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0
= sin sin 0 = 0.
And
_
/2
cos xdx = [sinx]
/2
= sin sin
2
= 1.
Denite integrals may be positive, negative, or 0.
Example.
_
2
0
(3x
5
7x + 4) dx =
_
1
2
x
6
7
2
x
2
+ 4x
_
2
0
= (32 7 + 8) (0 0 + 0) = 33.
Example.
_
2
1
x
3
+ 1
x
2
dx =
_
2
1
_
x +
1
x
2
_
dx =
_
1
2
x
2
1
x
_
2
1
=
_
2
1
2
_
_
1
2
1
_
= 2.
Example. (Substitution in denite integrals) If you do an integral using a substitution, you can either
use the substitution to change the limits of integration, or put the original variable back at the end.
_
1
0
(x
2
+ 1)
10
xdx =
_
2
1
u
10
x
du
2x
=
1
2
_
2
1
u
10
du =
_
u = x
2
+ 1, du = 2xdx, dx =
du
2x
; x = 0, u = 1; x = 1, u = 2
_
1
2
_
1
11
u
11
_
2
1
=
2047
22
.
Alternatively,
_
1
0
(x
2
+ 1)
10
xdx =
_
?
?
u
10
x
du
2x
=
1
2
_
?
?
u
10
du =
_
u = x
2
+ 1, du = 2xdx, dx =
du
2x
_
3
1
2
_
1
11
u
11
_
?
?
=
1
2
_
1
11
(x
2
+ 1)
11
_
1
0
=
2047
22
.
Example. (Substitution in denite integrals)
_
4
1
sin
x
dx =
_
2
1
sin u
x
2
xdu = 2
_
2
1
sin u du =
_
u =
x, du =
dx
2
x
, dx = 2
xdu; x = 1, u = 1; x = 4, u = 2
_
2 [cos u]
2
1
= 2(cos 1 cos 2) 1.91290.
Example. If the velocity of a particle at time t is v(t), the change in position from t = a to t = b is
s(b) s(a) =
_
b
a
v(t) dt.
For example, suppose a particles velocity is
v(t) = 12t
3
+ 2t + 1.
Ill nd the change in position from t = 1 to t = 3. It is
_
3
1
v(t) dt =
_
3
1
(12t
3
+ 2t + 1) dt =
_
3t
4
+ t
2
+ t
3
1
= 250.
There is another version of the Fundamental Theorem which says in a direct way that integration and
dierentation are opposites.
Theorem. (Fundamental Theorem, Second Version) Suppose f is continuous on an interval a x b.
Then
d
dx
_
x
a
f(t) dt = f(x).
This says that if you start with a function (f(t)), integrate (
_
x
a
dt), then dierentiate (
d
dx
), you
get what you started with (f(x)). This is another way of saying that dierentiation and integration are
opposite processes.
Proof. Ill prove the second version of the Fundamental Theorem using the rst version.
By the denition of the derivative,
d
dx
_
x
a
f(t) dt = lim
h0
1
h
_
_
x+h
a
f(t) dt
_
x
a
f(t) dt
_
.
Using properties of denite integrals, I can swap the limits on the second integral, then combine the
two integrals into one:
lim
h0
1
h
_
_
x+h
a
f(t) dt
_
x
a
f(t) dt
_
= lim
h0
1
h
_
_
x+h
a
f(t) dt +
_
a
x
f(t) dt
_
= lim
h0
1
h
_
x+h
x
f(t) dt.
4
Suppose that F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x), so
d
dx
F(x) = f(x). Applying the rst version of the
Fundamental Theorem, I get
lim
h0
1
h
_
x+h
x
f(t) dt = lim
h0
1
h
[F(x)]
x+h
x
= lim
h0
1
h
(F(x + h) F(x)) .
However, the last expression is just the limit denition of the derivative of F(x). Since
d
dx
F(x) = f(x),
I get
lim
h0
1
h
(F(x + h) F(x)) =
d
dx
F(x) = f(x).
Putting all the equalities together, I have
d
dx
_
x
a
f(t) dt = f(x).
Example. (The second version of the Fundamental Theorem)
Heres how the second version of the Fundamental Theorem looks in a particular case:
d
dx
_
x
3
sin(t
2
) dt = sin(x
2
).
Note that the 3 is irrelevant; the answer would be the same if 3 was replaced by (say) 42.
Suppose instead that the problem was to compute
d
dx
_
x
5
3
sin(t
2
) dt.
I cant apply the theorem as is, because the thing Im dierentiating with respect to (x) doesnt match
the upper limit of the integral (x
5
). Hence, I must apply the Chain Rule rst:
d
dx
_
x
5
3
sin(t
2
) dt =
dx
5
dx
d
dx
5
_
x
5
3
sin(t
2
) dt = 5x
4
sin
_
x
5
)
2
_
= 5x
4
sin(x
10
).
Notice that in applying the Chain Rule, I got the thing I was dierentiating with respect to (x
5
) to
match the upper limit of the integral (x
5
).
c 2009 by Bruce Ikenaga 5