Transistors are circuit elements designed to function either as amplifiers or as switches.

At transistor
has three parts: base, collector and emitter. The base is the controlling agent for a large supply of voltage, the
collector is this large voltage supply and the emitter is the output for the transistor. A good analogy to use
when explaining transistors as amplifiers is that of a tap. The gate is the faucet that controls the flow of water,
the collector is the water supply and the emitter is the mouth of the tap from which the water comes out.
Functioning as a switch allows the transistor to control current traveling through it and it can either allow
current through it (On) or not (Off).

The name NPN transistors is based on the way they are created, that is, by placing two P-N junctions in
parallel. A P-N junction is formed by joining a p-type and an n-type semiconductor together. The p and n
distinction is based on the type of charges that form a majority in the semiconductor, positive or negative
charges. The NPN configuration for transistors is used most commonly today.

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the
"base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large
collector and emitter current. That is, when there is a positive potential difference measured from the emitter
of an NPN transistor to its base (i.e., when the base is high relative to the emitter) as well as positive potential
difference measured from the base to the collector, the transistor becomes active. In this "on" state, current
flows between the collector and emitter of the transistor. Most of the current is carried by electrons moving
from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-type base region. To allow for greater current and faster
operation, most bipolar transistors used today are NPN because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility.
A common application for NPN transistors is to use then as switches in circuits. In high-power devices
such as motors and solenoids, the NPN transistor can be made to operate in two modes, ON and OFF. In doing
so, the transistor is usually made to run in saturation mode when ON and in cutoff mode when OFF.

Another common application for NPN transistors is to use them as an amplifier, in which a small
increase in the input voltage induces a large change in the output voltage. NPN transistors are used for this
purpose in almost all phones electronic devices in which sound amplification or reproduction is required.

A Darlington pair is a commonly used circuit configuration to amplify weak signals. The pair consists of
two NPN transistors arranged so that the emitter of the first transistor feeds the base of the second transistor.

Exposure of the transistor to ionizing radiation causes radiation damage. Radiation causes a buildup
of 'defects' in the base region that act as recombination centers. The resulting reduction in minority carrier
lifetime causes gradual loss of gain of the transistor.
Power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called secondary breakdown, in which excessive current and
normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions of the silicon inside the device to become
disproportionately hotter than the others. The doped silicon has a negative temperature coefficient, meaning
that it conducts more current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of the die conducts the most
current, causing its conductivity to increase, which then causes it to become progressively hotter again, until
the device fails internally. The thermal runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, once triggered,
occurs almost instantly and may catastrophically damage the transistor package.