Chapter No 05: Stratigraphy

[CHAPTER NO 05] Stratigraphy
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5.1 Introduction

The Salt Range is a hill system in the Punjab province of Pakistan, deriving
its name from its extensive deposits of rock salt. The Salt range of Pakistan forms part of
sub Himalayan Mountains which stretch more than 180 Km East-West between the
Jehlum and Indus Rivers, along the southern margin of the Potwar Plateau. A thick
sedimentary cover of Precambrian to recent deposits overlies low grade Metamorphic
and Igneous Rocks with an unconformable contact. (Gee 1989).The Salt Range contains
the great mines of Mayo, Khewra, Warcha and Kalabagh which yield vast supplies of
salt. Rocks of Salt range was uplifted by a thrust fault called Salt Range thrust, which
emplace older rocks of salt range upon younger rocks of less deformed tertiary rocks of
Jhelum plain.

The lithostratigraphic units range in age from Infra-Cambrian to Recent and
mainly consist of sedimentary sequences are found in Salt Range, which are punctuated
by unconformities both of local and regional extent (Qadri, 1995). Sakaser and Tilla
Jogian are the highest peaks of Salt Range. The area displays some excellent geological
exposures in valley and gorges representing geological history from 600m years to
recent with the absence of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian over a distance of
few kilometers. And therefore is known as field museum of Geology.

5.2 Distribution of Various Unconformities in Salt Range:

The distribution of the various formations in Salt Range is governed by four
major unconformities. (Fig 5.1) and Satellite Image is Shown in Fig 5.2.
I. At the base of Permian:
The conglomeratic Tobra Formation oversteps the Cambrian westward and
northward, coming to rest directly on Salt Range Formation of the western part
of Salt Range.
II. At the Base of Tertiary:
At the base of tertiary in the extreme Eastern part of the Salt Range the Paleocene
directly overlies the Cambrian sequence, Jehlum Group. Westward and
northward it rest on the Permian and Mesozoic sequence.


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III. At the base of Lower Miocene Rawalpindi group:
Generally this unconformity intensifies southward, as a result Upper Miocene
Formations Occasionally rest directly on diminutive Eocene or on Triassic in the
southern repetitions of the western part of the scarp.
IV. At the Base of Kalabagh Conglomerates:
This unconformity lies in the Western part of the Salt Range, at the base of
Kalabagh Conglomerate.

Fig.5.1 Diagrammatic illustration of major unconformities in Eocambrian to
Tertiary sequence in Salt Range (After Gee 1983)


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Table No 01: General Stratigraphy of Salt Range

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List of Observed Formations

Age

Formation

Lithology

Lithology
Description

Pleistocene
Kalabagh
Conglomerate

Conglomerate

Miocene
Kamlial Formation

Sandstone

Eocene
Sakesar Limestone

Limestone, Marl
Nammal Formation

Shale,
Limestone

Paleocene
Patala Formation

Shale
Hangu Formation

Sandstone,
Laterite
Triassic Mianwali Formation

Limestone,
Shale and
Dolomite
Permian Wargal Limestone

Limestone
Warchha Sandstone

Sandstone,
Shale

Table No 02: List of Observed Formations


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5.3 Permian

5.3.1 Wargal Limestone

The name Wargal Limestone as approved by the Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan
was introduced by Teichert (1966). The lithology comprises limestone and dolomite of light
to medium grey, brownish-grey, and olive grey colours. The Formation in Zaluch Nala is
183m thick. It is not present in the study area. The contact of the Wargal Limestone with
the underlying Amb Formation is well-defined and is placed at the basal sandy limestone
of the Formation above the uppermost shale unit of the Amb Formation.

The upper contact with the Chhidru Formation is transitional. The fauna consists
of abundant bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, nautiloids, ammonoids,
trilobites, and crinoids.(Fig 5.6)

Fig 5.2 Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

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Fig No 5.3 Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

Fig 5.4 Brachiopods and Bivalves in Wargal Limestone (At Khura village)

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Fig 5.5 Trilobites in Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

Fig 5.6 Sponges in Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura village)

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Fig 5.7 Dentilina in Wargal Limestone (Road section near Khura
village)

5.3.2 Chhidru Formation
The name Chhidru Formation was introduced by Dunbar (1932) which is now
formalized. The Formation at the base, as described by Kummel and Teichert (1970) has a
shale unit of pale- yellowish grey to medium dark grey in colour, the thickness of this unit
ranges from 6 to 13 m. It contains rare small phosphatic nodules. Overlying this unit are the
beds of calcareous sandstone with few sandy limestone.

The top most part of the Chhidru Formation is a white sandstone bed with
oscillation ripple marks. It is not present in the study area. Total thickness of the Formation
is about 64 m. The Formation is fossiliferous containing Ammonoids and others. (Shah,
1977).The age on the basis of the ammonoids considered to be Late Permian (Chhidman
Stage)


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Fig5.8 Chiddru Formation (near Surakkhi village)

5.4 Triassic

5.4.1 Mianwali Formation

The name "Mianwali Formation" was modified by Kummel (1966) after the
Mianwali Series of Gee (1959). The Formation represents a great wedge of varied
facies consisting of marl, limestone, sandstone, siltstone and dolomite which is thickest in
the west and wedges out towards the east. It is not present in the study area. The following
three members have been recognized by Kummel (1966) in the Salt Rang. (Shah, 1977)

Narmia member

Mittiwali member

Kathwai member
Kathwai Member

Member is composed of dolomite with some quartz in lower part and upper part is
composed of glauconitic limestone.

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Fig5.9 Mianwali formation Kathwai member (near Surakkhi village)

Mittiwali Member

It is the thickest member of the Formation and mainly composed of grey,
finegrained, non glacunitic limestone.

Fig5.9 Mianwali formation Mittiwali member (near Surakkhi village)

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Fig5.10 Mianwali Formation Ammonite (near Surakkhi village)

Narmia Member

It is composed of dark grey to brown sandy limestone and grey to black shales with
interbeds of sandstone and dolomite.

The lower contact with the Chhidru Formation of Late Permian age is marked by a
paraconformity which the upper contact with the Tredian Formation is sharp and well-
defined. The Formation is fossiliferous and contains brachiopods, ammonoids, nautiloids,
echinoid spines and crinoidal remains. Ammouoids species include Subvishnuites sp. indet.,
Xeno-celtites sinuatus, Xenoceltites sp., indet., Pro-carnites kokeni, Isculitoides sp. indet,,
Stacheites sp. indet., Dagnoceras sp. indet., Nordophiceras sp. indet., Nordophiceras planorbis,
Arcto-meekoceras sp. indet., Tirolites sp. indet., Pro-hungarites cf. P. crasseplicatus. (Shah,
1977)

The fauna indicates Late Scythian age (Middle Triassic). (Shah, 1977)

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5.5 Paleocene:

Paleocene strata, in the Upper Indus Basin, are known as Makarwal Group and it
consists of following formations (Shah, 1977):

5.5.1 Hangu formation:

The Hangu Shale and Hangu Sandstone by Davis (1930) have been formalized
by the stratigraphic committee of Pakistan as Hangu formation.

We observed it at going to Surraki village .This formation consists of dark grey
shale as shown in Fig (5.8), carbonaceous shale and nodular argillaceous limestone. The
sandstone is light grey and reddish brown, fine to coarse grained and medium to thick
bedded.

The upper contact of Hangu formation is with Lockhart formation and this contact
is transitional and conformable .But in our field area we did not observed the Lokhart
formation. Lower contact of hangu formation is unconformable with Lumshiwal
formation.On the basis of reported fauna, Early Paleocene age is assigned to the formation
(Shah, 1977).

Fig 5.11 Hangu Formation(sandstone) (At Rakh Khura village )

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Fig 5.12 Hangu Formation (Laterite bands) (At Rakh Surakkhi village)

Fig 5.13 Fire Clays of Hangu Formation (At Khura village)


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5.5.2 Patala formation:

The term Patala Formation was formalized by the Stratigraphic Committee of
Pakistan for the "Patala Shale" of Davies and Pinfold (1937) and its usage was extended to
other parts of the Kohat-Potwar and Hazara areas.

The lithology of this formation is Greenish grey/ Khaki shales with thin beds of
limestone. The Patala Formation has it presence in sub surface in the area. Neither lower
nor has upper contact of the Patala Formation been observed during fieldwork. The
formation is widely exposed in the Kohat-Potwar and Hazara areas.On the basis of
reported fauna, Late Paleocene age is assigned to this formation (Shah 1977).

Fig 5.14 Patala Formation (on the way to Noshera)

5.6 Eocene:

Eocene rocks in the Upper Indus Basin are collectively known as Charat Group
which consists of following formations (Shah, 1977):

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5.6.1 Nammal Formation:

The name Nammal Formation has been formally accepted by the
Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan for the Nammal Limestone and Shale of Gee (1935).

During our fieldwork we observe it going to the Surraki village.It has been observed
that the formation is composed of shale and limestone (Fig 5.8). These rocks occur as
alternations. Shales are creamish in color and limestone of light grey color has been
observed.The upper conformable contact of the Nammal Formation has been observed
with Sakesar Limestone..On the basis of reported fauna, Early Eocene age is assigned to this
formation (Shah, 1977).

5.6.2 Sakesar Limestone
The name Sakesar limestone was introduced by Gee (1935) for most prominent
Eocene limestone in Salt Range and Trans Indus ranges.
During our fieldwork we observe the formation at many places like Kathwai ,Kufri
,Chimnaki ,Khura etc

It has been observed that the formation is composed of cream to light grey
nodular massive limestone with chert nodules in the upper part (Fig 5.9).
The formation is widely distributed in the Salt Range and the Surghar Range.The
formation is highly fossiliferous. Foraminifers Assilina, Nummulities have also been
observed in the formation.The reported foraminifers indicate that the formation is of Early
Eocene age (Shah, 1977).


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Fig 5.15 Sakesar Limestone (At the south of kufri village).

Fig 5.16 Solution holes in Sakesar Limestone (At the south of Mustufabad village).


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Fig 5.17 Chert nodules in Sakesar Limestone (At the south of Mustufabad village).

5.7 Miocene:

Miocene is collectively known as Rawalpindi Group and is represented by following
Formations (Shah, 1977):The Kamlial Beds of Pinfold (1918) have been formally
established as Kamlial Formation by the stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan..

5.7.1 Kamlial Formation

Kamlial Formation is widely distributed in field area and show Spheroidal
Weathering. Fractures and joints also can see in the Kamlial Formation (Fig 5.10) also.
During our fieldwork, it has been observed that the formation comprises friable sandstone
(Fig 5.11) and shale. Sandstone is greenish grey.Spheroidal weathering and Cross-bedding
has also been observed in Kamlial Formation.

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Fig5.18 Kamlial Formation (At the south of kufri village).

Fig5.19 Intra formational conglomerate of Kamlial Formation.
(At the south of kufri village)

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Fig5.20 Spheroidal weathering in Kamlial Formation (At the south of kufri village)

5.8 Pliestocene:
5.8.1 Kalabagh Congolomerate:

Kalabagh congolomerate are also known as Kalabagh beds of Waagen (1891),
kalabagh hill conglomerate of danilchik and shah (1967) of the upper indus basin.
The Kalabagh conglomerate is essentailly regarded as a valley fill, laid down as
fluviatile, lacustrine and piedmont outwash deposits in the lower parts of the structural
depressions. The formation is composed of coarse boulder and pebble conglomerates, with
minor coarse and cross-bedded sandstone.in the Soan valley.

The conglomerate consists of poorly sorted pebbles and boulders of mostly Eocene
rocks, with a small proportion of older sedimentary rocks, quartzite and igneous
rocks.formation has not yielded any fossils .The age of the formation is considered to be
early Pleistocene.
The upper conformable contact was not observed in the area and lower
disconformable contact with Sakesar Limestone of the Formation has been observed. On

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the basis of the reported fauna, Middle to Late Miocene age is assigned to the formation
(Shah, 1977).

Fig5.21 Kalabagh Conglomerate (At kufri village).
5.9 Structures
5.9.1Fault

A fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there
has been significant displacement along the fractures as a result of earth movement. Large
faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces .
5.9.2 Fault line:

` A fault line is the surface trace of a fault, the line of intersection between the fault
plane and the Earth's surface. The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the
hanging wall and foot wall, the hanging wall occurs above the fault plane and the footwall
occurs below the fault plain.

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5.9.3Thrust fault:

A thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earth's crust across which there has
been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed up and
over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks above
younger. Thrust faults are the result of compressional forces.

`Thrust faults typically have low dip angles. A high-angle thrust fault is called a reverse
fault. The difference between a thrust fault and a reverse fault is in their influence. A
reverse fault occurs primarily across lithological units whereas a thrust usually occurs
within or at a low angle to lithological units.

5.9.4 Dip slope:

A dip slope is a geological formation often created by erosion of tilted strata. Dip
slopes are found on homoclinal ridges with one side that is steep and irregular (an
escarpment) and another side, the dip slope, that is generally planar with a dip parallel to
the bedding. The orientation of the dip slope is referred to as the strike. SRT dip slope lies
towards north.
5.9.5 Fold:

Folds are generally close to tight with straight limbs and small angular hinges. They
typically form in multilayers, consisting of regular alternations of beds with contrasting
mechanical properties e.g. sandstones and mudstones.Chevron folds resemble kink
bands for their planar limbs and for occurring in regularly bedded multilayers but the
hinge zones are not angular. The required distortion (rotation) is localized in the hinge
while flexural slip typically occurs, which means that individual layers of the limbs suffer
no internal distortion. As the small hinge tightens between the straight limbs, there are
space problems where holes open between competent layers. Flow of the weak interlayers,
if any, fills up these spaces

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5.9.6 Slickensides:

A slickenside is a smoothly polished surface caused by frictional movement
between rocks along the two sides of a fault. This surface is normally striated in the
direction of movement. The plane may be coated by mineral fibres that grew during the
fault movement, known as slickenf ibres, which also show the direction of displacement. In
field area slickenside are present in Sakesar formation at Khura village.

Fig No 5.22: Slickensides
5.9.7 Fault gouge:

Fault gouge is an unconsolidated tectonite with a very small grain size. Fault gouge
forms by tectonic movement along a localized zone of brittle deformation in a rock. The
grinding and milling that results when the two sides of the fault zone move along each
other results in a material that is made of loose fragments. First a fault breccia will form,
but if the grinding continues the rock becomes fault gouge.
5.9.8 Spheroidal weathering:

Spheroidal weathering is a type of chemical weathering that creates rounded
boulders and helps to create domed monoliths. This should not be confused with stream

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abrasion, a physical process which also creates rounded rocks on a much smaller scale. A
good example of spheroidal weathering can be found in the Kamlial and shows large beds of
sandstone which is friable.

Fig5.23 Spheroidal weathering in Kamlial Formation (At the south of kufri village)
5.9.9 Ripple Marks:

Ripple marks are produced by flowing water or wave action, analogous to cross-
bedding. ripple marks are sedimentary structures and indicate agitation by water current
or waves or wind. in study area upper part of hazara group represent number of boulder
with ripple marks, which marks the paleo flow and environment of deposition .
5.9.10 Cross bedding:

Cross bedding is a feature that occurs at various scales, and is observed in
conglomerates and sandstones. It reflects the transport of gravel and sand by
currents that flow over the sediment surface (e.g. in a river channel). sand in river
channels or coastal environments When cross-bedding forms, sand is transported as sand-
dune like bodies (sandwave), in which sediment is moved up and eroded along a gentle
upcurrent slope, and redeposited (avalanching) on the downcurrent slope (see upper half

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of picture at left). After several of these bedforms have migrated over an area, and if
there is more sediment deposited than eroded, there will be a buildup of cross-bedded
sandstone layers. The inclination of the cross-beds indicates the transport direction
and the current flow (from left to right in our diagram). The style and size of
cross bedding can be used to estimate current velocity, and orientation of cross-beds
allows determination direction of paleoflow.

Fig 5.24: Cross bedding in Warchha sandstone.
5.9.11 Hummocky and swaley cross-stratification:

Hummocky and swaley cross-stratification are two closely related forms of
stratification that are generally attributed to the action of oscillating (wave-generated)
currents or combined (oscillating and unidirectional) flows. While these structures
were once thought to be omnipresent to shallow marine storm deposits, similar forms
of stratification have been recognized in both clastic and carbonate sediments of a
variety of depositional environments.This structure is characterized by internal laminae
that locally dome upward hummocks passing laterally into laminae that are concave
upward swales.


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5.9.12Flaser and Lenticular bedding:

Flaser beds are a sedimentary bedding pattern created when a sediment is exposed
to intermittent flows, leading to alternating sand and mud - currents, while the mud is
deposited during slack tide periods .the three main types of heterolithic bedding are flaser,
wavy, and lenticular.

Fig No 5.25:Flaser Bedding

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Fig No 5.26:Lenticular bedding.
5.9.13 Drag fold:

A minor fold formed in an incompetent bed by movement of a competent bed so as to
subject it to couple; the axis is at right angles to the direction in which the beds slip.

Fig 5.27: Drag fold in sakesar limestone

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5.9.14 Dome:
Dome is deformational feature consisting of symmetrically dipping anticlines. The
strata in the dome is eroded off, the series of concentric strata that grow progressively
older from the outside in which older rocks exposed in the center. This was encountered in
Sakesar Formation.
Fig No 5.28: Dome in Sakesar Limestone Khura Village

Chapter No 05: Stratigraphy

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