r r r \c ; ' l r
Lrrr+ of
. " ' . ' t " " ' i ' ' ( c r r r L r - -W u o d . w i r b
H , ' * . r r r ' l n ' A r r g e l eC' o u r r r yV u -
r"'r.
rrd Mr"
i.rrrr' ,l ,q", Lu, \rrgele'rGrfror Mr'
Hsrry Lenart).

: \ . r )
\Ytt / o. li il . r i , i r . ' i i f l ] r r r r r " k - r r "r e r r r p L '
Kottal'arrr,Kerala,India
 TIlr KTRALARXGTON 6lji
T l r c R o l a l C h r n r b c r ( y a [ l i y a r a ci )o n r J i n \
. rn
r n t p r r \ s t v c - 5 e r r o( \1 f o r r l _ c i g J r pr ; i n t i r r 3 . .
rl,c
nr{ont\ ol $ lrrcharescen(\frotn tl.teRittttdyana.
Thcse paintings may be the oldcstonessurvivins
at the posibly dating from thc lat!
,palace,.
slxrecntit or early seventccnthccntury. A
section
af Ra filana sccnedepictillg Rama, Sita,
.a, aud
J , a r : l ) t r n ar c l r t r n _ u trgl J A y o d l r y ai n l r r r e r i . r l
c n : r n ^ 1. r b o v (l r r d b c i n gr c c c i v c db 1 r h e c r r i z ,
rrs
ot Ayodhyd below shor.vsthe typically crowdecl,
rrlcss. composition uscd in Kerala paintirrg
of
r h i s p l r . r . e( P j . 4 o ) . l i g u r e s. , , c p r e s .d, r o g c r l , e r
c r o \ r t y .J \ t t w o v e n i n f o . r l r c , ry f , b r i c . r t r d
rll
availablc spacc is fil]ed I,ith orDancnrs
or
decorative elementsin vivid colors. The figrires
l r . r r cr , ,i d e - o p c rcr l e s r n i r n r e f , , l l _ b o , J i . , l .
p',.r;_
l c I r n S l l L c . r y l c [ n L r r r d, r b r r r r d . r n Li n ll KcrrJa
r , . u l ; , t r u er r r dr e L t i r r gr o r l , e
o r r l r eH o i _
\ l l . , q . ( l r i r p o . . r b l , .r h . r r t h e "Lyler
Hoy,rl.r, h.,d a
rclatcd mural style, although exarnplcs
havc
not survived.) Vivid reds, dcep greens,
ancl
orangcsprcdominate in the composition. Ofterr,
c o l o r i \ t r 5 ( dl o \ l r e , g c , r .k,i n d
or
l l l l l r l r ) a f t o n. r (r o \ \ l l l c , t r r. - c c n f r"hf .cl.Lk "r ,r iri r r g
oi rJre
f i g L , r " ' .r r . L ' r l l yb 1 L r s i r rrg , l . , r l c r . , r r , l
hglrr.r
c o r o r c o l ) t b l ) a c t o nH . o u l e v e r . r l r i . d"o e . r r o r
tiltcd, the elegant usc oflinc, and the absencc
of cielte the eFcct of a specific Jight source,
nodeling or strotg coloration suggesr bot
assocra_ grvcs the impression of an imrer glolv.
tions wirh Inncr and East Asian foim,. :1tr1c1
Su.h Line is tsed to denarcate thc figurcs ancl
relationship nust be more than n-rercly " cletails
coinci_ o l I I r ec o D t p o \ i t i o n . r n d , c r v e se ,
1.",'.,-r,"i.., r,r"illti:l1lj
dental. It is known, for example, that tle
L l n c \ c \ e r u p . r i n l p o r r . r npf o r t : r t
T,ang -.,ir.r"l
.lemint,
euilon ii painting stylesof SoLrthAsia. In contrast
to rhe
\ e r , t . r . \ v h r c hu r s , p p n r c n r l yi n r r , c G r
scverrl prelcrence for
h r r n d r . dy c r r r . r l t l , o r r g l rt h . f r r l l r r r u i f i c a r i o n , lrofile lices secn in Ra.jasthrn,
Gilarat, and othcr regional ,tyl.r, l,or""i,"r,
ot srlch contacts and thc direction t1r.
of artistic t h r c c - c l u rc. r v i t l ( o r . p , r l L . , pn, r o r , .
influerccsren-rainto be seen. p r o p . rty.
. i ' r v t - - 5 t \ r vl ti c. , w i)s
A significant gap cxists betr,vecnthc 3 e n c r . r i l y - r .1et ,, l, , 'to
.1 1,,
scant 1r ordcr to add a senseof volurnc " r h
earry parntrng r.emainsalcl tlic large the
body of alrcadl robust {brn.rs.
nltcrials that survive from thc sixteJnth
."rrtnry A grcat deal virality is crcatccl by thc
and later,. inciuding murals in ternplcs
and t ^ n r p o . i r i o r r ,w . .of.
l,iclr.puc.,r ro .pill rnro onc
p a l . r c e .T . hr Mrrr,rr.heri prtrce in Coclrin,
, r n o r F cr rJ L h ctrh t b . ( o n r . r t n cwdi r h i n
u h r c h w - r \ b r r i l rb 1 r h e p o r r l r " 1 1 . .i n ." i557.rnd ob,iorr;
r r b t r t r r i p i . r o r i . r l, J e v i . . . .. , r c h r s r c ^ i . t c r ,
l o V i r . , K n r . r l r V . , , r n : . t t r c C o ,J r i n or

la
Prc\cItLd other abstrxct units. The vibrancy
nrler ol the tine, coDtains fbur rooms ol this
rvith peinting stylc may bc seen in a cletail
paintiogs. Most of the paintings do not frorl
ciatc t f r , c o r , r p u . i - i o n . h o r r i nl g r r.r, r pb e . r e r1 1 , 4
I tron thc original pcriod of construcion;
rhey r n \ ' tr c l ,r t l cn ( l l ( o i , , r. r i o t , r rd L r l l n c e
1 r. ) .
are estinated to range in date fron bcrrn e ,r r
, ,e{ thc jate t ' r . r r . s^, [ l i n . , n d c o ] . r a r e c . p c c i - l l y
srxteclth seventecnthtlrrough the ninetecnth nor.rLle.
-or l n v r n . r b l ) . r / ' c v : i c ly o f f . c i . r l t r P | e . , i o n s .
ccnturlcs.t
Physrognornies,aud skin colors crcatc rcmark_
 SOUTH
6 1 4 rATER SCHOOIS OF THE DXCCAN AND THE
Another important repository ofKerala nural
ably powerful images, as seenin a portrayal of
oeintingsis the PadrnanablLapuranr palcceat rhe
visnri lLoldine his four prirrcipalartributcs't]Ie nearly
.rncicnriapitalof Padmanebhaptrrr' wherc
.on.h, .1i..u.],,.t..". .nJ loru' (Pl 4z) Visnrr's *'rlls ofa room
frfrv painting,dccoratetltc four
qreen color, rather than his usual blue or black'
in on'the uppcr floor of a fotrr-.toried building'
i""rlr, to b" a peculiarity found regularly
Gencrally attributed to the eighteenth century,
Kerala art.
thcse examplesshow a variety of Hindu deities,
One of the dorvnstairs rooms of the Ma!-
cach separaredlrorn the othersby a rectilincar
tancheri palacehas a seriesof large panelswith
bo.rndaiycon'istingofe dccoratedborder' One
individual subjects showing Kr;4a or Siva
scenesthat geo"rally ascribed.to the eigh- o[ th" ntotr renrrrlable composirions sltows
"rJ Vi94u on the scrPent Ananta (Sesa; Pl 46), a
teenth centLrry.A fincly prescrvcd comPosltlon
s.rbiect scen in Hindu art since thc
shows Vignu as Krsna (again colored grecn) in a "ontmonly ro.z9) In this case,Vi94u
o a v i l i o n .p l . r y i n qh i . f l u t e . ' n ' l s t t r r o t r n d ebdy Gupta period (Fig.
r n d is ioecificallv named Sri Padmanabha, since
i o p , s( p l .i l ) . ' , c t t h e : i d e so f t h e c o m P o \ i l i o n
'belo*
(prr,lrlly obscuredin rltc photograph)are the conrposiriondepicts thc principal deity of
Lh.t nr,rt" .rctlle Padnranablto svanti renlple' in
).rnd,.rp"rcc,ti, shoivingthe forcstsarld rnirnals
'l Trivandrum. The rcpresentationis thus an irnagc
o f V r i i d " ' r " n . , . l r e n a t t r r a l t ' r i c o l o r a t i o no f
rnd the ntorc naturali'ticappro rch of an image. The highly organized composition,
tlrc lanJsc.rpe
to piccorirl sPaccstrggest\rlrat Etrropcrn or with the body of the serpent lorned ltrto con-
othJr artistic modcs had been incorporatcd into cencric .qrrrred [orrns .-rndwitlr the row of
although the- robust forlns' vivid figrr". .,tou". contre'ts witlr tlrc Ranayalta
the painting, ""n,1
presetrceof rnodeling are clearly ,.ir", fro* the Mattanched palacc and other
color"tion,
c a r l i c rp n i n t i n q sH. o w c v e r .t h c a i r l c ' :a m b i a t l c e
of the Kerala idion. Of thc same date xnd
a n d t e n d e n c y - rh o l l i n r l l a v , i l a b l es p a ' ei s s t i l l
in thc same roonr is a representationof Siva
present, as is the use of shadesof rcd and grecn
ancl Parvati (Uma-Mahe6vara) accompanied by 'as
principal colors, the broad, full forms of thc
Gancia and karttikeya, Si-t"'s dov"ttte' (gnla')
bodi"r, the usc of shading creatcd by using
N",tdi, rnd a nunbcr of other {igurcs ".rd
"oi q a ) . of one color.
(Pl. U n l i k c r h c p r c v t o r rcsx r r n p l et.h c b r o : r d two totlcs
s p a c c l c o v i n g t l r e Another painting fron the PadnanabhaPuram
in.utr'ntt rrp tlrc ,vrilable
palace slroris ^ liigo uipott'a pedestalcrowned
irrpression of littlc pictorial spaceand only the
]witl, ^ trokaro tota4a :tbove and attcndcd by a
<leoclr, rc"rcd by rhc bLrlkyfigurcs'
p a i r o F t i q u r c s( P l . a 7 ) . A P r r t i c t r l a r ldy r r r n a t i c
ilte ,o-..ll"d Quccn'' bedroorn 't clte
eF"cr i. .ic^red by rl'. p"inrcd firceon the 1ii3a,
Matlancireri palace, alongsidc the roonl Just
which bearsthe tirird eye and crescentmoon of
dirc.rsed, coni"ins scries of paintings (said to
" Siva hin.rself.As in thc caseofthe reclining Vis4u
be narrations of Keiid-sa's Kwnarasaulthaua)
inrrgc, this painting probably- reprcsents the
that are sinply outlines aPPeaing aganst a
.p".ifi. 1ir1r- en.lrrincd in r fantou' tetnplc'
whitc backeround, as seenin a detail showing a
looiiog into a n.rirtor (Pl' 45) ?ossibly T b c p " i n i i n g 'o f K e r " l a p r o v i d c ' g l i r r r p srer
*o-ln
the nineteenth ceirtury' these *h^t *", stilfa vital artistic traditiotr in South
cxecutcclas l"tJ
"s Asia, evcn after n.ranyarcasl.radbecon.rcMuslim
b a d l y d r r n . , g c d' c e n e ' r c r e r l r l r e c x r r ' ' o r d i t u r y contact'
t o \ \ c ' ( ( d ' statcs and after extcnsive European
. n o t r o l o r . , 1 , , , "t h t r t h c K c r ' r l a' r r r i s P
Along with sculpture and architecture, they
Althoush thesc outlincs may only have bccn
,"-r""i tlt" ,o-.*ltot hybrid nature of Kerala
intendi asprclin.inary sketchesfor what rvoulcl
art as wcli as thc richncss and vitality of the
have becn fully polychror.ned paintings'- the
tradition. As in other Indic styies, thc area's
oower of the evc.nly controlled lines and thc
own history, peculiarities' and special features
l"pr".riu.n"., oI rhe ["ces'rlone rre cnortgltto
ar" ltt"nifest"J throttgh the stylistic and icono-
ch's.ifythe.c.trnorrgthc fine,t Jrru ing' in Sotrth
graphic patternsdisccrniblein its art'
Asla.
 THE KERAIA REGION 6TJ
CoNclusroN

I he :rrt of Kerah n.ry be singledouc as perlrrps tures created

throughout India aftcr about the
th-enrost poorly known ,nJ poorly priblished tc[th cenrury
extreme]y complex and difiicult
of all the South Asian aristic tradltions. yet, to strrdyb . r r r t l r c r e . { r cJ ] s os o r n r n y s u r v i v i n g
at the sametime, ir is one of thc richcst and most struct.rresthat it becolres a major task just tJ
exuberant. The cnigma of Kerala art has been document and claxifi then.r.In Ker.l^, ,"iigious
due to somc extent to the qatural insuladty of rcstrictionshavc limited scholarly accessro nany
the region, though this doesnot fully explain the tcurples,rr.raking-itadditionally dillicuit to study
lack of attenrion paid to it by scholari. Other t l r c n ra n d p l a c et l r c m i n r o r h e i rp r o p c r1 1 i s 1 e r j 6 3 l
regions of South Asia, such as Kaimir, are c o n r e x r . r c i r n r 9 i r r n c \osl m : r r y a , p e c t so f r l t c
equally isolated geographically, yet have been Kerala tradition, sccnfor examplc irrthe layout,
regarded as "mainstrcam" devclopmcnts. To rool structure, and other fbaturesof the Hiudu
somc extent, thc urinimal study of Kerala and r e m p l c .h o n c v e r , c l e . r r l y rhc rrrrporr.rnce
its art forns is the rcsult of thc general in- o l t l r c . r r t o [ t l l | . r c g i o n t "o. "cenryt , r t r d y o [ I l d i c
attention paid to "late" artistic traditions in the art.
subcontincnt. Not only are nuny of the struc-

t
I