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Chapter 5
Corrosion Prevention and Control
What is Corrosion?
- Corrosion is a chemical process that gradually breaks down materials.
- Electrons are exchanged and new molecules form
Recipe for Corrosion
1. Water
2. Oxygen
3. (atmospheric corrosion)
4. Acid
5. (chemical corrosion)
6. Salt
7. High temperature



Effects of corrosion
Losses are economic and safety:
Reduced Strength
Downtime of equipment
Escape of fluids
Lost surface properties
Reduced value of goods

The consequences of corrosion are many and varied and the effects of these on the safe,
reliable and efficient operation of equipment or structures are often more serious than the
simple loss of a mass of metal. Failures of various kinds and the need for expensive
replacements may occur even though the amount of metal destroyed is quite small.

Intrinsic Chemistry

The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion
is thermodynamically unfavorable. Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend to
decompose spontaneously into pure metal, which is why these elements can be found in
metallic form on Earth and have long been valued.
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Forms of Corrosion

1. General Attack Corrosion:

Also known as uniform attack corrosion, general attack corrosion is the most common type of
corrosion and is caused by a chemical or electrochemical reaction that results in the
deterioration of the entire exposed surface of a metal. Ultimately, the metal deteriorates to the
point of failure.
General attack corrosion accounts for the greatest amount of metal destruction by corrosion,
but is considered as a safe form of corrosion, due to the fact that it is predictable, manageable
and often preventable.
2. Localized Corrosion:

Unlike general attack corrosion, localized corrosion specifically targets one area of the metal
structure. Localized corrosion is classified as one of three types:

Pitting: Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result of
de-passivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining metal
becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this small
area penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often difficult to
detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by
corrosion-produced compounds


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Crevice corrosion: Similar to pitting, crevice corrosion occurs at a specific location. This type
of corrosion is often associated with a stagnant micro-environment, like those found under
gaskets and washers and clamps. Acidic conditions, or a depletion of oxygen in a crevice can
lead to crevice corrosion.



Filiform corrosion: Occurring under painted or plated surfaces when water breaches the
coating, filiform corrosion begins at small defects in the coating and spreads to cause
structural weakness.





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3. Galvanic Corrosion:

Galvanic corrosion, or dissimiliar metal corrosion, occurs when two different metals are located
together in a corrosive electrolyte. A galvanic couple forms between the two metals, where one
metal becomes the anode and the other the cathode. The anode, or sacrificial metal, corrodes
and deteriorates faster than it would alone, while the cathode deteriorates more slowly than it
would otherwise.
Three conditions must exist for galvanic corrosion to occur:
Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present
The metals must be in electrical contact, and
The metals must be exposed to an electrolyte
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4. Environmental Cracking:

Environmental cracking is a corrosion process that can result from a combination of
environmental conditions affecting the metal. Chemical, temperature and stress-related

conditions can result in the following types of environmental corrosion:

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Corrosion fatigue
Hydrogen-induced cracking
Liquid metal embrittlement

5. Flow-Assisted Corrosion (FAC):

Flow-assisted corrosion, or flow-accelerated corrosion, results when a protective layer of oxide
on a metal surface is dissolved or removed by wind or water, exposing the underlying metal to
further corrode and deteriorate.

Erosion-assisted corrosion
Impingement
Cavitation

7. Intergranular corrosion

Intergranular corrosion is a chemical or electrochemical attack on the grain boundaries of a
metal. This often occurs due to impurities in the metal, which tend to be present in higher
contents near grain boundaries. These boundaries can be more vulnerable to corrosion than
the bulk of the metal.




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8. De-Alloying:

De-alloying, or selective leaching, is the selective corrosion of a specific element in an alloy. The
most common type of de-alloying is de-zincification of unstabilized brass. The result of
corrosion in such cases is a deteriorated and porous copper.

9. Fretting corrosion:

Fretting corrosion occurs as a result of repeated wearing, weight and/or vibration on an uneven,
rough surface. Corrosion, resulting in pits and grooves, occurs on the surface. Fretting corrosion
is often found in rotation and impact machinery, bolted assemblies and bearings, as well as to
surfaces exposed to vibration during transportation.
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10. High-Temperature Corrosion:

Fuels used in gas turbines, diesel engines and other machinery, which contain vanadium or
sulfates can, during combustion, form compounds with a low melting point. These compounds
are very corrosive towards metal alloys normally resistant to high temperatures and corrosion,
including stainless steel.
High temperature corrosion can also be caused by high temperature oxidization, sulfidation and
carbonization.



















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Methods to Prevent Corrosion
Paint the metal surface. Perhaps the most common, affordable method of protecting metal
from corrosion is simply to cover it up with a layer of paint. The process of corrosion involves moisture
and an oxidizing agent interacting with with the surface of the metal. Thus, when the metal is coated
with a protective barrier of paint, neither moisture nor oxidizing agents can come into contact with the
metal itself and no corrosion occurs.
1. Paint the metal surface. Perhaps the most common, affordable method of protecting metal
from corrosion is simply to cover it up with a layer of paint. The process of corrosion involves
moisture and an oxidizing agent interacting with with the surface of the metal. Thus, when the
metal is coated with a protective barrier of paint, neither moisture nor oxidizing agents can
come into contact with the metal itself and no corrosion occurs.

2. Use marine paint for metal exposed to water. Metal objects that regularly (or constantly) come
into contact with the water, like boats, require special paints to protect against the increased
possibility of corrosion.


3. Apply protective lubricants to moving metal parts. For flat, static metal surfaces, paint does a
great job of keeping out moisture and preventing corrosion without affecting the metal's
usefulness. However, paint usually isn't suitable for moving metal parts. For instance, if you
paint over a door hinge, when the paint dries, it will hold the hinge in place, hindering its
motion.

4. Clean metal surfaces thoroughly before painting or lubricating. Whether you're using normal
paint, marine paint, or a protective lubricant/sealant, you'll want to ensure your metal is clean
and dry before starting the application process. Take care to ensure the metal is entirely free of
dirt, grease, residual welding debris, or existing corrosion, as these things can undermine your
efforts by contributing to future corrosion.


5. Keep unprotected metal products away from moisture. As noted above, most forms of
corrosion are exacerbated by moisture. If you can't manage to give your metal a protective
coating of paint or sealant, you should take care to ensure it's not exposed to moisture.

6. Keep metal surfaces as clean as possible. After each use of a metal item, whether the metal is
painted or not, be sure to clean its functional surfaces, removing any dirt, grime, or dust.
Accumulations of dirt and debris on metal surface can contribute to the wear and ear of the
metal and/or its protective coating, leading to corrosion over time
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Environmental Modification:

Corrosion is caused through chemical interactions between metal and gases in the surrounding
environment. By removing the metal from, or changing, the type of environment, metal
deterioration can be immediately reduced.
This may be as simple as limiting contact with rain or seawater by storing metal materials
indoors, or could be in the form of direct manipulation of the environmental affecting the metal.
Methods to reduce the sulfur, chloride or oxygen content in the surrounding environment can
limit the speed of metal corrosion.
For example, feed water for water boilers can be treated with softeners or other chemical
media to adjust the hardness, alkalinity or oxygen content in order to reduce corrosion on the
interior of the unit.
Metal Selection and Surface Conditions:

No metal is immune to corrosion in all environments, but through monitoring and
understanding the environmental conditions that are the cause of corrosion, changes to the
type of metal being used can also lead to significant reductions in corrosion.
Metal corrosion resistance data can be used in combination with information on the
environmental conditions to make decisions regarding the suitability of each metal.
The development of new alloys, designed to protect against corrosion in specific environments
are constantly under production. Hastelloy nickel alloys, Nirosta steels and
Timetaltitanium alloys are all examples of alloys designed for corrosion prevention.
Monitoring of surface conditions is also critical in protecting against metal deterioration from
corrosion. Cracks, crevices or asperous surfaces, whether a result of operational requirements,
wear and tear or manufacturing flaws, all can result in greater rates of corrosion.
Proper monitoring and the elimination of unnecessarily vulnerable surface conditions, along
with taking steps to ensure that systems are designed to avoid reactive metal combinations and
that corrosive agents are not used in the cleaning or maintenance of metal parts are all also
part of effective corrosion reduction program.



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Cathodic Protection:

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals are situated together in a
corrosive electrolyte.
This a common problem for metals submerged together in seawater, but can also occur when
two dissimilar metals are immersed in close proximity in moist soils. For these reasons, galvanic
corrosion often attacks ship hulls, offshore rigs and oil and gas pipelines.
Cathodic protection works by converting unwanted anodic (active) sites on a metal's surface to
cathodic (passive) sites through the application of an opposing current. This opposing current
supplies free electrons and forces local anodes to be polarized to the potential of the local
cathodes.
Cathodic protection can take two forms. The first is the introduction of galvanic anodes.
This method, known as a sacrificial system, uses metal anodes, introduced to the electrolytic
environment, to sacrifice themselves (corrode) in order to protect the cathode.
While the metal needing protection can vary, sacrificial anodes are generally made
of zinc,aluminum or magnesium, metals that have the most negative electro-potential.
The galvanic series provides a comparison of the different electro-potential - or nobility - of
metals and alloys.
In a sacrificial system, metallic ions move from the anode to the cathode, which leads the
anode to corrode more quickly than it otherwise would. As a result, the anode must regularly
be replaced.
A second method of cathodic protection is referred to as impressed current protection.
This method, which is often used to protect buried pipelines and ship hulls, requires an
alternative source of direct electrical current to be supplied to the electrolyte.
The negative terminal of the current source is connected to the metal, while the positive
terminal is attached to an auxiliary anode, which is added to complete the electrical circuit.
Unlike a galvanic (sacrificial) anode system, in an impressed current protection system, the
auxiliary anode is not sacrificed.

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Corrosion Inhibitors:

Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the metal's surface or the environmental
gases causing corrosion, thereby, interrupting the chemical reaction that causes corrosion.
Inhibitors can work by adsorbing themselves on the metal's surface and forming a protective
film. These chemicals can be applied as a solution or as a protective coating via dispersion
techniques.
The inhibitors process of slowing corrosion depends upon:
Changing the anodic or cathodic polarization behavior
Decreasing the diffusion of ions to the metal's surface
Increasing the electrical resistance of the metal's surface
Major end-use industries for corrosion inhibitors are petroleum refining, oil and gas exploration,
chemical production and water treatment facilities.
The benefit of corrosion inhibitors is that they can be applied in-situ to metals as a corrective
action to counter unexpected corrosion.
Coatings:

Paints and other organic coatings are used to protect metals from the degradative effect of
environmental gases.
Coatings are grouped by the type of polymer employed. Common organic coatings include:
Alykd and epoxy ester coatings that, when air dried, promote cross-link oxidation
Two-part urethane coatings
Both acrylic and epoxy polymer radiation curable coatings
Vinyl, acrylic or styrene polymer combination latex coatings
Water soluble coatings
High-solid coatings
Powder coatings






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Plating:
Metallic coatings, or plating, can be applied to inhibit corrosion as well as provide aesthetic,
decorative finishes.
There are four common types of metallic coatings:
1. Electroplating: A thin layer of metal - often nickel, tin or chromium - is deposited on the
substrate metal (generally steel) in an electrolytic bath. The electrolyte usually consists of a
water solution containing salts of the metal to be deposited.
2. Mechanical plating: Metal powder can be cold welded to a substrate metal by tumbling the
part, along with the powder and glass beads, in a treated aqueous solution. Mechanical
plating is often used to apply zinc or cadmium to small metal parts
3. Electroless: A coating metal, such as cobalt or nickel, is deposited on the substrate metal
using a chemical reaction in this non-electric plating method.
4. Hot dipping: When immersed in a molten bath of the protective, coating metal a thin layer
adheres to the substrate metal.

What is stabilization?
Stable water is water which neither tends to be corrosive nor scale-forming
Scale form
also known as hard water
It form by water that has high mineral content
Domestic water generally contains Calcium Bicarbonate formed when rain water, which
contains dissolved CO2 contacts Limestone in the ground, a slow reaction occurs which
produces the Bi-carbonate.
Bi-carbonates, when heated, will break down to form insoluble Carbonates which give
rise to deposits of scale or ' fur ' inside kettles and piping.
Corrosion

Ordinary fresh water usually is considered acidic when the chemical characteristic, "pH,"
is below the neutral pH value of 7, mineral coming from water are calcium, magnesium
Acid corrosion is caused by hydrogen ions from dissolved acids reacting with metals

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Corrosion Cell
Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction involving the movement of electrons. Let's first
consider a more familiar electrochemical reaction that which occurs when electricity comes out
of a battery.
Battery
Electrons build up in the negative end, also known as the anode. The positive end known as
the cathode is attractive to electrons due to its positive charge. The battery and the wire make
up known as an electrolytic cell, which is a device which causes an electric current to flow.
Corrosion in a metal object, such as a pipe, acts in the same manner. A negative area of
metal (anode) is connected to a positive area (cathode) by the pipe wall itself. As a
result, electrons can flow from the anode to the cathode.
The electrolyte is a conducting solution, which in the case of a pipe is the water within
the pipe with its dissolved salts
Protection in corrosion
Stabilization
Corrosion inhibitor
Cathodic protection
Galvanic Sacrficial anode protection


Corrosive Water Scale-forming Water
low pH
soft or with primarily
noncarbonated hardness
low alkalinity
high pH
hard with primarily carbonate
hardness
high alkalinity