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Intro psych notes Midterm 1

Chapter 2

2.1: What Is Scientific Inquiry
Scientific method: systematic method scientists use to answer research
questions
Theory: explanation or model of how a phenomenon works
o Interconnected ideas/concepts
o Used to explain prior observations & predict future events
Hypothesis: generated by a good theory
o Specific, testable prediction about outcome that best supports theory
Research: done to test your hypotheses
o Research process involves systematic & careful collection of data
Data: objective information
o Indicates whether hypothesis is likely to be supported
A theory is continually refined by new hypotheses and tested by new
research methods
o More than one theory can explain human behavior
Replication: repeating a study and getting the same/similar results
o Results from 2 or more studies same/support same conclusion
confidence in findings is increased
A good theory produces a wide variety of testable hypotheses
Many significant findings are the result of serendipity
o Serendipity: unexpectedly finding things that are valuable/agreeable
o Science: discovering something important

2.2: What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research
3 types of studies: descriptive, correlational, and experimental
o Differ in terms of how much control researcher has over variables
Determines types of conclusions researcher can draw
Variable: something that can vary and that the researcher can measure
o Something the researcher manipulates or measures or both
Operational definition: identifying variables and quantifying them so they can
be measured
o Each variable is specified in a way that makes it possible to record its
quantity
Descriptive studies (observational studies)
o Observing and noting behavior to analyze that behavior objectively
Ex: Observe at regular time intervals
o Two types: Naturalistic & participant observation
Naturalistic: observer remains separated and makes no
attempt to change it
Participant: researcher is involved in the situation (rare)
o Very objective researcher might lose objectivity-researchers need to
keep their objectivity and minimize their impact on the situation
o Participants might change behavior if they know theyre being
observed
o Descriptive techniques valuable in the early stages of research
o Longitudinal studies: one type of developmental design
Track participants and reassess them every so often,
o Cross-sectional studies
Compare different groups to make inferences about both (such
as old and young) or get young and old for example and
compare their scores rather than tracking the same person for
many years from childhood to old age(longitudinal method)
o Advantages and disadvantages of the to types of studies:
Longitudinal provide information about the effects of age, but
are expensive and take a long time and can be jeopardized
if the participants drop out if the experiment over time.
Cross sectional designs are faster and less expensive, bur they
include the possibility that some unidentified variable is
responsible for any difference between groups. Example.
Older people in the group may not have received the same level
of education as the older people in the group. This different in
age groups might be due to changes in societal norms. This
potential difference is known as cohort effect.
o Observer bias: errors in observation because of an observers
expectations. This can be a problem if cultural norms favor inhibiting
or expressing certain behaviors.eg, males are less likely to show
sadness, they expect
o Experiment expectancy effect: observer expectations can even change
the behavior being observed (person being observed changes
behavior because experimenter expects him to)

Correlational Studies: examine how variables are related in the real world
without trying to alter or assign causation between them
o Directionality problem: knowing the direction of the cause/effect
relation between variables
o Third variable problem: a third variable causes both A and B
o Sometimes people believe there is a causal relationship when there is
a correlation
o Ethical problems for using correlational designs:
Traumatic experiences
Drugs/alcohol
o Can be used to make predictions bc it provides important information
about natural relationships between variables
Ex: strong relationship between depression and suicide
Assess symptoms of depression to determine suicide
risk
Use statistical procedures to rule out potential third variables
& problems with direction
Experiment: manipulate one variable to examine effect on a second variable
o Control group: comparison group: the participants that receive no
intervention or receive an intervention that is unrelated to the
independent variable being investigated
o Experimental groups: Treatment groups: the participants in a study
that receive the intervention
o Independent variable: variable that is manipulated
o Dependent variable: Variable that is measured
o Control: steps taken by the researcher to minimize the possibility that
anything other than the IV will affect the outcome
o Confound: anything that affects the dependent variable that may
unintentionally vary between studys diff experimental conditions
Want to know about the population
o Sample is a subset of the population
o Sampling: how you select people from the population to be in the
sample
o Random sampling: gives each member of the population an equal
chance of being chosen to participate
o Convenience sample: people who are available for the study
If the experiment creates a greatly artificial situation, the experiment is low
in external validity
o Degree to which findings of an experiment can be generalized outside
the lab
Selection bias: groups not equal bc participants in different groups differ in
unexpected ways
o Ex: never be sure that you have assessed all possible factors that may
differ between the groups
Random assignment: each participant has an equal chance of being assigned
to any level of the independent variable
o Groups equal out on average
o Balances out known and unknown factors
Law of large numbers: more accurate estimates of a population from a large
sample than from a small one

2.3: What Are the Data Collection Methods of Psychological Science?
Culturally sensitive research: studies that take into account the role that
culture plays in determining how we feel/act/think
Observational techniques: systemic assessment and coding of overt behavior
o Coding: determining what previously defined category the specific
behavior fits into
o 3 decisions to be made:
Lab or natural environment?
Lab = artificial behavior? Occur in real world?
How should data be collected?
Pre-established categories are more effective
Should the observer be visible?
Reactivity: presence of observer might alter behavior
being observed
Hawthorne effect: changes in behavior that occur when
people know that others are observing them
Case studies: intensive examination of unusual people/organizations
o Organization studied if doing well/poorly
Goal: determine what led to success/failure
o People: brain injuries/psych disorders
Difficult to know whether researchers theory about cause of
the psych disorder is correct
No control over the person life forced to make assumptions
about effects of various life events
Asking people about themselves is an interactive way of collecting data
o Open-ended questions: provide answers and answer in detail
o Closed-ended questions: select from a fixed number of options
o Self-report methods: good for gathering data from lots of people in a
short time
Mailed out to a sample or handed out
Easy to administer, cost-efficient
Interviews people who cannot be studied through surveys or
to gain an in-depth view
Interview researches can explore new lines of questioning
o Experience sampling: several samples of the participants experiences
over time
Determine how responses vary over time
o Self-report bias: People may not reveal info about them that makes
them look bad
Socially desirable responding: rephrase the wording to get an
accurate response
o Even if they dont intend on lying, they may not give accurate data
Better-than-average effect: people describe themselves in
especially positive ways even though its not always true
Response performance measures processing of information
o Response performance: quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in
response to a specific stimulus
o Reaction times: measure & interpret
Most useful/dependable research method of cognitive psych
Brain takes time to process information more processing
required = longer reaction time
o Response accuracy: How accurately you respond to a certain
stimulus
o Stimulus judgments: judge the different stimuli that they are
presented with



Body/brain activity can be measured directly
o Certain emotional states influence the body in predictable ways
Scared: tense muscles & faster heartbeat
o Psychophysiological assessment: measuring how blood
pressure/temperature, perspiration rate, breathing rate, pupil size
How bodily functions change in associated with
behaviors/mental states
o Eg polygraphs or lie detectors assume that liars experience more
arousal and stress and therefore are more likely to show physical
signs of stress..however this isnt perfect.some people can evade
this.
Electrophysiology: measures electrical activity in the brain
o Electrodes pick up brains electrical activity
o Electroencephalograph (EEG) measures brain activity. Useful because
different behavioral states produce different and predictable EEG
patterns. Eg it tells us the brain is active even when the body is at rest,
specially during dreams
Recordings i.e electroencephalograms reflect all brain
activity too noisy to determine specific stimuli. So they
carry out many trials and average across trials. This method
enables researchers to observe patterns associated with
specific events and is therefore called evet related potential or
ERP.
Brain imaging: measures changes in rate/speed of blood flow to diff regions
of the brain
o Monitor which brain areas are active when people do
things/experience events
Powerful for uncovering where diff systems reside & how diff
brain areas interact to process info. Eg how certain regions
become active when people are looking at faces, other regions
when figuring out what someone else is thinking and also that
1/3 reduction in activities of the brain takes place due to
consumption of alcohol. Major imaging technologies are MRI
and PET.
Positron emission tomography (PET): reconstructs brains metabolic activity
o Give person a task to do and examine areas in brain that are
active/emitting radiation. PET scan enables researchers to find the
most active brain areas.
o Compare it to some other task and focus on small differences in brain
activity
Downside: inject a radioactive substance into body
o Correlate brain regions with specific mental activities, blood flow
increases in the most active regions to emit more radiation.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): most powerful
o Produces powerful magnetic field
Produce high resolution image of brain
o Can be used to determine location of brain damage or tumor
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): brains blood flow map.
Different from PET as PET measures bloodflow directly by tracking
radioactive substance, fMRI measures blood flow indirectly by assessing
changes in the bloods oxygen level.
o Perform a task & scan brain, assesses changes in blood oxygen level
Perform diff task and compare differences in blood flow
brain activity
One limitation of brain imaging is that the findings are necessarily
ccorrelational.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation: uses a powerful magnetic field to disrupt
brain activity momentarily in a specific brain region
o Ex: TMS coil over areas of the brain involved in language will disrupt a
persons ability to speak
o Limitations: can only be used for short durations to examine brain
areas close to scalp
Animal Research provides important human data
o Watson: Humans are subject to same laws of nature as other animals
o Psychologists manipulate genes to examine their effects on behavior
Ethical issues: cannot manipulate human genes so they use
animals
Ethical issues to consider
o IRBs (institutional review boards) have strict guidelines in place
regarding research
Privacy: is it okay to observe people without their knowledge
o In public okay, if not in public then where is the limit?
o Topics: too personal or otherwise inappropriate? (Traumatic events)
Access to data: who will have access to the data they collect
o Participant confidentiality should be guarded carefully
Personal info should not be linked to studys public findings
o Quality & accuracy of data depends on certainty that responses are
confidential
o Anonymity: researchers collect no personal info responses cant be
traced to any individual
o Confidentiality: only a few people who need to know, know who the
people
Informed consent: Have the right to know what will happen to them
o Participants make a knowledgeable decision to participate (in writing)
o Can use deception if knowing the study will alter results but de-
briefing must take place after the study
Relative risks of participation:
o Cannot ask people to endure pain/discomfort from stimuli or from
data measurement techniques
o Risk-benefit ratio: analysis of whether the research is important
enough to place people at risk

2.4: How Are Data Analyzed and Evaluated?
Good Research Requires Valid, Reliable, and Accurate Data
o Internal validity: whether the data you collect address your question
Measure what you want to measure
o Reliability: stability & consistency of a measure over time
Data collected will not vary substantially over time
o Accuracy: measure is error free
Random error: error is introduced but value of error differs
each time
Systematic error: amount of error introduced into each
measurement is constant
Systematic is more problematic than random
Descriptive Statistics Provide a Summary of the Data
o Raw values: data that are as close as possible to the form they were
collected in
o Descriptive statistics: mathematical forms = overall summary of
results
o Central tendency: describes a typical response/behavior of the group
as a whole
Mean: arithmetic average of a set of numbers
Median: value in a set of numbers that falls exactly in the
middle between the highest and the lowest
Mode: Most frequent score/value in a set of numbers
Variability: how widely dispersed the values are around the
mean
Standard deviation: common measure of variability
How far away each value is, on average, from the mean
Range: distance between largest and smallest value
Correlations Describe the Relationships Between Variables
o Scatterplot examine relationship
Correlation coefficient: indicates strength of the relationship
between two variables (between -1 and 1)
Positive correlation: increase or decrease together
Negative correlation: As one increases, the other one
decreases
o No relation: correlation of close to 0
o Inferential statistics to determine whether differences actually exist
in populations from which samples were drawn
Determine if differences among sample means are chance
variations or if they reflect differences in populations
o Statistically significant: when results are unlikely to if there were no
differences between subjects
Meta-Analysis: analysis of multiple analyses
o Study of studies that have been conducted
Study of studies

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