CHAPTER

1
.
1
.
INTRODUCTION
When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation.
Due to cohesion between the molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by which
material of the body opposes the deformation is known as strength of material. Within a
certain limit (i.e., in the elastic stage) the resistance offered by the material is proportional to
the deformation brought out on the material by the external force. Also within this limit the
resistance is equal to the external force (or applied load). But beyond the elastic stage, the
resistance offered by the material is less than the applied load. In such a case, the deformation
continues, until failure takes place.
Within elastic stage, the resisting force equals applied load. This resisting force per
unit area is called stress or intensity of stress.
1
.
2
.
STRESS
The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as
stress. The external force acting on the body is called the load or force. The load is applied on
the body while the stress is induced in the material of the body. A loaded member remains in
equilibrium when the resistance offered by the member against the deformation and the
applied load are equal.
p
Mathematically stress is written as
,
a = -
A
where a = Stress (also called intensity of stress),
P = External force or load, and
A = Cross-sectional area.
1
.
2
.
1
.
Units of Stress. The unit of stress depends upon the unit of load (or force) and
unit of area. In M.K.S. units, the force is expressed in kgf and area in metre square (i.e., m2).
Hence unit of stress becomes as kgf/m2. If area is expressed in centimetre square (i.e., cm2),
the stress is expressed as kgf/cm2.
In the S.I. units, the force is expressed in newtons (written as N) and area is expressed
as m
2
. Hence unit of stress becomes as N/m2. The area is also expressed in millimetre square
then unit of force becomes as N/mm2
1 N/m2 = 1 N/dOO cm)2 = 1 N/104 cm2
= 10
-
4 N/cm2 or 10N/mm
2
cm
2 102 mm2
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2.
Also 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal = 1 Pa.
The large quantities are represented by kilo, mega, giga and terra. They stand for :
Kilo = 103 and represented by.k
Mega = 106 and represented by.M
Giga = 109 and represented by.G
Terra = 1012 and represented by.T.
Thus mega newton means 10f newtons and is represented by MN. The symbol 1 MPa
stands for 1 mega pascal which is equal to 106 pascal (or 106 N/m2).
The small quantities are represented by milli, micro, nano and pico. They are equal to
Milli = 10~3 and represented by.m
Micro = 10"6 and represented by.n
Nano = 10_9 and represented by.rj
Pico = 10~,2 and represented by.p.
Notes, i
. Newton is a force acting on a mass of one kg and produces an acceleration of 1 m/si i.e.,
1 N = 1 (kg) x 1 m/s2.
2
. The stress in S.I. units is expressed in N/m2 or N/mm2.
3.
The stress 1 N/mm2 = 10f N/m2 = MN/m2. Thus one N/mm2 is equal to one MN/m2.
4
. One pascal is written as 1 Pa and is equal to 1 N/m2.
1
.
3
.
STRAIN
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of
the body. The ratio of change of dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as
strain. Strain is dimensionless.
Strain may be :
1
. Tensile strain, 2. Compressive strain,
3
. Volumetric strain, and 4. Shear strain.
If there is some increase in length of a body due to external force, then the ratio of
increase of length to the original length of the body is known as tensile strain. But if there is
some decrease in length of the body, then the ratio of decrease of the length of the body to the
original length is known as compressive strain. The ratio of change of volume of the body to
the original volume is known as volumetric strain. The strain produced by shear stress is
known as shear strain.
1
.
4
. TYPES OF STRESSES
The stress may be normal stress or a shear stress.
Normal stress is the stress which acts in a direction perpendicular to the area. It is
represented by o (sigma). The normal stress is further divided into tensile stress and compressive
stress.
1
.
4
.
1
.
I'ensilc Stress. The stress induced in a body
,
when subjected to two equal and
opposite pulls as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) as a result of which there is an increase in length, is
known as tensile stress. The ratio of increase in length to the original length is known as tensile
strain. The tensile stress acts normal to the area and it pulls on the area.
2
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Let P = Pull (or force) acting on the body,
A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
L = Original length of the body,
dL = Increase in length due to pull P acting on the body,
o = Stress induced in the body, and
e = Strain (i.e., tensile strain).
Fig. 1.1 (a) shows a bar subjected to a tensile force P at its ends. Consider a section x-x,
which divides the bar into two parts. The part left to the section x-x, will be in equilibrium if
P = Resisting force (R). This is shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). Similarly the part right to the section
x-x
, will be in equilibrium if P = Resisting force as shown in Fig. 1.1 (c). This resisting force per
unit area is known as stress or intensity of stress.
x
(d)
I
Fig. 1.1
Tensile stress = a =
Resisting force (R) Tensile load (P)
Cross-sectional area
P
or a = -
A
And tensile strain is given by,
Increase in length dL
"
~
L
(v P = R)
,..(1.1)
e = ...
(1.2)
Original length
1
.
1
.
2.
Compressive Stress. The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal
and opposite pushes as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a) as a result of which there is a decrease in length
of the body, is known as compressive stress. And the ratio of decrease in length to the original
length is known as compressive strain. The compressive stress acts normal to the area and it
pushes on the area.
Let an axial push P is acting on a body in cross-sectional area A. Due to external push P,
let the original length L of the body decreases by dL.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
>
< (a)
p
DArictino forrA / Q\

_ nesisung Torce jn)

; <
Resisting force (R) ->
(c)
P
R r
"
! R
(d)
|
_
Fig. 1.2
Then compressive stress is given by,
_
Resisting Force (R) _ Push (P)
Area (A) Area (A)
And compressive strain is given by,
P
A
e _
Decrease in length
_
dL
Original length L
1
.
4
.
3
. Shear Stress. The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and
opposite forces which are acting tangentially across the resisting section as shown in Fig. 1.3
as a result of which the body tends to shear off across the section, is known as shear stress.
The corresponding strain is known as shear strain. The shear stress is the stress which acts
tangential to the area. It is represented by x.
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Consider a rectangular block of height h
,
length L and width unity. Let the bottom face
AB of the block be fixed to the surface as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a). Let a force P be applied
tangentially along the top face CD of the block. Such a force acting tangentially along a
surface is known as shear force. For the equilibrium of the block, the surface AB will offer a
tangential reaction P equal and opposite to the applied tangential force P.
Resistance
R-
77777777777777777777777
A 4- P B
h- L -H
(a) (6) (c>
L __ Fis-14
Consider a section x-x (parallel to the applied force), which divides the block into two
parts. The upper part will be in equilibrium if P = Resistance (R). This is shown in Fig. 1.4 (b).
Similarly the lower part will be in equilibrium if P = Resistance (R) as shown in Fig. 1.4 (c).
This resistance is known as shear resistance. And the shear resistance per unit area is known
as shear stress which is represented by t.
Shear resistance R
Shear stress, x =
Shear area
P
L x 1
(v R = P and A = L x 1) ...(1.3)
dl
D
.
Note that shear stress is tangential to the area over which it acts.
As the bottom face of the block is fixed, the face
ABCD will be distorted to ABC
1
D
l
through an angle <>
as a result of force P as shown in Fig. 1.4 (d).
And shear strain ((j>) is given by,
_
Transversal displacement
Distance AD
d!
C,
or
DD1
=
dt
AD
~
h
...
(1.4)
T
-
;
-
*
T i t
t 9
i i
/ /
1 / /
i /
h
t
t
i
i
1 (Si Q'
V/
f
/ /
i /

>
C
D
TT7T7777777777777777777
*
////////
Fig. 1.4 id)
1
.
5
.
EIASTICITY AND EI-ASTIC LIMIT
When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If
the external force is removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size (which
means the deformation disappears completely), the body is known as elastic body. This property,
5
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
by virtue of which certain materials return back to their original position after the removal of
the external force, is called elasticity.
The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by
the external force, is within a certain limit. Thus there is a limiting value of force up to and
within which, the deformation completely disappears on the removal of the force. The value
of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the material.
If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material
loses to some extent its property of elasticity. If now the force is removed, the material will
not return to its original shape and size and there will be a residual deformation in the material.
1.
6
. HOOKE'S IxAW AND ELASTIC MODULI!
Hooke,s Law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is
proportional to the strain produced by the stress. This means the ratio of the stress to the
corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus
of Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity or Elastic Modulii.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (OR YOUNG,S MODULUS)
The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to the corresponding strain is a constant.
This ratio is known as Young,s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity and is denoted by E.
E =
Tensile stress
Tensile strain
or
Compressive stress
Compressive strain
or ...
(1.5)
1.7.1. Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus. The ratio of shear stress to the
corresponding shear strain within the elastic limit, is known as Modulus of Rigidity or Shear
Modulus. This is denoted by C or G or N.
Shear stress t
C (or G or AO =
Shear strain <j)
Let us define factor of safety also.
...
(1.6)
1
.
8
.
FACTOR OF SAFETY
It is defined as the ratio of ultimate tensile stress to the working (or permissible) stress.
Mathematically it is written as
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety =
Permissible stress
..
(1.7)
1
.
9
.
CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN
1.
9
.
1
. For One-Dimensional Stress System. The relationship between stress and
strain for a unidirectional stress (i.e., for normal stress in one direction only) is given by
Hooke*s law, which states that when a material is loaded within its elastic limit, the normal
stress developed is proportional to the strain produced. This means that the ratio of the normal
6
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is
represented by E and is known as modulus of elasticity or Young
,
s modulus of elasticity.
Normal stress
= Constant or
Corresponding strain
where o = Normal stress, e = Strain and E = Young
,
s modulus
e
or
a
C~
E
...[1.7 (A))
The above equation gives the stress and strain relation for the normal stress in one
direction.
1
.
9
.
2
.
For Two-Dimensional Stress System. Before knowing the relationship between
stress and strain for two-dimensional stress system, we shall have to define longitudinal
strain, lateral strain, and Poisson
,
s ratio.
1
. Longitudinal strain. When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an
increase in the length of the body. But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions
of the body at right angles to the line of action of the applied load. Thus the body is having
axial deformation and also deformation at right angles to the line of action of the applied load
(i.e., lateral deformation).
The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as longitudinal
(or linear) strain. The longitudinal strain is also defined as the deformation of the body per
unit length in the direction of the applied load.
Let L = Length of the body,
P = Tensile force acting on the body,
8L = Increase in the length of the body in the direction of P.
Then, longitudinal strain = -.
Lj
2
.
Lateral strain. The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known
as lateral strain. Let a rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an
axial tensile load P as shown in Fig. 1.5. The length of the bar will increase while the breadth
and depth will decrease.
Let 8L = Increase in length,
56 = Decrease in breadth, and
6d = Decrease in depth.
Then longitudinal strain = ...11.7 (fill
and
lateral strain =
b
or ...[1.7 (C)]
7
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Note. (i) If longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strains will be compressive.
(ii) If longitudinal strain is compressive then lateral strains will be tensile.
(iii) Hence every longitudinal strain in the direction of load is accompanied by lateral strains of
the opposite kind in all directions perpendicular to the load.
3
.
Poisson,s ratio. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant
for a given material, when the material is stressed within the elastic limit. This ratio is called
Poisson's ratio and it is generally denoted by [i. Hence mathematically,
. . Lateral strain
,, _ /r>N.
Poisson s ratio, n = --:---:-- ...11.7 (D)]
Longitudinal strain
or Lateral strain = ji x Longitudinal strain
As lateral strain is opposite in sign to longitudinal strain, hence algebraically, lateral
strain is written as
Lateral strain = -[ix Longitudinal strain
4
. Relationship between stress and strain. Consider a
two-dimensional figure ABCD, subjected to two mutually
perpendicular stresses a, and a2.
Refer to Fig. 1.5 (a).
Let o, = Normal stress in x-direction
a2 = Normal stress in y-direction
Consider the strain produced by <j2.
The stress a
,
will produce strain in the direction ofx and
also in the direction ofy. The strain in the direction ofx will be
C, ....
j 5
...11.7 <E)1
I
<*1

JL
'
%
longitudinal strain and will be equal to -J- whereas the strain
E
in the direction of y will be lateral strain and will be equal to - n x
(v Lateral strain. =-[ix longitudinal strain)
Now consider the strain produced by o2.
The stress o2 will produce strain in the direction ofy and also in the direction of*. The
strain in the direction of y will be longitudinal strain and will be equal to ~r whereas the
hj
strain in the direction of x will be lateral strain and will be equal to - x .
E
Let e, = Total strain in x-direction
e2 = Total strain in y-direction
Now total strain in the direction of x due to stresses a, and o., = - n -
E
Similarly total strain in the direction ofy due to stresses o
,
and o2 = - \x
E E
1 E M E
-11.7 (F)l
Oo Oi
eo = - - n
.
E E
...(1.7 (G))
8
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
The above two equations gives the stress and strain relationship for the two-dimensional
stress system. In the above equations, tensile stress is taken to be positive whereas the
compressive stress negative.
1
.
9
.
3
.
For Three-Dimensional Stress System. Fig. 1.5 (6) shows a three-dimensional
body subjected to three orthogonal normal stresses o
p o2, o;) acting in the directions of x, y
and 2 respectively.
Consider the strains produced by each stress
separately.
The stress a
,
will produce strain in the direction of
x and also in the directions of y and z. The strain in the
direction of x will be - whereas the strains in the direction
E

i
ofy and z will be - n
E
Similarly the stress c
2
will produce strain -f in
E
o2
Y
,
f
1
/
j *
/ X
Fig. 1.5 (b)
the direction of y and strain of - p in the direction of x
E
and y each.
Also the stress a3 will produce strain in the direction of 2 and strain of - p x in
the direction of x and y.
E
E
Total strain in the direction of x due to stresses a., a, and a, = - - li - - u -.
12 3 E E E
Similarly total strains in the direction of y due to stresses O
j,
o2 and o3
E M E * E
and total strains in the direction ofz due to stresses olf a2 and a3
O 3 O j G 2
Let e.f e
2 an
d e
3 are
total strains in the direction of x, y and z respectively. Then
G\ O o Oq
p - _L - ii _ _ || _i
E E
*
E
Oo Oo a i
=
e
-*
E
and
e -
3 1 u

2
3 E E E
...[1.7 (H) 1
...(1.7 </)!
...11.7 (/)]
The above three equations give the stress and strain relationship for the three orthogonal
normal stress system.
Problem 1.1. A rod 150 cm long and of diameter 2.0 cm is subjected to an axial pull of
20 kN. If the modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2 x 105 N/ mm2 ; determine :
(i) the stress,
(ii) the strain, and
(iii) the elongation of the rod.
9
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Sol. Given : Length of the rod, L = 150 cm
Diameter of the rod, D = 2.0 cm = 20 mm
Area, A = - (20)2 = IOOji mm2
4
Axial pull, P = 20 kN = 20,000 N
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0 x 10& N/mm2
(i) The stress (a) is given by equation (1.1) as
a =
P = 20000 = 63 662 N/mm2
> Ans
A IOOtu
(ii) Using equation (1.5), the strain is obtained as
=

.
e
a 63.662
Strain, e = - = ~--g- = 0.000318. Ans.
Z X iu
(iii) Elongation is obtained by using equation (1.2) as
dL
e~
L '
.
*
. Elongation, dL-ex L
= 0
.
000318 x 150 = 0.0477 cm. Ans.
Problem 1.2. Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is used to raise a load
of4000 N if the stress in the rod is not to exceed 95 MN/m
2
.
Sol. Given : Load, P = 4000 N
Stress, a = 95 MN/m2 = 95 x 106 N/m2 (v M = Mega = 106)
= 95 N/mm
2 (v 106 N/m2
= 1 N/mm2)
Let D = Diameter of wire in mm
Area, A = - D2
4
M .
Load P
Now stress =-= -
Area A
_
4000 4000x4 _ 4000 x4
95=-=--- or DZ =---=53.61
K D2 71 D K x 95
4
D = 7.32 mm. Ans.
Problem 1.3. Find the Young,s Modulus of a brass rod of diameter 25 mm and of
length 250 mm which is subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN when the extension of the rod
is equal to 0.3 mm.
Sol. Given : Dia. of rod, D = 25 mm
/. Area of rod, A = - (25)2 = 490.87 mm2
4
Tensile load, P = 50 kN = 50 x 1000 = 50,000 N
Extension of rod, dL = 0.3 mm
Length of rod, L = 250 mm
10
SIMPLE STRESSES ANI) STRAINS
Stress (o) is given by equation (1.1), as
o = 4 = = 101-86 N/mm2.
A 490.87
Strain (e) is given by equation (1.2), as
e =
= 3 =0
.
0012.
L 250
Using equation (1.5), the Young,s Modulus (E) is obtained, as
E _
Stress
=
101.86 N/mm' = 84883 33 N/mm2
Strain 0.0012
= 84883
.33 x 10f N/m2. Ans. (v 1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2)
= 84
.
883 x 109 N/m2 = 84.883 GN/ma. Ans. (v 109 = G)
Problem 1.4. A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was
obtained from the test:
(i) Diameter of the steel bar = 3 cm
(ii) Gauge length of the bar = 20 cm
(iii) Load at elastic limit = 250 kN
(iv) Extension at a load of 150 kN = 0.21 mm
(u) Maximum load = 380 kN
(ui) Total extension = 60 mm
(vii) Diameter of the rod at the failure = 2.
25 cm.
Determine : (a) the Young's modulus, (b) the stress at elastic limit,
(c) the percentage elongation, and (d) the percentage decrease in area.
Sol. Area of the rod, A = - D2 = - (3)2 cm2
4 4
= 7
.
0685 cm2 = 7.0685 x 10" m2.
2 | 1
,2
cm = -m
100
(a) To find Young,s modulus, first calculate the value of stress and strain within elastic
limit. The load at elastic limit is given but the extension corresponding to the load at elastic
limit is not given. But a load of 150 kN (which is within elastic limit) and corresponding
extension of 0.21 mm are given. Hence these values are used for stress and strain within
elastic limit
-
Load 150x1000 9 , .
XT i/w\xt\
Stress = --=-7- N/m2 (v 1 kN = 1000 N)
Area 7.0685 xlO"4
and Strain =
= 21220
.
9 x 104 N/m2
Increase in length (or Extension)
Original length (or Gauge length)
0
.
21mm
20 x 10 mm
= 0
.
00105
Young,s Modulus,
=
Stress
= 21220.9 x 10 = y 1q4 N/m2
Strain 0.00105
11
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
= 202
.095 x 109 N/m2 (v 109 = Giga = G)
= 202
.
095 GN/m2. Ans.
(6) The stress at the elastic limit is given by,
Load at elastic limit 250 x 1000
1reSS *
Area
~
7.0685 x 10"4
= 35368 x 104 N/m
2
= 353
.68 x 106 N/m2 (v 106 = Mega = M)
= 353
.
68 MN/m2. Ans.
(c) The percentage elongation is obtained as,
Percentage elongation
Total increase in length
Original length (or Gauge length)
60 mm
=- x 100 = 30%
.
Ans.
20 x 10 mm
(d) The percentage decrease in area is obtained as,
Percentage decrease in area
(Original area - Area at the failure)
x 100
I
Original area
*

X 3
2
-
X 2.25
2
4 '
x 100
x 100
*

x<t
2
4
'
32 - 2.252
3i
x 100 =
,
9 5 0625,
x 100 = 43.75%. Ans.
9
Problem 1.5. The safe stress
, for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of
2
.1 x 103 kN is 125 MN/m2. If the external diameter of the column is 30 cm, determine the
internal diameter.
Sol. Given :
Safe stress*, o = 125 MN/m2 = 125 x 106 N/m2
Axial load, P = 2.1 x 103 kN = 2.1 x 106 N
External diameter, D = 30 cm = 0.30 m
Let d = Internal diameter
/. Area of cross-section of the column,
A = - (D2 -d2) = - (,30i - d!) m2
4 4
P
Using equation (1.1), o = -
A
*
Safe stress is a stress which is within elastic limit.
12
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
or
or
125 x 106 =
2
.
1 x 1Qf
- (.
302 - di)
4
or (.30
2
-
d2) =
4 x 2.1 x 10f
k x 125 x 10
6
0
.
09 - d2 = 213.9 or 0.09 - 0.02139 = d2
d = 0.09 - 0.02139 = 0.2619 m = 26.19 cm. Ans.
Problem 1.6. The ultimate stress
,
for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load
of 1.9 MN is 480 N/mm2. If the external diameter of the column is 200 mm, determine the
internal diameter. Take the factor of safety as 4.
Sol. Given :
= 480 N/mm
2
P = 1.9 MN = 1.9 x 106 N
= 1900000 N
D = 200 mm
= 4
d = Internal diameter in mm
or
Ultimate stress
Axial load,
(v M = 10f)
External dia.,
Factor of safety
Let
Area of cross-section of the column,
A = - (D2 - d2) = - (2002 - d2) mm2
4 4
Using equation (1.7), we get
Factor of safety
Ultimate stress
4 =
Working stress or Permissible stress
480
or Working stress
Working stress
-= 120 N/mm
2
o = 120 N/mm2
Now using equation (1.1), we get
P
a = - or 120 =
1900000 1900000 x 4
-
(2002 - di) *<40000 " d >
4
40000 - d? =
19? X 4 = 20159
.
6
7cx 120
or d2 = 40000 - 20159.6 = 19840.4
d = 140.85 mm. Ans.
Problem 1.7 A stepped bar shown in Fig. 1.6 is subjected to an
axially applied compressive load of 35 kN. Find the maximum and
minimum stresses produced.
Sol. Given :
Axial load
,
P = 35 kN = 35 x 103 N
Dia. of upper part, D
,
= 2 cm = 20 mm
35 kN
\
2 cm
DIA
3 em
"
777
DIA
///////////7* r7~
Fig. 1.6
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Area of upper part, A
,
= (202) = 100 7t mm
2
Area of lower part, A2 = D2i = (302) = 225 Jt mmi
The stress is equal to load divided by area. Hence stress will be maximum where area
is minimum. Hence stress will be maximum in upper part and minimum in lower part.
Load 35 x 103
/.
Maximum stress
Minimum stress
A,
100 X 71
Load 35 x 10
A2
225 x k
= 111
.408 N/mma. Ans.
= 49
.
5146 N/mm2. Ans.
1
.
10. ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS
A bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and hence of different cross
sectional areas) is shown in Fig. 1.6 (a). Let this bar is subjected to an axial load P.
Section 3
Section 2
Fig. 1.6(a)
Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses, strains and
change in lengths will be different. The total change in length will be obtained by adding the
changes in length of individual section.
Let P
1
2
A2
3 A3
E
Axial load acting on the bar,
Length of section 1,
Cross-sectional area of section 1,
Length and cross-sectional area of section 2,
Length and cross-sectional area of section 3, and
Young,s modulus for the bar.
Then stress for the section 1,
a.
=
Load
Area of section 1 A,
Similarly stresses for the section 2 and section 3 are given as,
P A
P
a. =
-
ana a.. = -
Using equation (1.5), the strains in different sections are obtained.
Strain of section 1, e, =

2 A
,
E
a. =
Ai
,
14
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Similarly the strains of section 2 and of section 3 are,
and e- = - =
or
e2 =
But strain in section 1 =
=
E A,E
E A2E "3
Change in length of section 1
Length of section 1
dL,
L
,
where dLx = change in length of section 1.
/.
Change in length of section 1, c/L, = e,L,
PL i
AXE
Similarly changes in length of section 2 and of section 3 are obtained as
Change in length of section 2, dL2 = e2 L,,
-
a2e
and change in length of section 3, rfL
3
= e
a
L
r,
AaE
6i =
A
,
E
e2 =
A.E
*
3 =
AaE
Total change in the length of the bar,
dL = dL.+ dL
2 +
dL, =
PL, Pin PL
-- + -- + -
AXE A2E A:,E
P L, L9 Lo
-
e[a;
+
a;
+
a
-
3
.a8,
Equation (1.8) is used when the Young,s modulus of different sections is same. If the
Young,s modulus of different sections is different, then total change in length of the bar is
given by,
dL = P
*

,
L2

A,
...(1-9 >
11 2 "2 -3 As
Problem 1.8. An axial pull of35000 N is acting on a bar consisting of three lengths as
shown in Fig. 1.6 (b). If the Young
,
s modulus =2.1 x 105 N/mm
'
~
\ determine :
(i) stresses in each section and
(ii) total extension of the bar.
Section 3
20 cm 25 cm 22 cm
Fie. 1.6 /.>
15
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Sol. Given :
Axial pull,
Length of section 1,
Dia. of section 1,
.
*
.
Area of section 1,
Length of section 2,
Dia. of section 2,
Area of section 2,
Length of section 3,
Dia. of section 3,
.
*
.
Area of section 3,
Young,s modulus,
(i) Stresses in each section.
Stress in section 1,
p
=
35000 N
= 20 cm = 200 mm
= 2 cm = 20 mm
A, -
(202) = 100 it mm
4
*
2
= 25 cm = 250 mm
d2
ZZ 3 cm = 30 mm
=
-
7 (30
2) = 225 71 mm
4
LZ
=
*
22 cm = 220 mm
d3
s 5 cm = 50 mm
3
=
- (502) = 625 7i mm
4
E
-
2
.
1 x 10& N/mm2.
Axial load
o. = -
Area of section 1
P 35000
= -- = --- = 111
.408 N/mm2. Ans.
Stress in section 2,
Stress in section 3.
A, 100 7i
P 35000
A2 225 x it
35000
=
3 A
3 625 x k
(ii) Total extension of the bar
Using equation (1.8), we get
Total extension
= 49
.
5146 N/mm2. Ans.
= 17
.
825 N/mm2. Ans.
P
E
L
A
l +h.+h
1 "2 "3 .
35000
2
.
1xl0&
35000
2
.1x 10
200 250
+-+
220
v
100 k 225 X7U 625X71,
r (6.366 + 3.536 + 1.120) = 0.183 mm. Ans.
Problem 1.9. A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminium bar is shown
in Fig. 1.7. Assuming that the bars are prevented from buckling sideways,
calculate the
magnitude of force P that will cause the total length of the member to decrease 0.25 mm. The
values of elastic modulus for steel and aluminium are 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 and 7 x 104 N/mm2
respectively.
Sol. Given :
Length of steel bar, L. = 30 cm = 300 mm
16
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Area of steel bar, A, = 5 x 5 = 25 cm2 = 250 mm2
Elastic modulus for steel bar,
E, = 2.1 x 10 N/mm2
Length of aluminium bar,
5 cm x 5 cm
Steel bar
L
2
= 38 cm = 380 mm
Area of aluminium bar,
A
2 =
Elastic modulus for aluminium bar,
A
2 =
10 x 10 = 100 cm2 = 10000 mm2
10 cm x 10 cm
Aluminium bar
Fig. 1.7
E2 = 7 x 104 N/mm2
Total decrease in length, dL = 0.25 mm
Let P = Required force.
As both the bars are made of different materials
, hence total change in the lengths of
the bar is given by equation (1.9).
"
L,
,
L2
.
or
dL = P
0
.
25 = P
E\A\
+
E2A2
300 380
2
.
1 x 10S x 2500 7 x 104 x 10000
X *
= P (5.
714 X 10"7 + 5.428 x 10~7) = P x 11.142 x 10"7
P =
0
.
25
v
-7
0
.
25 x 10
11.142 11.142x10
= 2.2437 x 10&
= 224.37 kN. Ans.
Problem 1.10. The bar shown in Fig. 1.8 is subjected to a tensile load of 160 kN. If
the stress in the middle portion is limited to 150 N/mm2, determine the diameter of the
middle portion. Find also the length of the middle portion if the total elongation of the bar
is to be 0.2 mm. Young,s modulus is given as equal to 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given :
P = 160 kN = 160 x 103 N Tensile load,
Stress in middle portion,
Total elongation,
Total length of the bar,
Young's modulus,
Diameter of both end portions, D, = 6 cm = 60 mm
Area of cross-section of both end portions,
o2 = 150 N/mm2
dL = 0.2 mm
L = 40 cm = 400 mm
E = 2.1 x 10f N/mm2
.
=
7X60
-
900 7t mm2.
160 kN
t f
6 cm DIA
1
1
6 cm DIA
1
160 kN
40 cm
Fig. 1.8
17
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
or
or
Let D2 = Diameter of the middle portion
L2 = Length of middle portion in mm.
.\ Length of both end portions of the bar,
L
j
= (400 - L
2) mm
Using equation (1.1), we have
Load
Stress = --.
Area
For the middle portion, we have
P
- K
or 150 =
On =
-
where A., = - D
2
2
160000
2
-
4-2
-
Do2
4x160000
loco
o
D
'1

=--- = 1358 mm
2
2 ji x 150
or D2 = Vl358 = 36.85 mm = 3.685 cm. Ans.
Area of cross-section of middle portion,
A

= - x 36
.
85 = 1066 mm2
4
Now using equation (1.8), we get
PL L
Total extension, dL = -
E
A i A2
160000 [
"
(400-L2) |
L2 I
"
=
2.1 x 10 L 900tt + 1066 J
[ v L. = (400 - L.,) and A2 = 1066]
0
.
2 x 2.1x 10& (400-L2) |
L2
160000 900 tc 1066
1066(400 - L2) + 9007C L2
900 71 x 1066
or 0.2625 x 900ti x 1066 = 1066 x 400 - 1066 L
2 +
900;: x L
2
or 791186 = 426400 - 1066 L2 + 2827 L2
or 791186 - 426400 = L2 (2827 - 1066)
or 364786 = 1761 L
2
L
,
= = 207.14 mm = 20.714 cm. Ans
.
1761
1.10.1. Principle of Superposition. When a number of loads are acting on a body,
the resulting strain, according to principle of superposition, will be the algebraic sum of strains
caused by individual loads.
While using this principle for an elastic body which is subjected to a number of direct
forces (tensile or compressive) at different sections along the length of the body, first the free
body diagram of individual section is drawn. Then the deformation of the each section is
obtained. The total deformation of the body will be then equal to the algebraic sum of
deformations of the individual sections.
18
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Problem 1.11. A brass bar, having cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2, is subjected to
axial forces as shown in Fig. 1.9.
50 kN
600 mm
1 m 1
.
20 m
_
F"8 1
Find the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 1.05 x 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given :
Area, A = 1000 mm2
Value of E = 1.05 x 105 N/mm2
Let dL = Total elongation of the bar.
The force of 80 kN acting at B is split up into three forces of 50 kN, 20 kN and 10 kN.
Then the part AB of the bar will be subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN, part BC is subjected
to a compressive load of 20 kN and part BD is subjected to a compressive load of 10 kN as
shown in Fig. 1.10.
B
Fig. 1.10
Part AB. This part is subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN. Hence there will be increase
in length of this part.
Increase in the length of AB
.A
xL -

50 x1000
x 600
(v P, = 50,000 N, L, = 600 mm)
1000 x 1.05 x 10f
= 0
.
2857.
Part BC. This part is subjected to a compressive load of 20 kN or 20,000 N. Hence
there will be decrease in length of this part.
Decrease in the length of BC
20,000
_ 2 x T __
AE 2 1000 x 1.05 xlO&
= 0
.
1904.
x 1000 (v L
2
= 1 m = 1000 mm)
19
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Part BD. This part is subjected to a compressive load of 10 kN or 10,000 N. Hence
there will be decrease in length of this part.
Decrease in the length of BD
P
o .
10000
3 x I __
AE 2 1000 x 1.05 xlO5
= 2200
(v L3 = 1.2 + 1 = 2.2 m or 2200 mm)
= 0.2095
.
.
*
. Total elongation of bar = 0.2857 - 0.1904 - 0.2095
(Taking +ve sign for increase in length and
-
ve sign for decrease in length)
= - 0
.
1142 mm. Ans.
Negative sign shows, that there will be decrease in length of the bar.
Problem 1.12. A member ABCD is subjected to point loads P
v
P
# P3 and P
4 as s
hown
in Fig. 1.11.
B C
;
OJ
;
A
T ,
1250 mm
1
*

2
625 mm

CM
*
h
120 cm 60 cm
Fig. 1.11
90 cm -]
Calculate the force P2 necessary for equilibrium, if P, = 45 kN, P3 = 450 kN and
P4 = 130 kN. Determine the total elongation of the member, assuming the modulus of
elasticity to be 2.1 x 10
5 N/mm2
.
Sol. Given :
Part AB :
Part BC
Part CD
Value of
Value of P2 necessary for equilibrium
Area,
Al - 625 mm2 and
Length,
Lj = 120 cm = 1200 mm
Area,
A2 = 2500 mm2 and
Length,
L2 = 60 cm = 600 mm
Area,
A3 = 1250 mm2 and
Length,
L3 = 90 cm = 900 mm
E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.
Resolving the forces on the rod along its axis (i.e., equating the forces acting towards
right to those acting towards left), we get
P
1 +
P
3 =
P
2 +
P
4
20
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
But P. = 45 kN
,
P
3
= 450 kN and P
,
= 130 kN
45 + 450 = P2 + 130 or P2 = 495 - 130 = 365 kN
The force of 365 kN acting at B is split into two forces of 45 kN and 320 kN {i.e.,
365 -
45 = 320 kN).
The force of 450 kN acting at C is split into two forces of 320 kN and 130 kN (i.e., 450 -
320 = 130 kN) as shown in Fig. 1.12.
From Fig. 1.12, it is clear that part AB is subjected to a tensile load of 45 kN, part BC
is subjected to a compressive load of 320 kN and part CD is subjected to a tensile load 130 kN.
45 kN j
V E
45 kN
4 1 1
320 kN 320 kN
130 kN
C D
;
_
f. i.i2 _ _J
Hence for part AB, there will be increase in length ; for part BC there will be decrease
in length and for part CD there will be increase in length.
Increase in length of AB
A
,
E
x L. =
45000
625 x 2.1 x 10'*
x 1200 (v P = 45 kN = 45000 N)
= 0
.
4114 mm
Decrease in length of BC
P
AoE
x Lo =
320,000
2500 x 2.1 x 10&
= 0.3657 mm
x 600
(v P = 320 kN = 320000)
Increase in length of CD
P 130.000
AZE
x 900 < v P = 130 kN = 130000)
1250 x 2.1 x 10&
= 0
.
4457 mm
Total change in the length of member
= 0
.
4114 - 0.3657 + 0.4457
(Taking +ve sign for increase in length and
-
ve sign for decrease in length)
= 0.4914 mm (extension). Ans.
Problem 1.13. A tensile load of 40 kN is acting on a rod of diameter 40 mm and of
length 4 m. A bore of diameter 20 mm is made centrally on the rod. To what length the rod
21
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
should be bored so that the total extension will increase 30% under the same tensile load. Take
E = 2 x 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given :--
40 kN 40 kN
N-4 m-H
Fig. 1.12 (a)
Tensile load,
Dia. of rod,
P = 40 kN = 40,000 N
D = 40 mm
n
Area of rod, A = - (403) = 40071 mm-
4
E
4 m

Length of rod,
Dia. of bore,
Area of bore.
Fig. 1.12(6)
L = 4 m = 4 x 1000 = 4000 mm
d = 20 mm
a = - x 202 = 100 7i mm2
4
Total extension after bore = 1.3 x Extension before bore
Value of E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Let the rod be bored to a length of x metre or x x 1000 mm. Then length of unbored
portion = (4 - x) m = (4 - x) x 1000 mm. First calculate the extension before the bore is made.
The extension (6L) is given by,
5L = -f- x L =
AE 400ti x 2 x 10"
40000 x 4000 2
= - mm
71
...(i)
Now extension after the bore is made
= 1.3 x Extension before bore
1 o
2 26
= 1
.
3 x - =-mm
71 71
The extension after the bore is made, is also obtained by finding the extensions of the
unbored length and bored length.
For this, find the stresses in the bored and unbored portions.
Stress in unbored portion
=
Load P = 40000 = 100
"
A "
N/mm2
Area A 40071
Extension of unbored portion
Stress
-
E
x Length of unbored portion
22
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
JQ0
x(4-*)x 1000 = mm
71 x 2 x 10
2ti
Stress in bored portion
Load P 40000
=
40000
Area (A-a) (400ti - IOOti) 300tt
/. Extension of bored portion
Stress
E
x Length of bored portion
4QQ0Q 1AA,
4*
x 1000a: = - mm
300tc x 2 x 10 6tt
Total extension after the bore is made
(4-*) 4x ....
+ - ...()
2tt 67t
Equating equations (i) and (ii),
2
.
6
_
4 - x 4x
71 271 671
or 2.6 = -- + - or 2.6 x 6 = 3 x (4-x) + 4x
2 6
or 15.6 = 12 - 3* + 4x or 15.6 - 12 = x or 3.6 = x
.
,
. Rod should be bored upto a length of 3.6 m. Ans.
Problem 1.14. A rigid bar ACDB is hinged at A and supported in a horizontal position
by two identical steel wires as shown in Fig. 1.12 (c). A vertical load of 30 kN is applied at B.
Find the tensile forces T. and T., induced in these wires by the vertical load.
E F
1
T,
I
,
T! '
l
m
(I
B lA C D
W- 1 m 4 1 m 1 m ->
30 KN
Fig. 1.12 (c)
AC D B
Fig. 1.12(d)
Sol. Given :
Rigid bar means a bar which will remain straight.
Two identical steel wires mean the area of cross-sections, lengths and value of E for
both wires is same.
Ay = A
2
,
Ex = E2 and L1 = L2
Load at B = 30 kN = 30,000 N
Fig. 1.12 (c) shows the position of the rigid bar before load is applied at B. Fig. 1.12 (d)
shows the position of the rigid bar after load is applied.
23
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
as
Let Tx = Tension in the first wire
T2 = Tension in the second wire
51 = Extension of first wire
8
2 =
Extension of second wire
Since the rigid bar remains straight, hence the extensions 8, and 82 are given by
6
_
l AC
=
1
82 AD
~
2
28, = 82 ...(i)
But 8, is the extension in wire EC
(ry
x Li
Stress in EC x Lx
U
,
"
r,xz,,
1 E
j Ex
Aj x E,
Sjmi]ar1J
Substituting the values of 8, and 82 is equation (i),
2 x

_
2 X 2
A, x i?j A2 x E2
But A
,
= A
2,
= E
2 and L, = Lr Hence above equation becomes
2 T1 = T2 ...(H)
Now taking the moments of all the forces on the rigid bar about A, we get
7\ x 1 + T2 x
2 = 30 x 3
or T
, + 2 T2 = 90 ...(m)
Substituting the value of T2 from equation (zi), into equation (m), we get
T
,
+ 2(2T,) = 90 or 5T, = 90
T
1 =

-
= 18 kN. Ans
.
From equation (ii),
T2 = 2 x 18 = 36 kN. Ans.
\nt. After calculating the values of T, and Tv the stresses in the two wires can also be obtained
Stress in wire EC =
Qa{'
T*
and Stress in wire FD = -r~.
Area A,
s
A
>l
1
.11. ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING CIRCULAR ROD
A bar uniformly tapering from a diameter D
,
at one end to a diameter D2 at the other
end is shown in Fig. 1.13.
Let P = Axial tensile load on the bar
L = Total length of the bar
E = Young,s modulus.
24
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Fig. 1.13
Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end. Let
the diameter of the bar be D at a distance x from the left end,
Then
D,
-
D
= D
}
-
kx where k =
D
l
-D
Area of cross-section of the bar at a distance x from the left end,
4.
= f = f (D,
- k
.x)\
Now the stress at a distance x from the left end is given by,
Load

x
=
4 P
liD
k.x)
*
4
The strain e
r
in the small element of length dx is obtained by using equation (1.5).
Stress
E E
4 P
_
1
_
4 P
n{Dx-k.x)
2 E
n E(Dl - k.x)
Extension of the small elemental length dx
= Strain
,
dx = e
x
.
dx
4 P
nE(Dt-k.x)
2
.dx Ui)
Total extension of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between the
limits 0 and L
.
25
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Total extension,
dL = r
*P dX
Jo 7T E(D
,
- k
.
4 P cL
x)
nE
j (Dl-k.xrZ.dx
4r r-
7t Jo
-2
4P f/- (D,x<-A)
(-*>
.
[Multiplying and dividing by (- A)J
4P
nE
4P
tiE*
4P
-l
Wx-k.x)
(- 1) x (- k)
4 P
nEk
(D
,
-
k
.x)
1
_
1
Dl- k.L D{- kx 0
1 1
nEk
Substituting the value of =
Total extension,
Dt-k.L Dy
D\- Do .
in the above equation, we get
dL =
4 P
nE,
'
Oi-D2
j Dl- ajau *
4PL
nE .{Dx- D2)
4PL
nEAD1-D2)
APL
Dx - Z)j + D2 Dx
1 1
d2 d,
(D, - D2)
4 PL
...
(1.10*
nEADx-D2) D\D2 nEDlD2
If the rod is of uniform diameter, then D
,
- D
2
= D
Total extension, dL = -
Q ...
(1.11)
nE .D
Problem !. 15. A rod
, which tapers uniformly from 40 mm diameter to 20 mm diameter
in a length of400 mm is subjected to an axial load of5000 N. IfE = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, find the
extension of the rod.
Sol. Given :
Larger diameter,
Smaller diameter,
Length of rod, L = 400 mm
Axial load, P = 5000 N
Young's modulus, E = 2.1 x 10& N/mm'-'
Let dL = Total extension of the rod
D
,
= 40 mm
D
..
= 20 mm
26
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Using equation (1.10),
4 PL
dL =
4 x 5000 x 400
n E DxD2 7i x 2.1 x 10
& x 40 x 20
= 0.01515 mm. Ans.
Problem 1.1 tt. Find the modulus of elasticity for a rod
, which tapers uniformly from
30 mm to 15 mm diameter in a length of 350 mm. The rod is subjected to an axial load of
5
.5 kN and extension of the rod is 0.025 mm.
Sol. Given :
Larger diameter, Dl =30 mm
Smaller diameter, D., = 15 mm
Length of rod, L = 350 mm
Axial load, P = 5.5 kN = 5500 N
Extension, dL = 0.025 mm
Using equation (1.10), we get
4 PL
or
dL =
E =
tc E Z)j D2
4 PL
4 x 5500 x 350
7i D,D2 dL 7i x 30 x 15 x 0.025
= 217865 N/mm2 or 2.17865 x 10S N/mm
2
.
Ans.
1
.12. ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTANGULAR BAR
A bar of constant thickness and uniformly tapering in width from one end to the other
end is shown in Fig. 1.14.
Fig. 1.14
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Let P = Axial load on the bar
L = Length of bar
a = Width at bigger end
b = Width at smaller end
E = Young,s modulus
t = Thickness of bar
Consider any section X-X at a distance x from the bigger end.
Width of the bar at the section X-X
(a - b)x
=a-~
r
~
= a - kx
Thickness of bar at section X-X = t
Area of the section X-X
= Width x thickness
= (a - kx)t
Stress on the section X-X
Load
_
P
Area
~
(a - kx)t
Extension of the small elemental length dx
= Strain x Length dx
Stress
where k =
a-b
E
xdx
Strain =
Stress \
E J
(a - kx)t
E
P
x dx
Stress =
(a - kx)t J
ax
E(a - kx)t
Total extension of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between the
limits 0 and L.
Total extension,
P P ri dx
dL -
j:
_,i
_
f1
E(a - kx)t aX~ Et
f
Jo
(a - kx)
P .
=
YtA0g<
(a - kx)
o
X ""
i)=" ~k1,0gf ,f kL) 'g? f1
p
Etk
llogt. a - log{1 (a - kL)J =
Etk
log
e
a - kL
Et
)
log
,
a
a-l
l L
;
*=)
mm
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
PL . a
Problem 1.17. A rectangular bar made of steel is 2.8 m long and 15 mm thick. The rod
is subjected to an axial tensile load of 40 kN. The width of the rod varies from 75 mm at one
end to 30 mm at the other. Find the extension of the rod if E = 2 x 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given :
Length, L = 2.8 m = 2800 mm
Thickness, t =15 mm
Axial load, P = 40 kN = 40,000 N
Width at bigger end, a = 75 mm
Width at smaller end, b =30 mm
Value of E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Let dL = Extension of the rod.
Using equation (1.12), we get
,, PL , a
dL =
EtUb)
gf
~
b
40000 x 2800 . ( 75
log
,
2 x 105 x 15(75 - 30) V30
= 0.8296 x 0.9163 = 0.76 mm. Ans.
Problem 1.18. The extension in a rectangular steel bar of length 400 mm and thickness
10 mm, is found to be 0.21 mm. The bar tapers uniformly in width from 100 mm to 50 mm. If
E for the bar is 2 x 10& N/mm2, determine the axial load on the bar.
Sol. Given :
Extension, dL = 0.21 mm
Length,
L = 400 mm
Thickness, t = 10 mm
Width at bigger end,
a = 100 mm
Width at smaller end, b = 50 mm
Value of E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Let P = axial load
.
Using equation (1.12), we get
PL . (a
dL . EtuTb) " U
0
.
21= --log
,
(-
2x 10f x 10(100 - 50) K 50
= 0
.
000004 P x 0.6931
P = -- = 75746 N
0
.
000004 x 0.6931
= 75
.746 kN. Ans
.
29
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1
.
13. ANALYSIS OF BARS OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS
mi/m w//////
Fig. 1.15
A bar, made up of two or more bars of equal lengths but
of different materials rigidly fixed with each other and behaving
as one unit for extension or compression when subjected to an
axial tensile or compressive loads, is called a composite bar.
For the composite bar the following two points are important:
1
. The extension or compression in each bar is equal.
Hence deformation per unit length i.e., strain in each bar is
equal.
2
. The total external load on the composite bar is equal
to the sum of the loads carried by each different material.
Fig. 1.15 shows a composite bar made up of two different
materials.
Let P = Total load on the composite bar,
L = Length of composite bar and also length of bars of different materials,
A, = Area of cross-section of bar 1,
A
2 =
Area of cross-section of bar 2,
Ex = Young,s Modulus of bar 1,
E2 = Young,s Modulus of bar 2,
P
,
= Load shared by bar 1,
P2 = Load shared by bar 2,
<T
j
= Stress induced in bar 1
,
and
ct2 = Stress induced in bar 2.
Now the total load on the composite bar is equal to the sum of the load carried by the
two bars.
...)
Load carried by bar 1
p=p
i
+p
2
The stress in bar 1,
Area of cross-section of bar 1
a, =
A
A,
or P, = a, A,
...()
Similarly stress in bar 2,
A
,
or P2 = a,A2
...(iii)
Substituting the values of P, and P2 in equation (i), we get
P = o,A1 + a2A2 ...(iv)
Since the ends of the two bars are rigidly connected, each bar will change in length by
the same amount. Also the length of each bar is same and hence the ratio of change in length
to the original length (i.e., strain) will be same for each bar.
_
. .
Stress in bar 1 a,
But strain in bar 1, = --:--7Z-i = "F~-
Young s modulus of bar 1
Similarly strain in bar 2,
30
E,
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
But strain in bar 1 = Strain in bar 2
=

- = - Uv)
Ei E2
From equations (iv) and (i>), the stresses a
,
and a2 can be determined. By substituting
the values of c, and a2 in equations (ii) and (iii), the load carried by different materials may
be computed.
E
,
Modular Ratio. The ratio of - is called the modular ratio of the first material to the
second.
Problem 1.19 .A steel rod of 3 cm diameter is enclosed centrally in a hollow copper tube
of external diameter 5 cm and internal diameter of 4 cm. The composite bar is then subjected
to an axial pull of45000 N. If the length of each bar is equal to 15 cm, determ ine :
(i) The stresses in the rod and tube, and
(ii) Load carried by each bar.
Take E for steel =2.1 x 105 N/mm2 and for copper = 1.1 x 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given :
Dia. of steel rod = 3 cm = 30 mm
.
*
.
Area of steel rod,
or
A=- (30)
2
= 706
.
86 mm2
s 4
External dia. of copper tube
= 5 cm = 50 mm
Internal dia. of copper tube
= 4 cm = 40 mm
/.
Area of copper tube,
A
e
= [50
2
-
402] mm2 = 706.86 mm2
Axial pull on composite bar,
P = 45000 N
Length of each bar, L = 15 cm
Young,s modulus for steel, E
g
= 2
.
1 x 105 N/mm2
Young,s modulus for copper, E
c
= 1
.
1 x 10f N/mm2
Ci) The stress in the rod and tube
Let o
s
= Stress in steel
,
P
s
= Load carried by steel rod,
o
(
. = Stress in copper, and
P
c
= Load carried by copper tube.
Now strain in steel = Strain in copper
fk =
E
.
E.
15 cm
Wn*
Copper
tube
P = 45000 N
Fig. 1.16
- = strain
E

f E
2
.
1 x 10
x a = -
C 1
.
1x10
5
* x o
c
= 1
.
909 o
Ui)
31
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Load
Now stress = -- , .*. Load = Stress x Area
Area
Load on steel + Load on copper = Total load
a
g
x A
s
+ a
r
x A
c
= P (v Total load = P)
or 1.909 a
f
x 706.86 + a
r
x 706.86 = 45000
or a
c
(1.909 x 706.86 + 706.86) = 45000
or 2056.25 a
c = 45000
CC
<
= = *1
'88 NW- AnS-
Substituting the value of ct
(
. in equation (i), we get
a
8
= 1.909 x 21.88 N/mm
2
= 41
.77 N/mm2. Ans.
(ii) Load carried by each bar
As load = Stress x Area
/. Load carried by steel rod,
P
,
=
= 41
.77 x 706.86 = 29525.5 N. Ans.
Load carried by copper tube,
P = 45000 - 29525.5
= 15474.5 N. Ans
.
Problem 1.20. A compound tube consists of a steel tube 140 mm internal diameter
and 160 mm external diameter and an outer brass tube 160 mm internal diameter and
180 mm external diameter. The two tubes are of the same length. The compound tube carries
an axial load of 900 kN. Find the stresses and the load carried by each tube and the amount
it shortens. Length of each tube is 140 mm. Take E for steel as 2 x 105 N/mm2 and for brass
as 1 x 105 N/mm2
.
Sol. Given :
Internal dia. of steel tube = 140 mm
External dia. of steel tube = 160 mm
Area of steel tube, A
s
= (160
2
-
1402) = 4712.4 mm2
Internal dia. of brass tube = 160 mm
External dia. of brass tube = 180 mm
.
-
.
Area of brass tube, Ab = (1802 - 1602) = 5340.7 mm2
Axial load carried by compound tube,
P = 900 kN = 900 x 1000 = 900000 N
Length of each tube, L = 140 mm
E for steel, E
s
= 2 x 105 N/mm
2
E for brass, E
h =
1 x 105 N/mm2
Let o
s
= Stress in steel in N/mm2 and
a. = Stress in brass in N/mm
2
32
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Now strain in steel = Strain in brass
6
E
s
Eb
E
,
a = - x a
8
Eh
Strain =
Stress
E J
_
2 x 10&
'
=
lxlO5
Now load on steel + Load on brass = Total load
or
or
or

s
*A
s
+
b*
Ah =
2o6x4712.4 + Gh x 5340.7 =
14765.5 nL =
a, =
900000
900000
900000
900000
14765.5
(v
".(i)
Load = Stress x Area)
(v a = 2a.)
= 60
.95 N/mm2. Ans
.
Substituting the value of pb in equation (i), we get
O
s
= 2 x 60
.95 = 121.9 N/mm2. Ans
.
Load carried by brass tube
= Stress x Area
= o
hxAb = 60.95 x 5340.7 N
= 325515 N = 325.515 kN. Ans
.
Load carried by steel tube
= 900-325.515 = 574.485 kN. Ans
.
Decrease in the length of the compound tube
= Decrease in length of either of the tubes
= Decrease in length of brass tube
= Strain in brass tube x Original length
ob 60.95
* "
lxio'
x 140 = 0.0853 mm. Ans.
Problem 1.21. Two vertical rods one of steel and the other of copper are each rigidly
fixed at the top and 50 cm apart. Diameters and lengths of each rod are 2 cm and 4 m respectively.
A cross bar fixed to the rods at the lower ends carries a load of5000 N such that the cross bar
remains horizontal even after loading. Find the stress in each rod and the position of the load
on the bar. Take E for steel = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and
E for copper = 1 x 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given :
Distance between the rods
= 50 cm = 500 mm
Dia. of steel rod
= Dia
. of copper rod
= 2 cm = 20 mm
.
"
.
Area of steel rod
= Area of copper rod
= X (20)
2 = 100 it mm2
4
Steel
2 cm din
50 cm
Copper
2 cm dia
4 0
cm
Cross bar
33
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
.
*
.
A
s
= A
c
= 100 it mm
2
Length of each rod = 4 m = 4000 mm
Total load carried by rods,
P = 5000 N
E for steel, E
s
= 2 x 10& N/mm
2
E for copper, E
c
= 1 x 105 N/mm
2
Let a
s
= Stress in steel rod and
a
c
= Stress in copper rod.
Since the cross bar remains horizontal, the extensions of the steel and copper rods are
equal. Also these rods have the same original length, hence the strains of these rods are
equal.
Strain in steel = Strain in copper
= f.. Strain =
E
,
Ec { E
a = tt X
, ift5
X c = 2 x ac ...(i)
E

2 x 10&
TT* X CCc =-
E
c
1x10
Now load on steel rod + Load on copper rod = Total load
= 5000 N
or a
s
x A
s
+ a
c
x A
c
= 5000 (v Load = Stress x Area)
or ct
s
x lOOir + a
c
x IOOti = 5000 (v A
s
= A
c
= 100 mm2)
or 2a
.
x lOOrc + a
c
x IOOti = 5000 (v o
N
= 2a
.
)
or 3a
c
x IOOti = 5000
= 5.305 N/mm
2
.
Ans.
f 30071
Substituting this value of a
.
in equation (i), we get
a
.
= 2 x 5.305 = 10.61 N/mm
2
.
Ans.
Position of the load of5000 N on cross bar
Let x = The distance of the 5000 N load from the copper rod (i.e., from
the right hand rod).
Now first calculate the load carried by each rod.
Load carried by steel rod,
P
B
= o
g
x A
s
(v Load = Stress x Area)
= 10.61 x IOOti = 3333 N
Load carried by copper rod,
P
c
= Total load - P
s
= 5000 - 3333 = 1667 N
Now taking the moments about the copper rod and equating the same, we get
5000 x x = P
8
x 50
= 3333 x 50 (v P
b
= 3333)
3333 x 50
x = = 33.33 cm. Ans.
5000
Problem 1.22. A load of 2 MN is applied on a short concrete column 500 mm x 500 mm.
The column is reinforced with four steel bars of 10 mm diameter, one in each corner. Find the
34
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
stresses in the concrete and steel bars. Take E for steel as 2.1 x 10S N/mm2 and for concrete as
1
.
4 x 104 N/mm2.
Sol. Given :
Total load applied, P = 2 MN = 2 x 106 N
Area of column - 500 x 500 = 250000 mm2
Area of 4 steel bars, A
s
= 4 x -(10)
2
= 314.159 mm
2
or
or
Area of concrete,
1
Steel bars
E for steel,
E for concrete,
Let
A
c
= Area of column
- Area of steel bars
= 250000-314
.
159
= 249685
.841 mm2 ,
E
8
= 2.1 x 10& N/mm2
E
c
= 1
.
4 x 104 N/mm2
a
g
= Stress in steel bar in N/mm
2
o

= Stress in concrete in N/mm

2
500
mm
500 mm *
1
Fig. 1.18
Now strain in steel = Strain in concrete
ft
E
.
=
ft
E
.
Strain =
2.1xl05
xa
r
=
1
.
4x10
Toc = 15or
Stress 1
E )
Now load on steel + Lx>ad on concrete = Total load
<VA
,
+ c-Ac = P
15o
c
x 314.159 + o
c
x 249685.841 = 2000000
254398a
c
= 2000000
(v Load = Stress x Area)
(v o
s
=15o
c
)
2000000
C
c
= = 7
.
86 N/mma. Ans.
254398
Substituting this value in equation (t), we get
a
s
= 15 x 7
.
86 = 117.92 N/mm2. Ans.
Problem 1.23. A reinforced short concrete column 250 mm x 250 mm in section is
reinforced with 8 steel bars. The total area of steel bars is 2500 mm
'
2
.
The column carries a
load of 390 kN. If the modulus of elasticity for steel is 15 times that of concrete, find the
stresses in concrete and steel.
or
Sol. Given :
Area of concrete column
Area of steel bars,
/.
Area of concrete,
Total load on column,
E for steel
Let
= 250 x 250 = 62500 mm
2
A
s
= 2500 mm
2
A
c
= 62500 - 2500 = 60000 mm
2
P = 390 kN= 390,000 N
= 15 x E for concrete
E
t
= 15 E
c
= Stress in steel in N/mm
2
o
(
.
= Stress in concrete in N/mm
2
35
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Now strain in steel = Strain in concrete
or
or
_
E
c
E
= TT* Gn
= 15(T
E
.

C
Strain =
Stress
E )
...(*)
or
or
Also, we know that
Total load
P
390000
Load on steel + Load on concrete
(y Load = Stress x Area) = a
a
.
A
t
-a
e
.A
e
= 15a
c
x 2500 + a
c
x 60000
= 97500a
(v a = 15a )
390000
a =
= 4
.0 N/mm2. Ans.
97500
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
a
s
= 15 x 4.0 = 60.0 N/mm
2
. Ans.
Area of steel required so that column may support a load of 480 kN and maximum
stress in concrete is 4.5 N/mm
2
.
Area of steel required
62500 - A
s
*
Stress in steel in N/mm2
Stress in concrete = 4.5 N/mm2
Total load = 480 kN = 480000 N
15a
c
*
15 x 4.5
67.5 N/mm2
Let
Area of concrete
We know that
A * =
=
C
c
*
=
P* =
a * =
(y a * = 4.5)
or
or
or
or
Also, we know that
Total load = Load on steel + Load on concrete
P* =
480000 =
480000 - 4.5 x 62500
198750
_
a* x A* + a
.
*
x A*
67.5 x A* + 4.5 x (62500 -A*)
67.5 x A* + 4.5 x 62500 - 4.5 A*
63 A*
63 A*
198750
63
= 3154
.
76 mm2. An*.
Problem 1.24. A steel rod and two copper rods together support a load of 370 kN as
shown in Fig. 1.19. The cross-sectional area of steel rod is 2500 mm
2
and of each copper rod
is 1600 mm2. Find the stresses in the rods. Take E for steel = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and for copper
= 1 x 105 N/mm
2
.
Sol. Given :
Load, P = 370 kN = 370,000 N
Area of steel rod, A
r
= 2500 mm
2
36
SIMPLE STRESSES ANI) STRAINS
Area of two copper rods, A
c
= 2 x 1600
= 3200 mm
2
E for steel,
E for copper,
Length of steel rod,
E
.
= 2 x 10
5 N/mm2
E
c
= 1 x 105 N/mm
2
Length of copper rods,
L
a
=15+10
= 25 cm = 250 mm
L = 15 cm = 150 mm
Let a
g
= Stress in steel rod in N/mm
2
o
(
. = Stress in copper rods in N/mm
2
We know that decrease in the length of steel rod
is equal to the decrease in the length of copper rods.
But decrease in length of steel rod
= Strain in steel rod x Length of steel rod
Stress in steel
E
.
x L
.
370 kN
15
cm
1
I
1
Copper
10cm
,
I
5
i
i
i
7777
Steel
T7
i
I
i
Copper
7T
Fig. 1.19
Strain =
Stress
E
= .
X 250
2 x 10
Similarly decrease in length of copper rods
= Strain in copper roods x Length of copper rods
Stress in copper
=---x L
E
c
...()
lx 10,
x 150
.Mi)
Equating the decrease in length of steel rod to the decrease in the length of copper
rods, we get
x 250 = x 150
or
or
or
or
2 x 10f 1 x 10&
2 x 10 150
= *
50
= L2
c
Also, we know that
Load on steel + Load on copper = Total load applied
a
s
x A
a
+ a
c
x A
c
= P
1
.
2o x 2500 + a x 3200 = 370,000
.Mil)
(v Load = Stress x Area)
(v o
s
= 1
.
2o
c
)
6200a
r
= 370000
370000
=
6200
= 59.67 N/mm
2
.
Ans.
Substituting this value in equation (iii), we get
o
s
= 1
.
2 x o
c
= 1
.2 x 59.67 = 71.604 N/mm2. Ans.
37
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Problem 1.25. Two brass rods and one steel rod
together support a load as shown in Fig. 1.20. If the stresses
in brass and steel are not to exceed 60 N/mm2 and 120 N/
mm
2
, find the safe load that can be supported. Take E for
steel = 2 x 105 N/mm2
and for brass = 1 x 10
5 N/mm
2
.
The
cross-sectional area of steel rod is 1500 mm
?
and of each
brass rod is 1000 mm2.
Sol. Given :
Stress in brass,
Stress in steel,
E for steel,
E for brass,
Area of steel rod
,
Area of two brass rods,
ah = 60 N/mm2
o
s
= 120 N/mm
2
E
s
= 2 x 10 N/mm2
Eh= 1 x 10& N/mm2
A = 1500 mm2
Ah = 2x 1000
L
.
= 170 mm
o
Lh = 100 mm
= 2000 mm
2
Length of steel rod,
Length of brass rods,
We know that decrease in the length of steel rod should be equal to the decrease in
length of brass rods.
But decrease in length of steel rod
= Strain in steel rod x Length of steel rod
= e
s
x L
s
where e
s
is strain in steel
Similarly decrease in length of brass rods
= Strain in brass rods x Length of brass rods
= e
b
x L
b where eb is strain in brass rod
Equating the decrease in length of steel rod to the decrease in length of brass rods, we get
or
e
.
_100
.A = L
>

-
170
But stress in steel = Strain in steel x E
_
=
<

* E
s
Similarly stress in brass is given by,
n/>
=
e. x E
b -b
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), we get
(v Stress = Strain x E)
...()
Es
e.
x 100 2 x 10
-
x
-
= 1
.
176
ehxEh 170 1x10
Suppose steel is permitted to reach its safe stress of 2 x 10& N/mm2, the corresponding
stress in brass will be
= 2x_10_= sN/ 2
1
.176 1.176
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
1
.
7 x 10R N/mm2 which exceeds the safe stress of 1 x 10S N/mm2 for brass. Therefore let brass
be allowed to reach its safe stress of 1 x 10" N/mm2. Then corresponding stress in steel will be
1
.
176 x 105 N/mm2 which is less than 2 x 10 N/mm2.
Total load = P = Load on steel + Load on copper
= G
s
x A
s + oh* Ab
= 1
.176 x 10 x 1500 + 1 x 105 x 2000
= 3764 x 10r' N or 376.4 x 106 N
= 376
.4 MN. Ans. (v M = 106)
Problem 1.26. Three bars made of copper, zinc and aluminium are of equal length and
have cross-section 500, 750 and 1000 square mm respectively. They are rigidly connected at
their ends. If this compound member is subjected to a longitudinal pull of250 kN, estimate the
proportional of the load carried on each rod and the induced stresses. Take the value of E for
copper = 1.3 x 10
5 N/mm
2
, for zinc = 1.0 x 105 N/mm2 and for aluminium = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2.
Sol. Given : j
_
-
P = 250 kN = 250 x 103 N Total load,
For copper bar,
Area, A
c
= 500mm2 and E
c
= 1
.3 xlO5N/mm2 5
For zinc bar,
Area, A
2
= 750 mm2 and E
;
= 1
.
0 x 10& N/mm2

For aluminium bar,

Let
w/)W//i/i////m/i/ii//i/i////)///\
\
| Fig
r P = 250 kN
1
.21 |
c
(
.
= Stress induced in copper bar,
<5
Z
= Stress induced in zinc bar
,
a
a
= Stress induced in aluminium bar
,
P
c
= Load shared by copper rod,
P
,
= Load shared by zinc rod,
P
o
= Load shared by aluminium rod
,
and
L = Length of each bar.
Now, we know that the increase in length of each bar should be same, as length of each
bar is equal hence strain in each bar will be same.
Strain in copper = Strain in zinc = Strain in aluminium
Stress in copper Stress in zinc Stress in aluminium
or
or
E
Also
Now
E
,
E
a
<*c
_
O,
E
c
E
t
c
r

a
D

K
J
I
I
I
I
c
P
3
!

Xo
a
=
1
.3 xlO
0.8 x 10'
o

= 1
.
625o
a
...()
xo

=
1
.
0 x 105
0.
8 x 10
x a

= 1
.
25a
0
...()
or
total load = Load on copper + Load on zinc + Load on aluminium
250 x 10;< = Stress in copper x A
c
+ Stress in zinc x A
z
+ Stress in aluminium x A
39