3.2u Manual

Issue 1.
0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006

Page 1 of 253
TWI
Tuition Notes for 3.2U Course
(DIS 2)

Training and Examination Services
Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge, CB1 6AL
UK
Table of Contents
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 2 of 253
Table of Contents
TWI TUITION NOTES FOR 3.2U COURSE (DIS 2)........................................................................... 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................... 2
PREFACE................................................................................................................................................... 8
THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL ORGANISATION AND
EXAMINATION.......................................................................................................................................... 8
1 Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)......................................... 8
2 TWI...................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Company Profile.................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise ........................................................................................................ 8
2.1.2 Non-profit Company ................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.3 Global Benefits.......................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.4 Confidential Consultancy .......................................................................................................... 9
3 TWI Certification Ltd................................................................................................................ 9
3.1 Certification Management Board......................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Responsibilities of the Board..................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 The Management Committees:................................................................................................ 10
4 CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors .................................................................... 12
4.1 Inspector Categories........................................................................................................................... 12
4.2 The CSWIP 3.2U Examination.......................................................................................................... 12
4.2.1 The Theory Examination......................................................................................................... 12
4.2.2 Practical Examination.............................................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER 1............................................................................................................................................. 15
INSPECTION METHODS AVAILABLE TO ASSESS UNDERWATER STRUCTURES......................................... 15
1 Visual Inspection..................................................................................................................... 15
2 Video....................................................................................................................................... 16
3 Photography............................................................................................................................ 16
4 Cathodic Potential Readings .................................................................................................. 16
5 Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques........................................................................................... 16
6 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) ....................................................................................... 16
7 Radiography............................................................................................................................ 17
8 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD).......................................................................... 17
9 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)........................................................ 17
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) .................................................................. 17
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ........................................................................................ 17
12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use ..................................................................... 18
13 Taking Measurements ............................................................................................................. 18
14 Linear Measurement ............................................................................................................... 19
14.1 Ruler ............................................................................................................................................. 19
14.2 Magnetic Tape.............................................................................................................................. 19
14.3 Flexible Tape Measures................................................................................................................ 19
14.4 Electronic Methods....................................................................................................................... 19
15 Circular Measurements........................................................................................................... 19
15.1 Callipers........................................................................................................................................ 19
15.2 Vernier Gauges............................................................................................................................. 20
15.3 Specialist Jigs ............................................................................................................................... 20
16 Angular Measurements ........................................................................................................... 20
16.1 Protractor ...................................................................................................................................... 20
16.2 Pendulum Gauges ......................................................................................................................... 20
17 Dents and Deformations ......................................................................................................... 20
17.1 Profile Gauges .............................................................................................................................. 20
17.2 Pit Gauge ...................................................................................................................................... 21
17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge ............................................................................... 21
17.4 Casts ............................................................................................................................................. 22
17.5 Straight Edge ................................................................................................................................ 22
CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................................. 25
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CORROSION............................................................................................................................................ 25
1 Energy Considerations in Corrosion ...................................................................................... 25
2 The Corrosion Process ........................................................................................................... 26
2.1 The Anodic Reaction ......................................................................................................................... 27
2.2 The Cathodic Reaction....................................................................................................................... 28
2.3 Seawater Corrosion............................................................................................................................ 30
2.4 Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion............................................................................................... 30
3 Electrical Theory .................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................................. 35
TYPES OF CORROSION............................................................................................................................ 35
1 Corrosion Cells....................................................................................................................... 35
2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell ............................................................................................ 35
2.1 The Electrochemical Force Series...................................................................................................... 35
3 Concentration Cell Corrosion ................................................................................................ 38
4 Pitting...................................................................................................................................... 39
5 Inter-granular Corrosion........................................................................................................ 42
6 Grain Boundary Corrosion..................................................................................................... 43
7 Stress Corrosion Cracking...................................................................................................... 44
8 Fretting Corrosion.................................................................................................................. 45
9 Erosion Corrosion .................................................................................................................. 47
10 Corrosion Fatigue................................................................................................................... 48
11 Biological Corrosion .............................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER 4............................................................................................................................................. 52
FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION RATES.............................................................................................. 52
1 Polarisation and Corrosion Rate............................................................................................ 52
2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates................................................................. 53
2.1 Temperature....................................................................................................................................... 53
2.2 Water Flow Rate ................................................................................................................................ 54
2.3 The pH Value of the Water ................................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER 5............................................................................................................................................. 59
CORROSION PROTECTION....................................................................................................................... 59
1 Corrosion Protection .............................................................................................................. 59
2 Cathodic Protection................................................................................................................ 60
2.1 Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method ......................................................................... 61
2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems ................................................ 62
2.2 Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method............................................................................... 62
2.2.1 Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems............................................................. 64
2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes.............................................................................................. 67
3 Using Coatings to Protect the Structure ................................................................................. 68
3.1 Paints ................................................................................................................................................. 68
4 Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte) .................................................................................. 70
4.1 Anodic Inhibitors ............................................................................................................................... 71
4.2 Cathodic Inhibitors............................................................................................................................. 71
4.3 Adsorption Inhibitors ......................................................................................................................... 72
5 Corrosion Protection by Design ............................................................................................. 72
6 Anodic Protection ................................................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER 6............................................................................................................................................. 75
CORROSION PROTECTION MONITORING................................................................................................. 75
1 Monitoring Corrosion Protection ........................................................................................... 75
1.1 Inspection Requirements.................................................................................................................... 75
2 Cathode Potential Measurement............................................................................................. 76
2.1 High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE).................................................................................................... 76
2.2 CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes.................................................. 77
3 Current Density Measurements .............................................................................................. 78
4 Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters................................................................. 79
4.1 Necessary Equipment......................................................................................................................... 79
4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................... 80
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4.2.1 Calibration of the Meter .......................................................................................................... 81
4.2.2 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer ............................................................................................ 81
4.3 Overall Calibration of any CP Meter ................................................................................................. 81
4.4 Calibration of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes ......................................................................................... 82
5 Operating Procedures............................................................................................................. 82
5.1 Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl ..................................................................... 83
CHAPTER 7............................................................................................................................................. 86
WELDING AND WELDING DEFECTS........................................................................................................ 86
1 Joining Metal Components ..................................................................................................... 86
2 Fabricating Offshore Structures ............................................................................................. 86
3 Welding Processes .................................................................................................................. 86
3.1 Flux Shielded Arc Welding................................................................................................................ 87
4 Types of Welded Joint ............................................................................................................. 88
4.1 The Butt Joint..................................................................................................................................... 88
4.2 T Joint ............................................................................................................................................. 88
4.3 Lap Joint ............................................................................................................................................ 88
4.4 Corner Joint ....................................................................................................................................... 89
4.5 Cruciform Joint .................................................................................................................................. 89
5 Types of Weld.......................................................................................................................... 90
6 Welding Metallurgy ................................................................................................................ 91
6.1 Further Considerations for Weld Control........................................................................................... 93
7 Welding Terms ........................................................................................................................ 94
7.1 Plate Preparation Terms..................................................................................................................... 94
7.2 Terms Defining Weld Features .......................................................................................................... 95
7.3 Welding Process Terminology........................................................................................................... 97
7.4 Welded Nodes and Nozzles ............................................................................................................... 98
8 Weld Defect Terminology........................................................................................................ 99
8.1 Cracks .............................................................................................................................................. 100
8.2 Cavities ............................................................................................................................................ 101
8.3 Solid Inclusions................................................................................................................................ 101
8.4 Lack of Fusion and Penetration........................................................................................................ 102
8.5 Imperfect Shape ............................................................................................................................... 103
8.6 Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................................. 104
9 Defect Categories and Reporting.......................................................................................... 106
9.1 Reporting Defects in Welds ............................................................................................................. 106
9.2 Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters......................................................................................... 106
9.2.1 The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge............................................................................... 107
9.2.2 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge .................................................................................... 107
CHAPTER 8........................................................................................................................................... 110
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION .................................................................................................................... 110
1 Ultrasonic Inspection............................................................................................................ 110
2 Producing Ultrasound .......................................................................................................... 110
2.1 What Is Ultrasonic?.......................................................................................................................... 110
2.2 Frequency of the Wave .................................................................................................................... 112
2.3 Speed of the Wave ........................................................................................................................... 114
2.4 Types of Ultrasonic Wave................................................................................................................ 114
2.4.1 Waves That Propagate Through Solids ................................................................................. 114
2.4.2 Surface Waves....................................................................................................................... 116
3 Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves................................................................................................ 117
4 Ultrasonic Wavelength.......................................................................................................... 118
5 Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials.......................................................... 120
5.1 Acoustic Impedance (Z) ................................................................................................................... 120
5.2 Acoustic Attenuation ....................................................................................................................... 120
5.3 The Decibel System......................................................................................................................... 120
5.4 The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave ...................................................................... 123
5.4.1 Law of Reflection.................................................................................................................. 123
5.4.2 Law of Refraction.................................................................................................................. 124
6 Test Frequency...................................................................................................................... 130
7 Ultrasonic Transducers......................................................................................................... 130
7.1 Types of Transducers (Probes)......................................................................................................... 132
7.1.1 Single Crystal Probes ............................................................................................................ 132
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7.1.2 Twin Crystal Probes .............................................................................................................. 133
7.1.3 Compression or Zero Degree Probes..................................................................................... 133
7.1.4 Angle Probes ......................................................................................................................... 133
7.2 Probe Selection ................................................................................................................................ 134
8 Couplant................................................................................................................................ 134
9 The Ultrasonic Beam ............................................................................................................ 135
9.1 The Dead Zone................................................................................................................................. 135
9.2 The Near Zone ................................................................................................................................. 135
9.3 The Far Zone.................................................................................................................................... 136
10 Principles of Ultrasonic Testing ........................................................................................... 137
11 Ultrasonic Test Systems ........................................................................................................ 138
11.1 The Flaw Detector ...................................................................................................................... 139
11.2 A-scan Flaw Detector Controls................................................................................................... 141
11.2.1 A-scan Display ...................................................................................................................... 142
12 A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement.................................................................. 143
12.1 Calibration and Reference Blocks .............................................................................................. 143
12.1.1 Reference Block .................................................................................................................... 143
12.1.2 Calibration Block .................................................................................................................. 143
12.2 Pre-calibration Checks................................................................................................................ 144
12.2.1 CRT Display.......................................................................................................................... 144
12.2.2 Time Base Linearity .............................................................................................................. 145
12.2.3 Linearity of Amplification..................................................................................................... 145
12.3 Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness ............................................................................ 145
12.3.1 Setting Sensitivity ................................................................................................................. 146
12.3.2 Setting Resolution ................................................................................................................. 147
13 The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations................................................................ 147
13.1 The 6 dB Drop Method Explained.............................................................................................. 147
13.2 Lamination Plotting .................................................................................................................... 148
14 Digital Thickness Meters ...................................................................................................... 149
14.1 Procedure for Taking Digital Thickness Readings ..................................................................... 150
14.2 Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM...................................................................... 152
15 Converting Underwater DTM Readings ............................................................................... 154
16 The Use of Angle or Shear Wave Probes .............................................................................. 155
17 Care and Maintenance of Equipment ................................................................................... 155
CHAPTER 9........................................................................................................................................... 158
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION ....................................................................................................... 158
1 History of Magnetism............................................................................................................ 158
2 Types of Magnetism .............................................................................................................. 158
3 Theory of Magnetism ............................................................................................................ 159
3.1 Polarity............................................................................................................................................. 161
3.2 Magnetic Field................................................................................................................................. 162
3.2.1 Characteristics of the Magnetic Lines of Force ..................................................................... 162
4 Flux Density (B).................................................................................................................... 164
4.1 Remanence or Residual Magnetism................................................................................................. 168
4.2 Retentivity........................................................................................................................................ 169
4.3 Permeability () ............................................................................................................................... 169
4.4 Coercive Force................................................................................................................................. 169
4.5 Reluctance........................................................................................................................................ 169
4.6 Demagnetising ................................................................................................................................. 170
4.6.1 Measuring the Residual Field................................................................................................ 170
4.7 AC Aperture Coil............................................................................................................................. 172
4.8 Reversing DC Aperture Coil............................................................................................................ 173
4.9 AC Electromagnets .......................................................................................................................... 173
4.10 Other Methods to Demagnetise .................................................................................................. 174
5 Producing Magnetic Fields................................................................................................... 174
5.1 Magnetisation................................................................................................................................... 174
5.1.1 Use of Permanent Magnets.................................................................................................... 174
5.1.2 Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets.................................................................... 175
5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets......................................................... 176
5.2 Electromagnet (or Yoke) ............................................................................................................... 177
5.2.1 Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets........................................................................... 177
5.2.2 Advantages............................................................................................................................ 177
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5.2.3 Disadvantages........................................................................................................................ 178
5.3 Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece ........................................................ 178
5.3.1 Alternating Current................................................................................................................ 179
5.3.2 Advantages............................................................................................................................ 180
5.3.3 Disadvantages........................................................................................................................ 180
5.4 Induced Magnetism Using a Coil..................................................................................................... 180
5.4.1 Evenly Spaced Coil ............................................................................................................... 181
5.4.2 Close Wrapped Coil .............................................................................................................. 182
5.4.3 Advantages............................................................................................................................ 186
5.4.4 Disadvantages........................................................................................................................ 186
5.5 Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques....................................................................... 186
5.5.1 Continuous Magnetisation..................................................................................................... 186
5.5.2 Residual Magnetisation ......................................................................................................... 187
6 How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field....................................................... 187
7 Detection of the Magnetic Field............................................................................................ 188
7.1 Burmah Castrol Strips...................................................................................................................... 189
7.2 Berthold Penetrameter ..................................................................................................................... 189
7.3 Gauss Meter ..................................................................................................................................... 190
8 Detecting the Distortion in the Magnetic Field (Flux Leakage) ........................................... 191
8.1 Visual Detection .............................................................................................................................. 191
8.1.1 Ink Properties ........................................................................................................................ 191
8.1.2 Ink Colours Used Underwater ............................................................................................... 192
8.2 Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 .................................................................................. 192
8.2.1 Settling Test........................................................................................................................... 192
8.2.2 Fluorescent Inks .................................................................................................................... 193
8.2.3 Non-fluorescent Inks ............................................................................................................. 193
8.2.4 Carrier Fluid.......................................................................................................................... 193
9 Lighting and Viewing Conditions.......................................................................................... 193
9.1 Visible Light Inspection (Using Non-fluorescent Inks) ................................................................... 194
9.2 Background and Ultraviolet Light Levels Using Fluorescent Inks .................................................. 194
9.2.1 Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light ....................................................................... 194
9.3 Testing the Ultraviolet Light............................................................................................................ 194
9.3.1 Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure ........................................................................................... 195
10 Cleaning Standard ................................................................................................................ 196
11 Alternative Forms of Electric Current Applied in MPI......................................................... 196
12 MPI Test Procedure.............................................................................................................. 199
13 Interpretation of Indications ................................................................................................. 200
14 Reporting Indications............................................................................................................ 201
15 Recording Indications........................................................................................................... 202
15.1 Ultraviolet Photography.............................................................................................................. 202
15.2 Cast............................................................................................................................................. 203
15.3 Foil Packets (Magfoil) ............................................................................................................. 203
15.4 Video .......................................................................................................................................... 203
15.5 Rubberised Tape Transfer........................................................................................................... 203
16 Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity ......................................................................................... 203
16.1 Factors Affecting Contrast.......................................................................................................... 204
16.1.1 Surface Condition (1) ............................................................................................................ 204
16.1.2 Lighting (2) ........................................................................................................................... 204
16.1.3 Ink Condition (3) ................................................................................................................... 205
16.1.4 Field Strength (4) .................................................................................................................. 205
16.2 Factors Affecting Contrast.......................................................................................................... 205
16.2.1 Ink Condition (5) ................................................................................................................... 205
16.2.2 Geometry of the Work Piece (6)............................................................................................ 205
16.2.3 Efficiency of the Magnetic Field Conditions (7) ................................................................... 205
17 Glossary of Terms and List of Standards Applicable to MPI................................................ 205
17.1 Glossary...................................................................................................................................... 205
17.2 MPI Standards ............................................................................................................................ 207
CHAPTER 10......................................................................................................................................... 210
CLEANING FOR INSPECTION AND PROFILE GRINDING .......................................................................... 210
1 General Comments................................................................................................................ 210
1.1 HP Water Jets................................................................................................................................... 210
1.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice .................................................................. 211
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1.3 Management of any Injury............................................................................................................... 212
2 Standard of Surface Finish ................................................................................................... 212
3 Area to Be Cleaned ............................................................................................................... 213
4 Profile Grinding.................................................................................................................... 213
4.1 Profile Grinding............................................................................................................... 214
CHAPTER 11......................................................................................................................................... 218
OTHER NDT METHODS USED OFFSHORE ............................................................................................ 218
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 218
2 Radiography.......................................................................................................................... 218
3 Production of Radiation........................................................................................................ 219
3.1 X-ray Production.............................................................................................................................. 219
4 Production of Rays ............................................................................................................. 219
4.1 Safety............................................................................................................................................... 222
5 How the Method Works......................................................................................................... 222
5.1 Radiograph Quality.......................................................................................................................... 224
6 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)...................................................... 224
6.1 How the Method Works................................................................................................................... 225
7 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)........................................................................ 228
8 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) ................................................................ 229
8.2 Application of the Technique........................................................................................................... 230
9 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ...................................................................................... 231
9.1 Radiographic FMD....................................................................................................................... 231
10 Ultrasonic FMD.................................................................................................................... 232
11 General Point for all FMD Readings.................................................................................... 233
APPENDIX 1.......................................................................................................................................... 236
EXTRACT OF OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY REPORT OTH 84 206.............................................................. 236
Category A (Defects) ...................................................................................................................... 236
Category B (Areas of Concern) ...................................................................................................... 238
Category C (Blemishes).................................................................................................................. 242
General Concrete Terms ................................................................................................................ 249
Reporting.................................................................................................................................................... 250
Weathering ..................................................................................................................................... 250

Preface
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PREFACE
The Certification Scheme for Weldment
Inspection Personnel Organisation and
Examination
1 Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Governments Board of
Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is
incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI).
2 TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent organisation
for TWI Certification.
2.1 Company Profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at Great
Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with engineering
solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated technologies
(surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through -
Information
Advice and technology transfer
Consultancy and project support
Contract R&D
Training and qualification
Personal membership
2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise
TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
2.1.2 Non-profit Company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned by its
Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is internationally
renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to implement established
or advanced joining technology or to solve problems arising at any stage - from
initial design, materials selection, production and quality assurance, through to
service performance and repair.
2.1.3 Global Benefits
Over 450 skilled staff are dedicated to helping industry apply all forms of joining
technology safely and efficiently. Some 3200 companies and organisations -
The CSWIP Scheme Organisation and Examination
Page 9 of 253
representing virtually all sectors of manufacturing industry from over 60
countries around the globe - benefit from TWI services.
2.1.4 Confidential Consultancy
TWI undertakes contract R & D in confidence for both industry and
governments. As a consultant it can offer individual experts or teams able to
help solve problems of all kinds related to materials joining. It will send its
specialists anywhere in the world at short notice on troubleshooting missions.
3 TWI Certification Ltd
This is a TWI Group company formed in 1993.
3.1 Certification Management Board
The body with overall responsibility for the activities of TWI Certification Ltd is
the Certification Management Board
Professional Board of TWI
Certification Management Board
(TWI Certification Ltd)
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
CSWIP Welding
Specialists & Practitioners
Management Committee
CSWIP Plastics Welders
Certification Management Committee
Welding Fabricator
Certification Management Committee
Certification Scheme for
Welder Training Organisations
CSWIP In-Service Inspection
Management Committee
3.1.1 Responsibilities of the Board
Thus the Certification Management Board:
Acts as the Governing Board for Certification in keeping with the
requirements of the industries served by the scheme
Preface
Page 10 of 253
In turn, appoints specialist Management Committees to oversee specific
parts of the scheme.
The Certification Management Board comprises 12 representatives of
industry and other parties with a valid interest in the certification
schemes, for example, fabricators, client organisations, design
authorities and training associations. This ensures that the certification
schemes truly reflect the needs of industry.
3.1.2 The Management Committees:
Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the examinations
Recommend changes where they are needed if it means that the
examinations can be improved to meet the requirements of industry
Discuss new certification ideas.
It can therefore be seen that CSWIP is a comprehensive scheme, which
provides for the examination and certification of individuals seeking to
demonstrate their knowledge and/or experience in their field of operation. The
scope of CSWIP includes Welding Inspectors, Welding Supervisors, Welding
Instructors and Underwater Inspection personnel
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Preface
Page 12 of 253

4 CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors
Requirement documents: all CSWIP examination requirements documents are
available free of charge and may be downloaded from the website
www.cswip.com.
4.1 Inspector Categories
There are four categories of certification in the Underwater Inspector scheme:
3.1U Diver Inspector
3.2U Diver Inspector
3.3U ROV Inspector
3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller
(This is an approved course for preparation for the 3.2U examination.)
4.2 The CSWIP 3.2U Examination
The examination itself consists of two main elements, a theoretical examination
and a practical assessment.
4.2.1 The Theory Examination
This consists of 25 multi-choice questions, which will include questions on
concrete and 6 questions requiring longer written answers, one from each of six
sections.
4.2.1.1 The Written Sections:
Technique preparation
Corrosion protection
Magnetic particle inspection
Ultrasonic testing
Visual inspection, photography and CCTV
NDT methods (general knowledge)
4.2.2 Practical Examination
This will consist of the following parts: -
Magnetic particle assessment of three ferritic steel welds using various
magnetisation techniques with fluorescent inks and ultraviolet light
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Practical weld toe grinding of a 150mm length of weld to a specific
requirement
Preface
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Chapter 1
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CHAPTER 1
Inspection Methods Available to Assess
Underwater Structures
1 Visual Inspection
There are a number of methods used to conduct an inspection or damage
survey but the prime method is visual inspection because it has a number of
advantages over other methods. Table 1.1 refers
Advantages of Visual Inspection Over Other Methods
Advantages Disadvantages
With a diver inspector on the job good
vision is possible
There is no record of an eyeball
inspection
The object can be viewed in three
dimensions
The brain interprets what is seen and
this interpretation affects how any object
is seen
The object is viewed in colour Only those indications that can be seen
on the surface of the component being
inspected can be assessed
This method is always available Poor underwater visibility may adversely
affect the results
With a diver inspector the sense of touch
may assist interpretation
Divers are constrained by
decompression considerations which
may curtail or inhibit the inspection when
diver inspectors are used
A commentary that contains the
inspectors impressions and interpretation
of the visual evidence can be given
The problem of interpretation may
impact on the results of the inspection.
An experienced inspector will acquire
better information than one who lacks
experience
No specialised equipment is required.
Only the diver inspector need be deployed
to the worksite

Table 1.1
A visual inspection will be completed before any other inspection method or
non-destructive test is undertaken to identify any features or areas of concern
that may impact on the quality of these other methods.
To properly assess the extent of any defects identified during a CVI it will be
necessary to measure the flaws. Comments on standard measurements are
contained in paragraph 13.
Inspection Methods Available to
Assess Underwater Structures
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2 Video
This method is used extensively to record the results of a visual inspection
when diver inspectors have been deployed. When ROVs are employed to
complete inspections this is the prime method of inspection. The advantages
and disadvantages of this method are summed up in Table 1.2.
Video shows real time pictures Cannot freeze fast movement
Video recording is a permanent record Poor resolution compared to
photography
Additional information can be included
in the picture, CP readings, depth etc.
Gives a two dimensional image
Instant playback When diver deployed can cause
diver fatigue
Safety When diver hat-mounted deployed
parallax must be considered
A commentary can be given
Table 1.2
3 Photography
This method of recording inspection information is widely used. With digital
cameras photographs can be obtained in real time and be viewed immediately.
Stereo-photography is also possible as is photogrammetry.
4 Cathodic Potential Readings
This method is extensively used to monitor the corrosion protection coverage of
offshore structures. The methods are fully explained in Chapter 4. It should be
remembered that this is not a defect detection method. It is used to monitor the
entire structure and data obtained is analysed to determine whether some other
inspection or action needs to be taken.
5 Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques
These techniques are fully explained in Chapter 8. Ultrasonic digital thickness
meters are widely used as another means of monitoring corrosion. A-scan
instruments can find and size internal defects in welds or the parent plate
although this application of the method is much less widely used.
6 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
This technique is explained in Chapter 9. It is widely used to inspect for fine
surface breaking and slightly sub-surface discontinuities in Ferro-magnetic
materials.
Chapter 1
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7 Radiography
This method is explained in Chapter 11. The method is widely used in pipeline
survey and occasionally for platform inspection. It is used in specialised
applications.
8 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)
This method is explained in Chapter 11. It is not widely used but can be
deployed to measure the depth of surface breaking crack-like features. It is not
used as a detection method.
9 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
These methods are fully explained in Chapter 11. These methods are being
more widely deployed and in some cases are superseding MPI. The method
can identify surface breaking crack-like features even under non-conductive
coatings and can size them for length and depth. A permanent record is made
at the time of the inspection
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is a variation of the
EMD technique and is employed in the same manner. The method can also be
used to measure the thickness of coatings, which may be useful offshore.
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is used to assess the
integrity of the structural members in a batch-testing manner. The method is a
go/no go technique that is quickly applied and gains results quite fast. However,
when results indicate a loss of member integrity follow up inspections with other
methods must be deployed to identify the cause of the lack of integrity.
Page 18 of 253

12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use
Method Widely
Used
Frequency Uses
Visual Inspection Yes Daily GVI, CVI, Initial assessment
before other methods are used
Video Yes Daily Video surveys and recording
visual inspections
Photography Yes Daily Recording Visual and Video
inspections
CP Readings Yes Very
frequently
Assessment of CP system
coverage
Ultrasonic DTM Yes Often Assessment of wall thickness in
conjunction with CP Readings
Ultrasonic A-scan No Occasionally Specialised tasks associated
with welds
MPI Yes Often Weld inspection on SCE and
nominated nodes
Radiography No Occasionally Specialised tasks associated
with welds
ACPD No Seldom Sizing known defects, possibly
recorded on the damage register
EMD Yes Often Weld inspection on SCE and
nominated nodes
ACFM Yes Often Weld inspection on SCE and
nominated nodes
FMD Yes Very often Annual surveys for structural
integrity
13 Taking Measurements
All the methods outlined in this chapter are useful for identifying some in-service
defects or damage, some are better than others for certain types of damage
and some will record dimensions when defects are identified while others,
especially CVI will not. It is, of course, essential that any defect be measured as
accurately as possible so that the actual risk of failure posed by it may be
accurately assessed.
The major reasons for taking measurements are: -
Chapter 1
Page 19 of 253
To provide dimensions that are as accurate as possible
To locate the defect in relation to a known datum
To provide a measured record that may be used later for relocating the
defect
To provide measurements so that any repair components can be
manufactured
A measurement may be taken directly or by comparison. Some methods are
outlined below.
14 Linear Measurement
Straight measurements between two points may be taken with traditional means
or electronically.
14.1 Ruler
An engineers ruler may be used for measurements up to 1m. The accuracy for
this method will be 0.5mm.
14.2 Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes up to 3m in length are used for measuring welds. The accuracy
will be 1.0mm in 1m.
14.3 Flexible Tape Measures
Flexible tape measures may be fibre or steel and are available up to 100m in
length although 30m tapes are the most common in use offshore. The accuracy
will be 2mm over 5m.
14.4 Electronic Methods
Both sonar and infrared methods for ranging and measuring are employed for
taking measurements up to 1000m (for area mapping). The accuracy will
depend on the actual method but infrared methods may achieve 1mm over
5m.
Laser and infrared measuring
Both laser and infrared measuring techniques are becoming widely
employed underwater. This is especially true with ROV based inspections
15 Circular Measurements
There are several means of taking circular measurements one of which is a
comparison method.
15.1 Callipers
This method is an indirect method of measuring and therefore a comparison.
The diameter of the item is accurately taken by either the inside or outside
callipers and the measurement is taken between the points of the calliper legs.
Measurements up to 1m in diameter may be taken. The accuracy depends on
the ruler being used but will be 0.5mm usually.

Page 20 of 253
15.2 Vernier Gauges
Vernier gauges are used to take both inside and outside diameters up to
300mm. The accuracy is 0.1mm.
15.3 Specialist Jigs
Ovality gauges are made up for specialist applications and can measure up to
1m in diameter. They are usually a comparison method and accuracy will be
2mm.
16 Angular Measurements
Angular measurements may be taken by a number of methods.
16.1 Protractor
These are available in sizes up to 1m. They may take vertical or horizontal
angular measurements and the accuracy will be 0.5
o
.
16.2 Pendulum Gauges
These are also called inclinometers and are a form of vertical protractor. Figure
1.3 refers.
Figure 1.3
Pendulum Gauge
17 Dents and Deformations
Impact damage can be measured either directly, or by photogrammetry or
electronically.
17.1 Profile Gauges
If the damaged area is less that 300mm profile gauges may be used. They are
a comparison method and the accuracy will be 0.5mm. Care must be taken
not to disturb the setting of the pins once the profile is obtained. See Figure 1.4

Chapter 1
Page 21 of 253

Figure 1.4
Profile Gauge
17.2 Pit Gauge
Small corrosion pits or similar may be measured with a pit gauge that consists
of a calibrated plunger that is pushed into the pit and the depth read off from the
calibrated part.
17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge
The LAM is an accurate measuring device specifically designed to take angular
and depth measurements. It can effectively measure:
Pit depth
Misalignment
Weld leg length
Weld throat thickness
Excessive weld metal
Undercut
All the weld profile angles and measurements
The gauge can take measurements from flat or curved surfaces. Figure 1.5
refers.
Page 22 of 253

Figure 1.5
LAM Gauge
17.4 Casts
A cast may be made of any depression to accurately mimic the exact shape.
Several materials may be used.
Plasticine
Putty
Two part compounds (e.g. Microset)
There are a number of problems that may occur when using casting materials: -
The cast may be difficult to remove without distortion
The cast may be deformed or damaged during transfer to the surface
The cast is a negative image
The casting material may be difficult to apply. In cold seawater two part
compounds may not flow and malleable materials do not mould easily. A
hot water box may be required
17.5 Straight Edge
This method may also be used for small deformations. Holding the straight edge
over the area and using a ruler to measure vertically down at small increments
obtains a profile of the damage. The accuracy may be 0.5mm.
Taut Wire
This method may be used for any size deformation. A wire is stretched over the
deformed area and vertical measurements taken at small increments obtain the
profile.
Chapter 1
Page 23 of 253
The wire should be set up in two planes at 90
o
to each other to ensure that any
out of straightness of the member is measured. Accuracy of 0.5mm may be
achieved with care. Figure 1.6 illustrates the method.

Figure 1.6
Taut Wire

Page 24 of 253

Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Chapter 2
Page 25 of 253
CHAPTER 2
Corrosion
1 Energy Considerations in Corrosion
With time most materials react with their environment to change their structure.
The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics) degradation
and in concrete weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction
between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three
consequences:
The removal of the metal
The formation of an oxide
The formation of another chemical compound
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state)
of the system is considered.
The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
As a direct consequence of this Law when spontaneous changes occur they
must follow a rule, which is:
Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy
from the system to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure
Which is a way of stating the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS When
corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous
process.
Take the case of a metal such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are
fund in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical
compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This
necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it
can be used in fabrication. The process whereby the metal is extracted requires
either the smelting of the ore or an electrolysis process. The final metal
produced is therefore at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was
extracted i.e. energy is added to the system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their
energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill thus reducing its
potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce their
energy and therefore the rule imposed by the second Law. Thus free energy is
released.
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is
chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like
the metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of
Corrosion
Page 26 of 253
various types) is such an important material in building and industry the
corrosion of iron has a special term, rust. Figure 2.1 refers.
Figure 2.1
Changes in Energy Levels of
a Typical Metal Extracted From Ore
2 The Corrosion Process
Knowing there is a driving force for the process it is necessary to consider the
mechanism by which corrosion can take place.
Firstly a reminder of the basic structure of the atom will assist in the
understanding to the topic. In its simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 2.2 shows a simplified
diagram of the structure of an atom that is adequate for the purposes of this
discussion.
Figure 2.2
Simple Structure of an Atom
The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom is so composed that the
negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
Chapter 2
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However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds
each atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer
zero. This condition of the atom is called ionic.
Thus if the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, which means that
the atom now has a positive charge. This may be referred to as a cation.
If the atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion and now has a negative
charge. This may be referred to as an anion.
The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state
from being metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is having
a charge on the atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer shell.
The process of corrosion then goes on at the atomic level, each atom losing
one or more (usually no more than 3) electrons to become an ion.
2.1 The Anodic Reaction
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state into its ionic
state is known as an anodic reaction that is part of an overall reaction involving
the metal and other species present in the environment. This process is also
called oxidation. The overall reaction may be summarised by a chemical
equation thus:
M M
z+
+ ze
-

Z may be 1, 2 or 3. Higher values are possible but rare. Reaction such as those
indicated by this equation that produce electrons are known as oxidation Figure
2.3 illustrates this anodic reaction diagrammatically.
Figure 2.3
Anodic Reaction
The site at which it takes place is the anode, which is positive using
conventional notation. The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons. This
Corrosion
Page 28 of 253
is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.4, which represents a free rusting iron
surface immersed in seawater.
Figure 2.4
Anodic Sites on Surface of
Iron Exposed To Seawater
This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place in
the presence of an electrolyte that is often water or a water-based solution of
ionic compounds such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into
solution and the electron passes through the metal that is not actually being
corroded, that is, an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 2.4
2.2 The Cathodic Reaction
These free electrons formed in the anode reaction must be used up if the
reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical corrosion
process therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons are
neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively reactions such
as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions. A part
reaction is illustrated in Figure 2.5
Chapter 2
Page 29 of 253

Figure 2.5
Cathodic Reaction
Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by positive
ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a negative
charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons because for its
electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence shell yet occurs
naturally with only 6. Figure 6.6 refers.
Figure 2.6
Cathode Reaction
Corrosion
Page 30 of 253
Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where negative
ions form and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte where they
combine with elements creating different compounds. The site of this reaction is
known as the cathode, which conventionally is negative.
The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the
composition of the electrolyte. Some common frequent recurring reactions in
metallic corrosion are:
Hydrogen evolution 2H
+
+ 2e H
2

Oxygen reduction (acid solutions) O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e 2H
2
O
Oxygen reduction (neutral or basic
solutions) O
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4e 4OH
-

Metal ion reduction M
3+
+ e M
2+

Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when the electrolyte is acidic while
oxygen reduction is very common since any aqueous solution in contact with air
is capable of producing this reaction. It is, of course, the reaction encountered in
seawater. Metal ion reduction is less common and is normally found in chemical
process streams. The common denominator with all these reactions is that they
consume electrons and this is the most important point to note.
2.3 Seawater Corrosion
These partial reactions are included here because they can be used to interpret
virtually all corrosion problems. For example, consider iron in seawater;
corrosion occurs.
The anodic reaction is: Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
-

The seawater contains dissolved oxygen and therefore: -
The cathodic reaction is: O
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4e
-
4OH
-

The effective overall reaction can be found by adding these two equations thus:
2Fe + 2H
2
O + O
2
2Fe
2+
+ 4OH
-
2Fe(OH)
2

This is ferrous hydroxide precipitate from solution. This compound is unstable in
oxygenated solutions and it oxidises to ferric salt:
2Fe(OH)
2
+ H
2
O + O
2
2Fe(OH)
3

This final product is the familiar rust.
2.4 Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion
A fundamental definition for corrosion is:
CORROSION IS THE DEGRADATION OF A METAL BY AN
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT
For corrosion to take place four criterions must apply:
There must be an anode. This normally corrodes by loss of electrons
There must be a cathode. This does not normally corrode
Chapter 2
Page 31 of 253
There must be an electrolyte. This is the name given to the solution that
conducts electricity. Pure distilled water is not an electrolyte while
seawater is
There must be an electrical connection between the anode and the
cathode
These four elements are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.7 and all
electrochemical corrosion takes place by setting up cells like this.
Figure 2.7
Corrosion Circuit
As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched on
already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
3 Electrical Theory
Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally
occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical
charge is then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given
electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and
is given the symbol I.
o In the MKS system one ampere is defined as that constant current
which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel
wires of negligible cross-section placed 1 m apart, in a vacuum,
will produce between the wires a force of 2 x 10
-7
Newtons per m
length
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference
between two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.
o In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical
potential between two points of a wire carrying a constant current
Corrosion
Page 32 of 253
of 1 ampere when the power dissipation between those points is 1
watt
The flow of electric charges is impeded by a quantity called resistance
and between any two points there is always some resistance to the
passage of the current. The unit of resistance is the ohm which has the
symbol .
o The MKS system defines the unit of electrical resistance as being
the resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant
potential difference of 1 V applied between these points produces
in the conductor a current of 1 A
During the majority of this discussion on corrosion all comments and
illustrations will be in terms of electron or ion flow and as far as possible positive
and negative notations will be avoided so as to avoid confusion, which often
occurs when corrosion is studied. This confusion arises because of an historical
accident that resulted in producing what is now called conventional current.
Electron flow is exactly opposite to conventional current, which is what causes
the confusion when studies in corrosion so often involve discussion on electron
or ion flow. To avoid such problems for the rest of this chapter only electron flow
will be considered. Figure 2.8 illustrates the two types of flow.

Figure 2.8
Conventional and Electron Flow
Chapter 2
Page 33 of 253
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
Corrosion
Page 34 of 253

Chapter 3
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006
Page 35 of 253
CHAPTER 3
Types of Corrosion
1 Corrosion Cells
Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Chapter 2, can be set
up by many different means, but they all operate because there is some
dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
Dissimilar metals
Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal
Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of the
metal
Dissimilar ion concentrations
Dissimilar oxygen concentrations
2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell
It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid (electrolyte)
a potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in water
and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a voltage
and current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside connection.
The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the
anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.7
refers.
It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and which
the anode by reference to an Electrochemical Force Series.
2.1 The Electrochemical Force Series
Under standard conditions, where the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid at a
temperature of 25
o
C, the potential of various metals is measured and given in a
table known as the Electrochemical Force Series, or Electromotive Series, (see
Table 3.1). From the table, it will be seen that any metal will be anodic to any
metal lower in the table and cathodic to any metal higher in the series. It must
be remembered, however, that the table only applies under the standard
conditions stated.
Types of Corrosion

Page 36 of 253

Metal Atom Electrode Reaction Atom to Ion Potential in Volts Standard
Potassium K K
+
+ e
-
-2.92
Calcium Ca Ca
++
+ 2e
-
-2.87
Sodium Na Na
+
+ e
-
-2.71
Magnesium Mg Mg
++
+ 2e
-
-2.34
Beryllium Be Be
++
+ 2e
-
-1.70
Aluminium Al Al
+++
+ 3e
-
-1.67
Manganese Mn Mn
++
+2e
-
-1.05
Zinc Zn Zn
++
+ 2e
-
-0.76
Chromium Cr Cr
+++
+ 3e
-
-0.71
Gallium Ga Ga
+++
+ 3e
-
-0.52
Iron Fe Fe
++
+ 2e
-
-0.44
Cadmium Cd Cd
++
+ 2e
-
-0.40
Indium In In
+++
+ 3e
-
-0.34
Thallium Ti Ti
+
+ e
-
-0.34
Cobalt Co Co
++
+ 2e
-
-0.28
Nickel Ni Ni
++
+ 2e
-
-0.25
Tin Sn Sn
++
+ 2e
-
-0.14
Lead Pb Pb
++
+ 2e
-
-0.13
Hydrogen H
2
2H
+
+ 2e
-
0.00
Copper Cu Cu
++
+ 2e
-
0.34
Copper Cu Cu
+
+ e
-
0.52
Mercury 2Hg Hg
2
++
+ 2e
-
0.80
Silver Ag Ag
+
+ e
-
0.80
Palladium Pd Pd
++
+ 2e
-
0.83
Mercury Hg Hg
++
+ 2e
-
0.85
Platinum Pt Pt
++
+ 2e
-
Ca 1.2
Gold Au Au
+++
+ 3e
-
Ca 1.42
Gold Au Au
+
+ e
-
1.68
Table 3.1
Electrochemical Force Series
Similar tables are produced for metals under actual conditions and these are
called Galvanic Series. Table 3.2 give the series for seawater. The same rule
applies to the Galvanic Series as for the foregoing table, i.e. metals found
higher in the series are cathodic to any metal below them. For example, zinc is
Chapter 3
Page 37 of 253
higher in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc is connected to mild steel
and immersed in seawater zinc will be the anode and corrode and mild steel will
be the cathode and not corrode. If on the other hand mild steel, in the form of a
ships hull is connected to manganese bronze, the ships propeller, the mild
steel now becomes the anode and corrodes and the manganese bronze
propeller is the cathode, which does not corrode.
Magnesium
Magnesium Alloys
Zinc
Galvanised Iron
Aluminium 52Sh
Alcad
Cadmium
Mild Steel
Wrought Iron
Cast Iron
50-50 Lead-Tin Solder
18-8 Stainless (Active)
Lead
Manganese Bronze
Nickel (Active)
Yellow Brass
Admiralty Brass
Aluminium Bronze
Red Brass
Copper
Nickel (Passive)
70% Ni, 30% Cu (Monel)
18-8 (3%Mo) Stainless steel (Passive)
Silver
Gold
Table 3.2
Galvanic Series in Seawater
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Page 38 of 253
This type of corrosion cell, consisting of two dissimilar metals, is easy to
identify, but corrosion can occur in a much more localised way, caused by
small-size effects that can lead to corrosion pits and thereby cause
considerable damage. This type of corrosion and some others are discussed
below.
3 Concentration Cell Corrosion
Corrosion of this type is associated with crevices in the order of 25 to 100 m
wide and commonly involves chloride ions in the electrolyte. The stages in the
process are:
Corrosion will at first occur over the entire surface of the exposed metal at a
slow rate, both inside and outside the crevice. During this period of time the
electrolyte may be assumed to have a uniform composition and normal anodic
and cathodic processes take place. Under these conditions positive metal ions
and negative hydroxyl ions are produced so as to maintain equilibrium within
the electrolyte
This process consumes the dissolved oxygen, which results in the diffusion of
more oxygen from the atmosphere at any surface where the electrolyte is in
contact with air. In turn then the oxygen in the bulk of the electrolyte is replaced
more easily at metal surfaces rather than in any small crevices. This creates a
low oxygen situation within the crevice that in turn impedes the cathodic
process and the production of hydroxyl ions is therefore reduced
This results in excess positive ions accumulating in the crevice which causes
negative ions to diffuse there from the bulk of the electrolyte outside in order to
maintain minimum potential energy overall. The metal ions, water molecules
and chloride all react in complicated chemical reactions forming complex ions,
which it is thought, react with water in an hydrolysis reaction resulting in
corrosion products. This can be described by a simplified equation thus
M
+
+ H
2
O MOH + H
+

The increase of hydrogen ion concentration accelerates the metal dissolution
process, which, in turn, makes the problem worse. As does the accompanying
increase of anion (chloride) concentration within the crevice. An important
feature of active crevice corrosion cells is that they are autocatalytic that is once
started they are self-sustaining. It is worth underlining the fact that the
electrolyte in an active crevice can become very acidic. This is the situation
shown in Figure 3.3. The metal inside the crevice is corroding rapidly while that
outside is cathodically protected.
Chapter 3
Page 39 of 253

Figure 3.3
Crevice Corrosion
4 Pitting
Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface.
The point of initiation may be:
A compositional heterogeneity such as an inclusion or segregate of
precipitate
A surface scratch or any similar blemish in an otherwise perfect film
Or it may be an emerging dislocation or a slip step caused by applied or
residual tensile stresses.
o All metals have crystal lattice structures but these are never defect
free. All metals contain imperfections in their lattice structures, and
these are known as defects, these may occur in a number of
ways:
Vacancies This is where there is an atom missing from
the lattice site
Substitutional Defects This is where a foreign atom
occupies a lattice site that would have been occupied by a
host atom
Interstitial Defects This is where an atom occupies a site
that is not a normal lattice site and it is squeezed in
Types of Corrosion

Page 40 of 253
between atoms of the host lattice. The interstitial atom may
be either a host atom or a foreign atom. Figure 3.4 refers
Figure 3.4
Point Defects in a
Crystal Lattice
These point defects are very significant in the theory of alloying where
they cause a significant improvement in mechanical properties of metals.
They also play a role in some corrosion mechanisms, notably hydrogen
embrittlement, selective attack, oxidation and hot corrosion, that all rely
on the diffusion of species through the metal lattice
Another type of defect occurs within the grain structure when planes of
atoms are not perfectly fitted into the lattice. These are known as line
defects. An example of this type of defect is the dislocation and a specific
example of this type of dislocation is:
o Edge Dislocations
This is where an unfinished plane of atoms is present between two
other planes. Figure 3.5a refers
o Screw Dislocations
This is where a plane is skewed to give it a different alignment to its
immediate neighbour. Figure 3.5b refers
Chapter 3
Page 41 of 253

Figure 3.5
(a) Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation
Corrosion pits once formed propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion; it
is the initiation phase that is different. In the case of corrosion pits the initiation
is dependant on metallurgical factors alone.
Now consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of
clean mild steel
o The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the
steel under the water. This consumes oxygen by the normal
cathode reaction in what is a neutral solution at this stage
o This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is
obvious that the wetted area around the water/air interface has
more oxygen diffusion from the air that the centre of the drop
o This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region
which dissolves
o The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the
cathode diffuse inwards and react with iron ions diffusing
outwards, causing the deposition of insoluble corrosion product
around the depression, or pit
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Page 42 of 253
o This further retards the diffusion of oxygen, accelerates the anodic
process in the centre of the drop and causes the reaction to be
autocatalytic. Figure 3.6 refers
Figure 3.6
The Mechanism of Pitting Because Of
Differential-aeration Beneath a Water Drop
As the process continues the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its
immediate surroundings, forming a scab or tubercle and isolating the
environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the
autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions
within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a
structure if it were not protected with a coating such as paint
5 Inter-granular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs between the grain boundaries because of
precipitates in these regions. This is primarily because grain boundaries are the
preferred sites for the precipitation and segregation processes which occur in
many alloys. These intrusions are of two types:
Intermetallic (Intermediate Constituents)
These are species formed from metal atoms and having identifiable
chemical formulae. They can be either anodic or cathodic to the metal
Chapter 3
Page 43 of 253
Compounds
These are formed between metals and non-metallic elements, such as;
hydrogen, carbon, silicon, nitrogen and oxygen
o Iron carbide and manganese sulphide, which are both important
constituents of steel, are both cathodic to ferrite
In principle any metal that has intermetallics or compounds at grain boundaries
will be susceptible to Intergranular corrosion. For example, it has most
frequently been found in austenitic stainless steels but it may occur in ferric and
two-phase stainless steels and nickel base corrosion resistant alloys.
Plain carbon steel is a two phase metal and some grains are cathodic while
others are anodic and Intergranular corrosion initiates as indicated in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7
Corrosion in Two Phase Metal
In the Galvanic Series the phase is above the phase and will therefore
corrode
6 Grain Boundary Corrosion
The driving force behind grain boundary corrosion is the area of higher energy
found at the grain boundary itself. These higher energy regions become the
anodic sites while the bulk of the grain itself becomes the cathode.
This situation results in the loss of material in the anodic reaction at the grain
boundaries themselves in the form of a line.
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Page 44 of 253

Figure 3.8
Grain Boundary Corrosion
Weld decay or preferential corrosion is an example of this type of decay.
In this case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe
of the weld and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the
anode and corrosion sets in, often giving quite significant visual
indications of its presence. Figure 3.9 refers
Figure 3.9
Weld Decay or Preferential Corrosion
7 Stress Corrosion Cracking
This type of corrosion is a form of Intergranular corrosion that increases in
severity when the material is subjected to a tensile load and a specific
environment.
The effects are to concentrate the corrosion on a limited number of grain
boundaries that are at right angles to the direction of loading.
Chapter 3
Page 45 of 253
A common feature of stress corrosion cracking that repeatedly occurs is the
unexpectedness of its manifestation. Often a material that has been chosen for
its corrosion resistance is found to fail at a stress level well below its normal
fracture stress.
It is rare that there is any obvious evidence of failure and it presents itself in
components that are apparently unstressed.
Problems with pipes and tubes are common because of the hoop residual
stresses that are the result of the fabrication process. Stress-relieving heat
treatments are a vital part of the quality control for these components because
of this.
It is currently agreed that there is no one mechanism for producing stress
corrosion cracking, but rather a number of significant factors.
For this cracking to occur there must be tensile stress, which may be
applied directly during the working life of the structure, or it may be
present as a consequence of the installation or fabrication process
In general alloys are more susceptible than pure metals although copper
is one known exception
A particular metal may crack in the presence of a relatively few chemical
species that may be present in small concentrations
In the absence of stress the alloy is usually inert to the same
environment that would otherwise cause cracking
Even with particularly ductile materials stress corrosion cracks have the
appearance of a brittle fracture
It is usually possible to determine a threshold stress below which stress
corrosion cracking does not occur.
8 Fretting Corrosion
Fretting describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under
load subjected to vibration and slip. In appearance it shows pits and groves in
the metal surrounded by corrosion products.
It has been observed in a number of different components in machinery and in
bolted parts. In essence this is a form of erosion corrosion that occurs in the
atmosphere rather than under aqueous conditions.
Fretting corrosion is very detrimental due to the destruction of metallic
components and the production of oxide debris. This leads to loss of tolerance
and may result in fatigue fracture due to the excessive strain caused by the
extra movement and the pits acting as stress raisers. A classic case on land of
fretting occurs at bolted tie plates on railroad tracks.
The basic requirements for the occurrence of fretting corrosion are: -
The interface must be under load
Vibration or repeated relative motion between the interface must be
sufficient to produce slip or deformation on the surfaces
Types of Corrosion

Page 46 of 253
The load and relative motion of the interface must be sufficient to
produce slip or deformation on the surfaces
The relative motion need only be as little as 10
-10
m but it must be cyclic in
nature and does not occur between surfaces in continuous motion. There are
two theories proposed for fretting corrosion; wear-oxidation and oxidation-wear
both of which are shown schematically in Figures 3.10 and 3.11
Figure 3.10
Schematic Illustration of the
Wear-oxidation Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The wear-oxidation mechanism is based on the concept that cold welding or
fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces under pressure and,
during the subsequent relative motion, these contact points are ruptured and
fragments of metal are removed.
These fragments, because of their small diameter and the heat due to friction
are immediately oxidized. This process is repeated resulting in the loss of metal
and accumulation of oxide residue.
Figure 3.11
Schematic Illustration of the
Oxidation-wear Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The oxidation-wear concept is based on the hypothesis that most metal
surfaces are protected from atmospheric oxidation by a thin, adherent oxide
layer.
When metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to repeated
relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at high points and results in oxide
debris. It is assumed that the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is
repeated.
Chapter 3
Page 47 of 253
This type of corrosion could occur in the metal adjacent to clamps and collars of
risers, conductors and caissons if there is the slightest movement underneath
them. See Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12
Possible Fretting Corrosion
between Riser and Riser Clamp
9 Erosion Corrosion
This is a self-explanatory name for a form of corrosion that results from a metal
being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a
metal surface. Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable to mechanical
effects, such as, wear, abrasion and scouring.
Soft metals such as, copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly
vulnerable.
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are:
Corrosion associated with laminar flow
Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
The ionic distribution in the double layer is carried away by the flow and
equilibrium cannot be established which leads to an increased rate of
dissolution. Figure 4.1 Chapter 4 refers
Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions such as chloride
and sulphide this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase
If the flow contains any solid particles protective layers may be scoured
away causing excessive corrosion
Types of Corrosion

Page 48 of 253
The alternative to this is that it is sometimes possible in pipes for the
deposit of silt or dirt to be prevented thus preventing the formation of any
differential-aeration cells in the crevices beneath
A possible beneficial effect is that more oxygen is carried to the area,
which minimises the formation of differential-aeration cells that are
normally a common cause of attack. Stainless steels in particular benefit
from improved corrosion resistance because oxygen replenishment
maintains its protective oxide film
Another possible beneficial effect is where a steady supply of inhibitor is
concentrated within the flow, as in a pipeline for example
These combined circumstances make the effects of laminar flow unpredictable.
Taking the case of turbulent flow, however the situation is much more
straightforward.
The fluid molecules now impinge directly on the metal causing wear. This
obviously increases the corrosion rate
This effect can easily occur inside a pipe because turbulence can be caused by,
sudden changes in bore diameter, sudden changes in direction (i.e. pipe
bends), a badly fitted joint or gasket, any deposits that may be either
circumferential welds or silt deposits. Figure 3.13 refers.
Figure 3.13
Effects of Flow in Pipes
10 Corrosion Fatigue
There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is extremely
non-specific.
Chapter 3
Page 49 of 253
As detailed in Chapter 4 fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels
well below the UTS.
In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metals fatigue resistance
is reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit.
Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack as discussed in
Chapter 4 yields: -
Firstly the formation of slip bands
Next the nucleations of an embryo crack in the order of 10 m long
Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths
Finally macroscopic, 0.1 to 1 mm, crack propagation in a direction at right
angles to the maximum principal stress that leads to failure
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three corrosion states indicated by the
Pourbaix diagram as shown in Chapter 10, Figure 10.1, it can also occur at
stress levels much lower than those for stress corrosion cracking (SCC). It is
also true that while SCC growth rates are independent of the stress intensity
factor during much of the crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always affected
by it.
It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that place the metal in
the immune state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form that tend to
inhibit crack growth ensure that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
11 Biological Corrosion
Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways:
By the production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or
ammonia, which result in direct chemical attack on the metal
By producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action
By the reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic
conditions
o The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio
desulfuricans. These thrive in the reduced oxygen conditions
created under heavy accumulations of marine growth, under thick
deposits of corrosion products, or under mud
o There are indications that because oxygen is unable to diffuse
through the heavy marine growth the effect of this organism is to
take the place of oxygen in the usual cathodic reaction
By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms
Types of Corrosion

Page 50 of 253

Bibliography
E & F N Spon
Chapter 3
Page 51 of 253
Chapter 4
Page 52 of 253
CHAPTER 4
Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
1 Polarisation and Corrosion Rate
When a metal is exposed to an aqueous solution containing ions of that metal,
both oxidation of metal atoms to ions and reduction of metal ions to atoms
occurs on its surface according to the formula: -
Me
n+
+ ne
-
Me
-

This means that there are two reactions involving the flow of electrons and the
rate at which these reactions occur can be given by two current densities.
The necessity for using current density as a measurement of corrosion currents
can be demonstrated by considering two pieces of metal; one say, of 10 mm
2
,
the other of 1 mm
2
and suppose they both corrode such that the current flow is
10 electrons per second. The smaller piece will obviously corrode 10 times
faster than the larger piece. Thus the surface area of the corroding metal must
be taken into account when measuring current.
The unit of current density is Am
-2
(amps per square meter)
The corrosion rate and the current density are directly related; which makes
the topic quite important when considering the long-term deterioration of metals
in aqueous solution
These two current densities can be indicated as forward and reverse reaction
currents thus: -
i and i and at equilibrium (E
o
) i = i = i
o
and i
o
is known
as the exchange current density.
If a net current (i) is applied to the surface i I this applied net current will be
the difference between the forward and reverse currents. This difference in
current changes the electrode potential and this new potential is given the value
E
i
and the electrode is said to be polarized. The change in electrode potential
is called polarization and is given the Greek letter (eta).
= E
i
- E
o

There are two main polarization components to consider.
Concentration Polarization
Caused by the difference in concentration between the layer of electrolyte
nearest the electrode surface and the bulk of the electrolyte.
o The initial polarization at the anode produces a surfeit of positive
cations that in turn causes a non-homogeneous distribution of ions
with the most densely populated layer nearest to the electrode
being the Helmholtz and the second more diffuse being the Guoy-
Chapman. In this layer the potential changes exponentially. This
Page 53 of 253
distribution is commonly referred to as the double layer See
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1
Concentration Polarization (The Double Layer)
Activation Polarization
Caused by a retardation of the electrode reaction. The polarization of an
anode is always positive and that of a cathode always negative.
Later in these notes the monitoring of corrosion in a seawater environment will
be discussed and reference will be made there to measuring both potential and
current density
2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
The corrosion rate is predictable within certain parameters and corrosion
engineers work this out when designing a protection system. There are
however, environmental factors that effect the overall corrosion reaction and
these will be indicated here. Specifically the factors considered will be:
Temperature
Water Flow Rate
The pH of the Water
2.1 Temperature
Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature. Thus
temperature cycling and temperature differences will also have this effect.
Hot risers, exhaust and cooling water dumps are all sites that can and do
corrode more quickly than the remainder of typical offshore structures.
Studies undertaken by the Dow Chemical Company showed that the corrosion
rate of mild steel and a selected low alloy steel, in a standard brine solution at a
pH of 4.4, approximately doubled as the temperature was increased from 180
o

F (82
o
C) to 250
o
F (121
o
C).
Chapter 4
Page 54 of 253
Therefore, components like cooling water outlets and hot risers are particularly
susceptible to corrosion and must be inspected regularly.
The effect of seawater temperature is illustrated by the graph in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2
The Effect of Temperature on
Corrosion of Steel in Seawater
2.2 Water Flow Rate
In general if the flow rate is increased the rate at which metal is removed is also
increased.
If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place in the
region of the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is
experienced locally. The pitting of ships propellers and pump and dredger
impellers are general examples of this.
Tests carried out by P Ffield show how the corrosion of steel pipes carrying
seawater is effected in a straightforward way by increasing the velocity of the
flow. Figure 4.3 illustrates his findings.
Page 55 of 253

Figure 4.3
Effect of Seawater Velocity on Corrosion
of Steel at Ambient Temperature Exposed 38 Days
2.3 The pH Value of the Water
The corrosion rate of metals in directly affected by the pH value of the
electrolyte. Steel for example corrodes least when in a solution that has a pH
between 11 and 12. A resume of the pH system is laid out below. The resume
starts by considering water, which is neutral.
Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with one
of oxygen, there is a limited amount of dissociation into hydrogen ions and
hydroxyl ions in the normal course of events and this can be noted in the form
of an equilibrium thus: -
H
2
O H
+
+ OH
-

The Law of Mass Action can be applied to this equilibrium process and
assuming the concentration of water in dilute solution is constant given
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) a new equation for water can be
written thus: -
[H
+
]. [OH
-
] = constant (I)
This constant has been measured experimentally as 10
-14
(STP) and this value
and the relationship equation form the basis of a scale of acidity.
All acids have one common property that is the presence in aqueous solution of
the hydrogen ion.
The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are neutralised
by alkalis and that alkalinity, is associated with hydroxyl ions.
Chapter 4
Page 56 of 253
Water as indicated by the equilibrium equation represents a neutral substance
as it contains both acid, (H
+
) and alkali (OH
-
) in equal quantities.
The modern method of defining acidity is by means of a term called pH, which
indicates the amount of hydrogen activity. It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14
thus: -

Figure 4.4
pH Scale

Page 57 of 253

Bibliography
E & F N Spon
Chapter 4
Page 58 of 253
This page is blank
Chapter 5
Page 59 of 253
CHAPTER 5
Corrosion Protection
1 Corrosion Protection
There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings,
inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and
cathodic protection. Before considering these methods a brief examination of
the way in which the corrosion process is influenced by the two main variables;
the electrode potential and the pH value will assist in understanding the various
protection methods.
These data are often presented in diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix
diagrams. These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under
controlled conditions of constant temperature and no flow.
Figure 5.1
Pourbaix Diagram for
Iron in Water
It can be seen from Figure 5.1 that there are three distinct possible states of
corrosion depending on electrode potentials and pH values:
Page 60 of 253
Corrosion At intermediate electrode potentials and over a very wide
range of pH values corrosion takes place and metal is removed
Passivity At higher electrode potentials and over a wide range of pH
values, there is a passivity region. This it the region in which a corrosion
product film is formed, that in most cases is an oxide film. It is worth
noting that the diagram only indicates that an oxide film is formed; it does
not mean that the oxide film gives protection. The properties of the film
must be known in order to determine this
Immunity At low electrode potentials and over almost the whole of the
pH range, the rate of corrosion is so low that the metal is said to be
immune
2 Cathodic Protection
Apart from the three stages indicated by Figure 5.1 it is also possible to
determine basic strategies for preventing corrosion.
Making the electrode potential more positive will produce passivation at
point C
Making the electrode potential more negative will produce immunity at
point B
Making the electrolyte more basic will produce passivation at point D
Altering the electrical potential to produce passivation or immunity by the
methods of cathodic or anodic protection is the most useful technique for
offshore structures.
In designing a Cathodic Protection system the system designer starts by
determining an acceptable corrosion rate (r
) this information is input to a graph

to determine a value for current density (I
). This level of current density will

ensure the required corrosion rate is achieved.
The electric potential to achieve this current is approximately -850 mV. Now it
may seem that potentials more negative that 850 mV (Ag/AgCl) would produce
even less metal loss. There are two reasons why it is not prudent to use very
much more negative potentials.
At potentials much more negative than 1000 mV (Ag/AgCl) the
possibility of hydrogen evolution exists and this can cause hydrogen
embrittlement
Secondly large currents are associated with more negative potentials
that produce high local concentrations of hydroxyl ions that often damage
barrier coating such as paint if it is present
These last two points are more likely to occur with an electrical impressed
current protection system but non-the-less are quite valid which makes the
choice of 800 to 900 mV (Ag/AgCl) a valid design parameter in all cases for
offshore platforms.
Chapter 5
Page 61 of 253

2.1 Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method
With this method of corrosion prevention the entire structure is made into the
cathode in a massive corrosion cell as indicated diagrammatically in Chapter 7,
Figure 7.7. The structure will therefore not corrode but at the expense of the
anode, which is sacrificed providing the electron flow and gives the process its
name. Refer to Figure 5.2
Figure 5.2
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection
The anode must be picked from the appropriate galvanic series. The most
appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium.
This method of corrosion protection is almost as straightforward as that. The
main question is how much anode material will be required?
This question has two parts:
How large a surface area must the anodes protect?
How long will the protection last?
To answer the question an example will be given:
An uncoated steel offshore drilling platform has a sacrificial anode
cathodic protection system installed designed to last for 10 years. What
anode material should be used and how many anodes are required?
o Total wetted surface area of structure = 2500 m
2

Minimum number of anodes required = 2510
Anode material should be zinc or aluminium, as magnesium would react
to quickly
Aluminium anodes will last longer and may be chosen because of this
Page 62 of 253
2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems
The advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems are
summarised in Table 5.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems
No external electric power required Current output decreases with time
No danger of overprotection Comparatively difficult to increase
protection by retro-fitting anodes
No running costs Initial costs are comparatively high
Active from day of immersion Adds considerable weight and drag
to the structure
A well proven and reliable method
Table 5.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anodes
2.2 Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method
An Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system works on the same
principal as the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the
cathode. However in the case of the ICCP system the necessary potential and
current flow is provided by a DC generator rather than by a galvanic coupling.
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference
electrodes into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary
depending on the circumstances; if the structure has a coating initially that in
subsequent service becomes damaged this will increase the exposed surface
area needing to be protected. The control unit can deal with this by increasing
the current density. If on the other hand there were a reduction in the surface
area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building up, there would be less
surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less.
In both cases the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the
potential, which varies proportionally according to the current. Figure 5.4 shows
the system diagrammatically.
Chapter 5
Page 63 of 253

Figure 5.4
The Principle of Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection Using a Potentiostat
The anode material is selected from the top of the galvanic series not the
bottom. Materials such as titanium, Platonised niobium and lead/silver alloys
are used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to
prevent any of the problems associated with over-protection.
Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system
because in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of
water, rather than metal dissolution: -
2H
2
O O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e
-

In electrolytes of pH values greater than 7 (alkaline solutions) the reaction is the
oxidation of hydroxyl ions: -
4OH
-
O
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4e
-

In seawater the reaction is usually the oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas:
-
2Cl
-
Cl
2
+ 2e
-

Table 5.5 lists some properties of impressed current anode materials.
Page 64 of 253

Material Consumption Recommended Uses
Platinum
Platonised Metals
8 x 10
-6
Marine environments and high purity
liquids
High Silicon Iron 0.25 1.0 Potable waters and soil or
carbonaceous backfill
Steel 6,8 9.1 Marine environments and carbonaceous
backfill
Iron Approx 9.5 Marine environments and carbonaceous
backfill
Cast Iron 4.5 6.8 Marine environments and carbonaceous
backfill
Lead-Platinum 0.09 Marine environments
Lead-Silver 0.09 Marine environments
Graphite 0.1 1.0 Marine environments, potable water,
and carbonaceous backfill
Table 5.5
Some Impressed Current Anode Materials
and Their Properties
(From Brand)
2.2.1 Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems
Anodes made from materials such as listed in Table 5.7 are capable of
supplying high current densities and it would be possible to protect a structure
with a few large anodes supplied with a high current. However, in practice
anodes are usually distribute at regular intervals over the whole structure. This
is because: -
The high current density that would be present in the immediate vicinity
of a single anode could damage paint surfaces and possibly cause
embrittlement as previously discussed.
o The use of more anodes reduces the current density for each one
and reduces the probability of this type of damage
Offshore structures have a reasonably complicated geometry that makes
it difficult for corrosion engineers to predict the total distribution
potentials. Therefore it is prudent to use more anodes, each one
protecting a smaller area thus minimising the areas at risk of inadequate
protection
o When designing the system should the corrosion engineers have
any doubts about protecting any particular area of the structure
Chapter 5
Page 65 of 253
sacrificial anodes may be installed to work in conjunction with the
ICCP system
The ICCP system installed on the Claymore platform was designed to provide
160 mA m
-2
utilising 55 platinum-iridium anodes and 12 reference electrodes.
Also the Murchison platform uses 100 anodes and 50 reference electrodes. In
general in the North Sea the most common anode materials are Platinum
sheathed Titanium and Lead/Silver alloys.
It is vitally important that the power supply is connected with correct polarity.
The negative terminal must be connected to the structure and the positive
terminal must be connected to the anode. Should these connections be
reversed the structure would corrode catastrophically. Figures 5.6 and 5.7 refer.
Figure 5.6
Diagrammatic Layout of an
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System
Page 66 of 253

Figure 5.7
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Distribution of Anodes and Dielectric Shield
As indicated in paragraph 2.2.1 the actual distribution of the anodes on any
structure may be either: -
Platform Based
Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around
it in similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are
insulated from the structure. Figure 5.8 refers.
o Two problems are associated with this method. One is the
possibility of shadow areas where inadequate protection is
provided. This problem can be solved by the use of sacrificial
anodes complementing the ICCP system as indicated earlier. The
second problem is the possibility of current flowing directly from
the anode to the adjacent structure. This could cause
embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid this dielectric
shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also the
current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to
provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits as
well the possibility of embrittlement and coating damage. See
Figure 5.7
o There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are
at about 80 V potential with some 1000 A current. If divers are
employed adjacent to any of the anodes they should be isolated
from the system
Remote from the Structure
A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated
distance from the structure.
Chapter 5
Page 67 of 253
o This method avoids the possibility of current flowing directly from
the anode to the adjacent structure but there being fewer anodes
the current density is higher and therefore there is still a possibility
of coating damage and embrittlement.
o As discussed in paragraph 2.2.1 design considerations generally
favour more anodes distributed around the structure.
o There is a safety issue with divers but as the anodes are some
distance away from the structure is may be possible to ensure
safety by imposing a 12 m (40 ft) exclusion zone around the
anode. See Figure 5.8
Figure 5.8
Diagram of ICCP System
with Anodes Remote from Structure
2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes
These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC)
or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is favoured in applications with
reinforced concrete.
Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system. They
determine the current required from the power source, without these items the
system cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure 5.9 refers.
Page 68 of 253

Figure 5.9
Zinc Reference Electrode Installed
On an Offshore Structure
3 Using Coatings to Protect the Structure
Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or
enamels and even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be
when consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be
only in the order of 25 to 100 microns thick for some applications.
3.1 Paints
When paint is applied to a metal surface it presents a barrier to air, moisture
and ions aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete
barrier to oxygen or water. In time these will penetrate through to the surface of
the metal. Any paint system used underwater must have a strong bond onto the
metal surface and therefore high quality metal surface preparation is required
such as SA 3. The bonding between successive coats must also be strong and
the topcoats must provide as impervious a barrier to the electrolyte as is
possible. This last is achieved by ensuring the constituents making up the
topcoats have very low water absorption and transmission coefficients.
Coal Tar Epoxides are used extensively on offshore structures. They
consist of coal tar and epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings are
highly impermeable to water and resistant to attack by most chemicals
and hydroxyl ions (that are produced by the cathodic reaction)
Chapter 5
Page 69 of 253
Zinc coatings utilising a combination of zinc dust and complex silicates
with a solvent-based self-curing binder give good protection to steel
surfaces. These coatings are frequently over-painted by another system
and are used on components such as ladders in a marine environment
Concrete is used to provide a protective coating to pipelines where it
provides a passive environment for the steel pipe as well as adding
weight.
Metallic coatings such as galvanising, using zinc impose a continuous
barrier between the metal surface being protected and the surrounding
environment. These coatings may be applied in a number of ways.
o Electroplating utilises a bath of salts as an electrolyte. The
component and rods of the plating metal are immersed in the
electrolyte and a potential is applied between the component and
the rods. The component becomes the cathode and the rods the
anode so metal ions of the plating material deposit from the
solution onto the component
o Hot dipping involves the component being immersed in a bath of
molten coating metal. Galvanising is accomplished by this
method. See Figure 5.10

Figure 5.10
Galvanising
Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating
metal that are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed
in the form of droplets travelling at 100 to 150 m s
-1
that flatten and
adhere on impact with the component
Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can
be applied by
o Rolling
o Explosive welding
Page 70 of 253
o Buttering (building up a welded coat on the surface to be
protected)
o Sheathing
Aluminium roll-bonded to duralumin is marketed as Alcad
Some offshore risers are sheathed with Monel (cupronickel) See Figure
5.11
Figure 5.11
Monel Cladding on
an Offshore Riser
Diffusion requires the component to be heated to just below the melting
point of the coating metal in the presence of the coating in powder form
and in an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed to baste for
several hours and the coating diffuses into the surface of the component.
4 Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte)
Remember the Pourbaix diagram indicates three methods for preventing
corrosion: -
Making the electrode more positive
Making the electrode more negative
Changing the electrolyte pH
This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte.
Also remember there are four processes in metal corrosion: -
The anodic reaction
Chapter 5
Page 71 of 253
The cathodic reaction
Ionic conduction through the electrolyte
Electron conduction through the metal
Only the first three are affected by the electrolyte, electron conduction through
the metal is not considered here. The properties of the electrolyte that can be
affected by using inhibitors are: -
The conductivity of the electrolyte
The pH of the electrolyte
The interaction of the electrolyte with the metal surface, attacking or
strengthening passive films
As an example of how this can be achieved consider steel in seawater. If
distilled water is substituted for the seawater the conductivity and pH of the
electrolyte is reduced and a passive film will form on the surface of the steel.
4.1 Anodic Inhibitors
Anodic inhibitors increase the polarisation of the anode by reaction with the ions
of the corroding metals to produce either thin passive films or salts of limited
solubility that coat the anode. See Figure 5.12
Figure 5.12
Anodic Inhibitor
4.2 Cathodic Inhibitors
Cathodic inhibitors affect both normal reactions
In one effect the inhibitor reacts with hydroxyl ions to precipitate insoluble
compounds on the cathodic site thus blanketing the cathode from the
electrolyte and preventing access of oxygen to the site.
In the other reaction increasing the polarisation of the system controls
the evolution of hydrogen. This forms a layer of adsorbed hydrogen on
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the surface of the cathode. This type of inhibitor may allow hydrogen
atoms to diffuse into steel and cause hydrogen embrittlement
4.3 Adsorption Inhibitors
Adsorption inhibitors interrupt the ion flow from the metal surface by forming
long organic molecules with side chains that are adsorbed and desorbed from
the metal surface. These bulky molecules can limit the diffusion of oxygen to the
surface, or trap the metal ions on the surface, stabilise the double layer and
reduce the rate of dissolution
In general anodic inhibitors are more efficient than cathodic ones.
5 Corrosion Protection by Design
This aspect of corrosion protection has been indicated earlier in this chapter.
The methods employed to protect structures from corrosion can be summarised
thus: -
Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells
Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, inadequate
drainage, etc.)
Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors
Choose the material with the best properties for the environment
6 Anodic Protection
In this method of corrosion protection a potential is applied to the anode that
maintains it in the passive range of the Pourbaix diagram. This allows the
formation of a passive film that is robust enough to provide a barrier to the
normal corrosion process. However, this film is unreliable for steel in aqueous
solutions and therefore is not used on offshore structures. Aluminium does form
such a film naturally and some types of aluminium can benefit from this
because the passive layer is sufficiently robust to be relied upon.
Chapter 5
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Chapter 6
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CHAPTER 6
Corrosion Protection Monitoring
1 Monitoring Corrosion Protection
It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that
there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted.
Therefore a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure that the designed
corrosion protection system is operating to its design specifications and that
there are no in-service effects interfering with this.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current
system required for protection varies:
From metal to metal
With the geometry of the structure
With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value etc.)
With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit
Since the amount for current required for protection of any structure cannot be
accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of
checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density
of the structure at various places.
1.1 Inspection Requirements
Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are
therefore as follows: -
Visual inspection of the anode (both sacrificial and impressed current
nodes) for wear
Visual inspection of electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see
that it is intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there
are no breaks in the insulation of the supply cables
Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the
cathode by confirming the readings obtained are in the immunity range of
the Pourbaix diagram
Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current
system is providing adequate protection
Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting
and loss of wall thickness
The ultrasonic requirements are covered in Chapter 8
The potential measurements usually referred to as Cathode Potential (CP)
readings are obtained by:
Taking contact readings with a CP meter
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o By hand employing a diver with a hand-held instrument
o By mounting a contact probe on an ROV
Taking proximity readings with a proximity probe mounted on an ROV
Monitoring proximity readings via remotely mounted permanent sensors
with readout in a surface control room
Current density measurements and monitoring are obtained by:
Taking current density readings normally with an ROV mounted sensor
and usually for a specific requirement. This method is not used for
regular inspections
Monitoring potential and current through remotely mounted electrodes
incorporated into the impressed current system
2 Cathode Potential Measurement
The cathode potential is measured by using a reference electrode incorporated
into an instrument that has a readout calibrated in mV. As stated in the previous
Chapter these electrodes are commonly: -
High purity zinc
Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC) or
Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE) (this is more favoured for concrete
structures)
2.1 High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE)
High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is most commonly used with remote mounted
monitoring systems as shown in Chapter 5 Figure 5.9. The site for mounting the
electrode is selected because it is either, a representative site, it is an area of
marginal protection or it is an area of high stress and it is installed as part of the
impressed current system. The electrode is connected to a meter in the surface
control room. See Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1
High Purity Zinc Electrode (ZRE)
Chapter 6
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2.2 CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes
The most common reference electrode used in offshore corrosion monitoring is
Silver/silver chloride. This electrode is used extensively for both contact and
proximity applications whether diver or ROV deployed.
Ag/AgCl electrodes, most frequently referred to as half-cells (because they form
a cell when the meter is connected to the cathode) are utilised in several
contact CP probes, including the Bathycorrometer and the Morgan Berkeley
Rustreader, that are hand held, and ROV probes. They are commonly used as
proximity probes also.
When used in contact CP meters the probe contact tip is placed on the cathode
and the meter gives the readout in mV of the electrical potential between it and
the half-cell. Figure 6.2 refers for a hand-held meter. Figure 6.3 illustrates an
ROV contact probe and Figure 6.4 diagrammatically shows the proximity
method.
When taking proximity CP readings it is vital that a sound electrical connection
is made between the structure and the positive terminal of the surface control
room installed meter, as indicated in Figure 6.4
Figure 6.2
Diver-held CP Meter
(Bathycorrometer or similar)
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Figure 6.3
Contact CP Reading Taken By an ROV
Figure 6.4
Proximity CP Measurement
3 Current Density Measurements
Current density may be measured using a specialised probe mounted on an
ROV. This type of inspection would be undertaken for a specific purpose such
as investigating a particular area of the structure that was suspected of being
under-protected or following up a visual inspection that had identified more
Chapter 6
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corrosion than was anticipated. Specific procedures will be provided for this
type of survey.
As stated earlier impressed current systems may have reference electrodes
installed to monitor current flow and potential. Figure 5.10 shows a ZRE
monitoring potential and Figure 6.5 illustrates a monitored anode.
A monitored anode is a sacrificial anode that is isolated electrically from the
structure and is connected via an insulated cable to the surface control room.
Thus the current can be constantly monitored.
Figure 6.5
Monitored Electrode
4 Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters
It is necessary to calibrate CP meters to ensure that the readings obtained are
accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A standard method
of calibration has been adopted in the offshore industry for this purpose that is
detailed here.
4.1 Necessary Equipment
Three Calomel Electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three screw-
on calomel cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the
Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors, which
should be specified. The electric connector is provided so that the cells can be
proven as described below.)
High impedance (10 ) voltmeter
Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and electrical connector
Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which may contain
inhibitors)
Log sheets
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4.2 Procedure
The first part of the procedure proves that the calomel cells are chemically
saturated and sufficiently stable enough to be used as reference cells.
There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for
use with a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the
calomel cell. The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell;
however it is not possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with
solution. They are sealed, and to confirm they are saturated it is necessary to
unscrew a sealing cap to gain access to the solution reservoir.
Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of
solution. The solution is potassium chloride (K Cl) and if the solution is
saturated or supersaturated solid crystals may be seen in the phial.
(Commonly the phials are glass or clear plastic)
Label the electrodes 1,2 and 3
Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse
each one only as far as the filling hole in the phial
While the electrodes continue to soak connect electrode 1 to the
negative terminal of the voltmeter and electrode 2 to the positive terminal
and record the reading
Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes
1 and 3
2 and 3
o Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 0 2 mv
Figure 6.6
Proving Calomel Reference Cells
If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used
If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one
to use
If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used
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If all of the readings are either replace all the calomel cells or flush out
the phials with pure distilled water, obtain a new saturated solution of
potassium chloride, refill the phials and re-test
On completion of the entire procedure rinse the electrodes in fresh water.
Figure 6.6 refers.
The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter.
4.2.1 Calibration of the Meter
The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the same whether
it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed.
4.2.2 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer
There is slight difference in the application if the meter is a Bathycorrometer
being calibrated with the specifically designed screw-on cells. In this case the
following procedure applies.
Fully charge the CP meter batteries and soak in fresh seawater (not
drawn from the fire main)
Remove the contact probe tip from the meter
Screw the calomel reference electrode onto the Bathycorrometer instead
of the tip
Immerse the meter in the bucket at least far enough to submerge the
semi-permeable membrane. (The meter display may be left out of the
water to assist taking readings.)
Allow time for the meter to stabilise (approximately 10 minutes
maximum)
The voltage potential between the reference electrode and the meters
own Ag/AgCl cell is read off the meter display directly.
Record the reading on the log
o Acceptable readings are between 0 to -10 mV. (The reading will
be negative as the Ag/AgCl cell built into the hand-held meter is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter).
The calibration of other types of contact CP meters is by comparison. The
procedure is outlined under paragraph 4.3 below.
4.3 Overall Calibration of any CP Meter
Select the proven calomel electrode and immerse the tip for 30 minutes into a
plastic bucket on deck
Take a zinc block, attach a clamp and electric wire and place the block
into the same bucket
Connect the calomel electrode to the negative terminal of a high
resistance voltmeter via the electric cable attached to the electrode
Connect the zinc block to the positive terminal of the voltmeter via its
electric connector. (Immerse only the zinc, not the clamp or connector)
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Take a reading from the voltmeter. Acceptable readings are
1.00 V 5 mV. Record the reading on the log
Remove the zinc block and disconnect it from the clamp
Soak the CP meter assembly in a bucket of fresh seawater for 30
minutes
Place the zinc block into the same bucket as the CP meter and make
submerged contact between the probe tip and the zinc.
Take a reading from the CP meter. This reading should be the same as
that recorded from the calomel 10 mV (this proves the CP meter by
comparison)
Record the reading on the log
Remove the zinc and calomel cells from the seawater, wash in fresh
water, dry and store.
4.4 Calibration of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes
Before initiating this procedure ensure that the insulation on the conductors for
the proximity cell is intact. This may be achieved by using an insulation test
meter. The cable must be properly insulated to avoid any possibility of the
copper conductor being exposed to seawater and affecting the readings.
Select a proven calomel cell and immerse the tip in a bucket of fresh
seawater for 30 minutes
Immerse the Ag/AgCl proximity probe in the same bucket for the same
time
Connect the negative terminal of the high resistance voltmeter to the
Ag/AgCl half-cell
Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the calomel electrode
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 0 10 mV
Remove the calomel electrode and immerse the zinc block (only)
positioned 100 mm from the Ag/AgCl half-cell. The zinc block is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter system via the clamp and
electrical connection
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 1.00 V to 1.050 V
5 Operating Procedures
To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained
CP monitoring methods should follow a procedure as follows.
Ensure any self-contained meters are fully charged and maintain a
battery-charging log. (Usual requirements for battery-operated equipment
is 14 to 16 hours from fully discharged)
Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are
usually supplied with spare tips)
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Soak meters and half-cells for a minimum of 30 minutes before use.
(This allows time for ion penetration through the semi-permeable
membranes.)
Confirm the calibration of the system in use according to the appropriate
calibration procedure. Record the results on the appropriate log sheet
Record meter serial number and any other specified details on the
appropriate log sheet
Take a reference reading on zinc on the inspection site prior to starting
the survey
For each contact reading ensure that there is correct metal-to-metal
contact between the probe tip and the cathode surface.
With proximity probe surveys ensure there is a solid electrical connection
to the structure connected to the positive terminal of the surface
instrument
For proximity probe readings ensure the standoff between the probe and
the cathode is correct
During the course of the survey ensure that each reading is correctly
recorded on the appropriate log
On completion of the survey take another reference reading on zinc
Recover the equipment, wash in fresh water, dry and store. Charge any
battery-operated equipment as necessary and complete the battery-
charging log
Notes: -
Morgan-Berkley meters can be left soaking in a solution of silver chloride,
on trickle charge continuously if required
If a large number of readings are being taken it is prudent to take check
readings periodically during the survey
5.1 Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl
Following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel
structure
Over-protected structure <-1.10 V (<-1100 mV)
Zinc -1.00 to 1.05 V (-1000 to 1050 mV)
Protected Steel < -0.80 V (<-800 mV)
Unprotected Steel -0.45 to 0.65 V (-450 to 650 mV)
Calomel (K Cl) 0 to 0.01 V (0 to 10 mV)

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Bibliography
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Chapter 6
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Chapter 7
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CHAPTER 7
Welding and Welding Defects
1 Joining Metal Components
In considering joining, forming or shaping metal components there are four
ways in which they can be formed into shape. By machining, when the material
is cut away; by casting, where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place;
by forging, where the material is worked into shape; and by fabricating, where
the component is built up a bit at a time from different parts.
The components that are inspected underwater are almost all formed by
fabrication. This being the case, a closer look at this process is in order.
Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting
or riveting components together; by welding, where parts are joined together by
metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition from
the pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make a
bond (a stronger version of soldering); or by adhesive bonding, where parts are
glued together. The most important technique for consideration here is welding.
2 Fabricating Offshore Structures
Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore as has been indicated
in previous chapters. In fabricating the structures the designers choose to use
welding as the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is
extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all
faults and because of this welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not
about to fail. The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place
is of great assistance when inspecting welded joints because all techniques
have certain faults that are common to that technique. It is therefore important
to have some knowledge of the main type of welding.
3 Welding Processes
Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in
industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven major
groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics and thus
similar effects on the parent metals. The seven groups are:
Solid phase welding
Thermo-chemical welding
Electric-resistance welding
Unshielded arc welding
Radiant energy welding
Flux-shielded arc welding
Gas-shielded arc welding
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From the point of view of offshore structures and underwater inspection, the
following welding process is the most widely used.
3.1 Flux Shielded Arc Welding
This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is formed
between a consumable electrode and the work, the heat thus formed melts and
fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the filler metal and the flux is
used to prevent contamination. For example:
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding
This is the most widely used technique. In this process, heat to melt the
work piece is supplied by an electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and
melts down forming small drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the
flux forms molten slag that protects the weld together with protective gases
formed at the same time. See Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Common faults associated with MMA are:
Overlap
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Crater cracks
Arc strike
Incomplete penetration
Undercut
Excessive penetration
Chapter 7
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4 Types of Welded Joint
There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; however the vast
majority of these are not seen in the construction of offshore structures.
Therefore it is only necessary to have knowledge of only five types of joint.
4.1 The Butt Joint
The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at an
angle of between 135
o
and 180
o
. This joint is used to join pipe sections end to
end, welding plates together and numerous other applications. See Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2
Butt Joint
4.2 T Joint
The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5
o
to 90
o
. This
configuration is found on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other
areas. See Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3
T Joint
4.3 Lap Joint
The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between them
is 0
o
to 5
o
. See Figure 7.4.
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Figure 7.4
Lap Joint
4.4 Corner Joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle
between 30
o
and 135
o
. See Figure 7.5

Figure 7.5
Corner Joint
4.5 Cruciform Joint
A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the same
axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a cross. See
Figure 7.6.
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Figure 7.6
Cruciform Joint
5 Types of Weld
The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the
butt and the fillet.
A butt weld is defined as: -
A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is contained within
the planes of thickness of the joined parent metals.
A fillet weld is defined as: -
The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or
thickness.
The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld. See Figure 7.7
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Figure 7.7
Types of Weld
Butt and Fillet Welds
As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses
the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All
nodes including any Safety Critical Nodes on the structure will be constructed
with butt welds.
6 Welding Metallurgy
The welding processes outlined in paragraph 2 and the types of joint and types
of weld specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 are all designed for the purpose of
fixing components together safely for the entire duration of the design life of the
structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved the mechanism by which
welding takes place must be understood. The prime factor in welding is
temperature. The various welding processes, types of weld and types of joint
are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding process can be
dissipated uniformly as the molten metal cools once the weld metal is
deposited. To form an appreciation of how this occurs consider Figure 7.8.
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Figure 7.8
Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld
At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting
point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder
determine this temperature. The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be
along the parent plate. Between point 1 and 2, the temperature must raise
above the parent metal melting temperature so that fusion (i.e. melting the
parent plate and mixing with the weld pool metal) occurs. This region (between
point 1 and 2) is known as the fusion zone and can be readily seen if a sample
of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched. The temperature then reduces
from point 2 to 3, which is a region of the parent metal that has sufficient heat
input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat affected zone
(HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called annealing) is
to heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is
copper pipes for domestic water systems that are softened in this way in
order to bend them to required shapes. To achieve this softening effect a
material has to be heated above its re-crystallisation temperature (T
recry
).
Above this temperature, grains in the material will reform and grow.
In the diagram of the weld, Figure 7.8 this temperature is reached at point 3 so
that the material between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the re-
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crystallisation temperature will be liable to a change of properties. This region
can also be seen on a polished and etched sample of the weld.
The temperature continues to fall between point 3 and 4, which is ambient
temperature. Figure 7.8 only shows what is happening along the line AA; but of
course this happens throughout the section. This then, leads to the different
regions of the weld as shown in Figure 7.9 below and is a graphic indication of
the way temperature gradients have to be managed in any weld.
Figure 7.9
Weld Regions or Zones
This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat
energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat
flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as
quenching) make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the
formation of a structure known as martinsite. Martinsitic steel has a grain
structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less
tough (i.e. less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note that if the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed
to quench it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
6.1 Further Considerations for Weld Control
While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to
the finished quality of a weld there are several other factors that must also be
considered. Defects, for example porosity, often arise in welds due to gas
penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in the
weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the
atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and
other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in
preparation to see that the weld area is clean and dry. These products get into
the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the liquid metal of
the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in metal reduces
and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in the weld metal; or
sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal. Hydrogen diffusing into the
HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which may lead to cracking.
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause differential
expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in the weld or in
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the HAZ, the material is put under a permanent stress, unless a stress relieving
procedure is specified. This state of stress is referred to as a residual stress, so
that the normal working stress in imposed on top of and added to this residual
stress, thus giving an in-service stress that is higher that the normal design
working stress. The effect of residual stresses will be at the very least that the
fatigue life is shortened. At the moment, there is no way that these residual
stresses can be measured during the course of a routine inspection. (ACFM
may be developed for this purpose).
7 Welding Terms
There are a number of standard, defined, welding terms and also symbols that
are used internationally to define different parts or elements of welds. These
terms and symbols are defined in several international standards.
BS EN 24063:1992, ISO 4063:1990: Welding, brazing, soldering and
braze welding of metals. Nomenclature of processes and reference
numbers for symbolic representation on drawings
BS EN 22553:1995: Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic
representation on drawings
BS EN ISO 5817:2003: Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel,
titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for
imperfections
BS EN 13622:2002: Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms
used for gas welding equipment
BS 499-1:1991: Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding,
brazing and thermal cutting
(This standard has the status of being current, partially replaced by BS EN 13622:2002)
A list of extracts from these standards that may apply to in-service inspection is
compiled below.
7.1 Plate Preparation Terms
Double V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form two opposing Vs in
section, welded from both sides
Included angle of a butt weld
The angle between the prepared faces
Included angle of a fillet weld
The angle between the parent plates
Parent plate
The metals that are to be joined by the weld
Prepared angle, weld prep
The angle of bevel between the prepared face and the perpendicular
Prepared face
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The bevelled portion of the parent plate prior to welding
Root gap
Separation between the parent plates to be joined
Root face
The un-bevelled portion of the parent plate adjacent to the root gap
Single bevel butt weld
A butt weld that has only one prepared face, welded from one side only
Single V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form a V in section, welded from
one side only
Figure 7.10 refers
Figure 7.10
Standard Weld Terms for Plate Preparation
7.2 Terms Defining Weld Features
Cap, Face of the weld
The visible face of the completed weld
Excess weld metal
The weld metal lying outside the line joining the weld toes
Toe of the weld
The junction between the cap and the parent plate
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Root
The point where the back of the weld intersects the back face of the parent
plate
Weld zone
The area containing the weld and both heat affected zones
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
The part of the parent plate that has been affected by heat from the welding
process but which has not melted
Throat thickness
The total thickness of the weld metal
Effective throat thickness (design throat thickness)
Weld thickness for design purposes, usually a line between both toes and
the root
Weld width
The shortest distance between the toes of the weld
Toe blend
The transition between the weld material and the parent plate
Leg (of a fillet weld)
The distance from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld
Figure 7.11 refers
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Figure 7.11
Weld Feature Terminology
7.3 Welding Process Terminology
Filler rod
The filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440 mm long used in MMA
welding
Filler bead
When the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler rod the
successive passes are called filler beads
Run or pass
The weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod
Weldment
An alternative term to describe the weld zone
Fusion zone
The edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and the root face along
which the weld metal fuses with the parent plate
Root bead
Weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back wall of the
parent plate
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Figure 7.12 refers
Figure 7.12
Weld Process Terminology
7.4 Welded Nodes and Nozzles
Underwater in-service inspection of offshore oil platforms is almost exclusively
on pipe work and will involve inspection of pipe joints. These will be nodes or
nozzles.
Node
A node is a T or cruciform joint between two pipes that only has preparation
on the minor member, a single bevel weld. The minor tubular is called the
brace and it is this member that has the preparation. The major tubular is
known as the chord. In joints where both members are the same size the
through tubular is the chord.
Nozzle
Both tubular members have preparation, which also means that the chord
has a hole to match the brace. This is a full penetration butt-welded joint.
This type of joint is commonly found in pipelines and where fluid flow is
required.
Figure 7.13 refers.
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Figure 7.13
Nodes and Nozzles
8 Weld Defect Terminology
An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in a weld but
subsequently be able to describe this fault accurately. In common with welding
terminology this aspect of welding also has internationally agreed and defined
terms. In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO
5817:2003 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this
standard weld defect terminology is also defined. The different types of defect
are listed in 6 categories.
Cracks
Cavities
Solid inclusions
Lack of fusion and penetration
Imperfect shape
Miscellaneous
Chapter 7
Page 100 of 253
Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be
found on the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector but
knowledge of a representative sample of standard terms from all categories will
assist any inspector when reporting findings and conversing with other
engineers.
8.1 Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be; -
Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Centreline
Toe
HAZ
Figure 12.14 and 12.15 refer.
Figure 12.14
Cracks
Figure 12.15
HAZ Cracking

Page 101 of 253
8.2 Cavities
There are a number of flaws that are covered by this category.
Porosity
Gas pores that may be located in different locations
Elongated cavities
A string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis
Shrinkage cavity
A cavity cause by shrinkage of the weld metal while it is in a plastic state
Crater
A depression caused by shrinkage at the end of a run if the heat is removed
quickly
Crater pipe
A hole in the centre of a crater again caused by shrinkage
See Figure 12.16
Figure 12.16
Cavities
8.3 Solid Inclusions
These are volumetric defects that are caused by solids trapped in the weld pool
before it solidifies.
Chapter 7
Page 102 of 253

Figure 12.17
Slag Inclusions
8.4 Lack of Fusion and Penetration
Lack of fusion
The weld metal has not bonded
Lack of sidewall fusion
No union between the weld metal and the parent plate. See Figure 12.17
Lack of root fusion
No bonding at the root of the weld joint
Incomplete root penetration
No weld metal extending into the root of the weld
Figure 12.18 refers
Page 103 of 253

Figure 12.18
Lack of Fusion and Penetration
8.5 Imperfect Shape
Excess weld metal
Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes
Excess penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the root
Root concavity
A shallow grove in the root
Incompletely filled grove
A grove caused by insufficient weld metal being laid onto the cap
Undercut
A grove in the toe of the weld where parent plate is gouged due to the
welding current
Overlap
Chapter 7
Page 104 of 253
Weld metal spilled over from the cap onto the parent plate outside the line of
the toe that has not fused with the parent metal
Burn through
A collapse in the weld pool caused by excessive penetration resulting in a
hole in the weld
Unequal leg length
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), describing different leg
lengths on a fillet weld, usually a T joint
Poor restart
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), an irregular start or
pick-up after one bead is ended or interrupted and the next arc strike is
imperfectly aligned with the previous bead
Misalignment
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), poor fit-up resulting in
the parent plates being out of alignment either laterally or angularly
See Figure 12.19 and 12.20
Figure 12.19
Imperfect shape
8.6 Miscellaneous
Stray flash, or arc strike
Burn marks on the parent metal caused by striking arcs with the welding rod
off the line of the weld
Excessive dressing
Page 105 of 253
Grinding away too much weld metal and leaving the weld below the depth of
the parent plate
Grinding mark
Groves or marks on the parent plate caused by poorly controlled grinding or
surfacing tools
Tool mark
Marks indented into the parent plate caused by chipping hammers or similar
hand tools
Hammer mark
Obvious damage caused by a hammer blow
Torn surface
Surface irregularity caused by breaking off temporary attachments
Surface pitting
Small depressions on the parent plate
Spatter
Spots of weld metal thrown out from the weld pool and attaching themselves
to the parent plate
Dog scar
A welding scar left over after removal of a dog, which is a temporary metal
fixing used to stabilise the parent plates during the welding process
See Figure 12.20
Figure 12.20
Miscellaneous Defects

Chapter 7
Page 106 of 253
9 Defect Categories and Reporting
Internal weld defects are categorised broadly into two types: -
Planar Defects:
These have a large surface area but small volume such as cracks and
laminations. They are essentially 2 dimensional.
Volumetric Defects:
Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws that have a large volume
compared to surface area are in this category. They are 3 dimensional and
will also include undercut and lack of penetration. This category of defect is
caused during fabrication, not in-service; while planar defects may be
caused by in-service deterioration.
9.1 Reporting Defects in Welds
As diver inspectors are concerned with in-service inspections volumetric defects
will seldom be identified as they are usually caused during fabrication. Planar
defects may be observed as these could be caused by stress or fatigue failure
leading to crack-like features becoming evident. This type of discontinuity will be
of most concern in the toe of the weld, which is also the zone where it is most
likely to be found. This is because at this point there is a region that has been
heated and melted causing grain structure changes as outlined earlier. Also in
this area the geometry of the weld changes, which may create a notch effect
that, is an area where stress is increased above the average for the rest of the
component.
Any defects identified must be reported by recording at least: -
The type of defect
Describe the defect with correct terminology
Location
State the global location, i.e. what component is damaged, where on the
component is the damage (state the clock position), give the relative
location, i.e. is it on the HAZ, in the toe, on the weld cap or in the parent
plate
Dimensions
State the start position and give length. If the defect is a crack-like feature
state whether it is continuous or branching, the orientation and if it is
measurable give width and depth
Description
Describe the feature, if it is a crack is it branching, if it is state the orientation
of the branches
9.2 Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters
During fabrication the weld dimensions are checked and verified against the
weld design specifications to ensure that the welding is completed to the
required quality to meet design parameters ensuring that it is fit for purpose.
Page 107 of 253
Welding inspectors will confirm that the welds meet these requirements and for
the visual elements of the inspection requirements there are a number of
measuring gauges, templates and devices that are employed. These
instruments are available for in-service inspections a review of a selection will
be of interest for underwater applications.
9.2.1 The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge
This is a gauge specially designed to accurately measure weld reinforcement
height, leg length, throat thickness and depth of lack of fill. Figure 12.21 refers
Figure 12.21
Welding Institute Gauge
Measuring Various Weld Parameters
9.2.2 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge
This gauge is specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as indicated in
Figure 12.22
Figure 12.22
Welding Institute
Leg Length Gauge
Chapter 7
Page 108 of 253

Bibliography
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Principles of welding technology
L M Gourd
Page 109 of 253
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Chapter 8
Page 110 of 253
CHAPTER 8
Ultrasonic Inspection
1 Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is based on the behaviour of an ultrasonic sound wave as
it passes through the material under inspection. The ultrasonic wave is a stress
pulse travelling at the speed of sound within the material under test. Such a
wave travels in straight lines and will be partially reflected from any interface in
its path. Measurements of the time interval between the transmitted wave and
the reflected wave will give information about the length of the waves path
through the material. From this information the thickness of materials can be
measured and the presence of flaws can be detected. For offshore applications
this NDT method is used regularly for corrosion monitoring and occasionally for
weld inspection.
2 Producing Ultrasound
Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in which sound waves pass through
the material under test. Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has been
determined that at frequencies in this part of the frequency spectrum sound
waves travel furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Thus the greatest
penetration into solid materials is achieved by this selection. Table 8.1 refers.
2.1 What Is Ultrasonic?
Ultrasound is sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of human hearing.
The frequency spectrum at Figure 8.1 refers.
Page 111 of 253

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Velocity of a wave = Frequency x wavelength (f x ) Speed of sound in air = 330 m sec
-1

Speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 10
8
m sec
-1

Sound Waves
(Travelling at the speed of sound)
Frequency
(kHz)
Electro-magnetic Waves
(Travelling at the speed of light)
Infrasound
2 x 10
-2
kHz (20 kHz)
10
-3

10
-2

10
-1
1

10 VLF
10
2
LF
Sonar uses frequencies in the audio range
Human hearing range
10
3
MF
2.5 kHz 10
4
HF
10
5
VHF
Ultrasonic frequency test range
10
6
UHF
10 MHz 10
7
SHF
10
8

Radio frequencies
EHF
10
9

10
10

Infra-red
10
11
3.8 Red
10
12
7.6 Visible
10
13

10
14

Ultra-violet
10
15

10
16

X-rays
10
17

10
18

-rays
10
19

10
20

10
21

10
22

10
23

Cosmic radiation
Table 8.1
The Frequency Spectrum
Chapter 8
Page 112 of 253
The ultrasonic sound wave range of frequency is from 20 kHz up to
approximately 6 MHz. For most practical ultrasonic testing the frequency range
from 0.5 to 6 MHz is used. Frequencies lower than 0.5 MHz are not used for
test purposes while the lower frequencies between 0.5 and 1.5 MHz are used
for testing materials with very large grain structures such as concrete or cast
iron. Frequencies from 2 to 6 MHz are used for testing materials with fine grain
structures including steels.
2.2 Frequency of the Wave
The number of oscillations it causes per second determines the frequency of a
signal. The basic unit of frequency is the Hertz, abbreviated Hz. One Hertz is
one complete cycle of an event per second.

The time for one cycle is known as the periodic time (P) and is measured in
seconds. Therefore: -

See Figure 8.2, which displays a graph for an alternating voltage

Figure 8.2
Graph of a Signal with a Frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz)
Considering a sound wave it can be compared with Figure 8.2 in that as the
sound wave train passes through a material it propagates a stress front that
causes the atoms within the crystal lattice structure of the material to be
alternatively tensile and compressively stressed and relaxed.
Page 113 of 253

Figure 8.3
The Stress Variation with Time at a
Point in a Solid Subjected To Ultrasonic Impulse
from an Ultrasonic Transducer
The frequency of the signal shown in Figure 8.3 may be calculated thus: -

The periodic time (the time taken for one cycle) is calculated hence: -

It is not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to frequency.
Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes thus: -
Chapter 8
Page 114 of 253

Number Engineering Prefix Symbol
1,000,000,000 10
9
giga G
1,000,000 10
6
mega M
1,000 10
3
Kilo K
1 1
0.001 10
-3
milli m
0.000001 10
-6
micro
Table 8.4
Number Prefixes Used With Frequency
The frequency calculated above would normally be written as 10 kHz and the
period of the signal as 100 sec.
2.3 Speed of the Wave
So far only the effects of the wave passing one point in the material have been
considered. However, the wave itself is passing along through the material.
(Like a surface wave on water, the water at any point goes up and down, but as
well as this, the wave travels forwards).
Ultrasonic waves travel through a solid at the speed of sound for a given type of
wave in a given material. That is, the speed of travel of a sound wave is
different for different types of wave and the speed of travel is also different in
different materials.
2.4 Types of Ultrasonic Wave
Sound waves propagate through a material (liquid, solid or gas) by causing the
atoms to oscillate as the wave front passes through it. There are two types of
wave that propagate through the solid material and three types that propagate
as surface wave along the surface skin of the material.
2.4.1 Waves That Propagate Through Solids
The two type of wave that propagate through a solid are discussed below.
2.4.1.1 Longitudinal or Compression Waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L. Thus, V
L
is the velocity of
propagation of these longitudinal or compression waves. With this type of wave
propagation, the direction of oscillation of the atoms is the same as the direction
of the wave propagation. Figure 8.5 refers.
Page 115 of 253

Figure 8.5
Longitudinal or Compression Wave
2.4.1.2 Shear or Transverse Waves
Shear or transverse waves are denoted by the symbol T. Thus V
T
is the velocity
of propagation of these waves. The direction of oscillation of the atoms in this
mode of travel is at right angles to the direction of motion of the propagating
wave. Figure 8.6 refers.

Figure 8.6
Transverse or Shear Wave
Chapter 8
Page 116 of 253

Figure 8.7
Diagrammatic Representation of the Movement of the
Atoms as a Shear Wave Passes through the Material
If Figure 8.7 is compared with Figure 8.5 it may be seen that both diagrams
represent the wave at a given instant in time. The main difference is in the
movement of the atoms. Whereas in the compression wave the atoms are
compressed and pulled apart in the direction that the wave is moving, the
shear wave atoms are displaced pass each other that is sheared.
2.4.2 Surface Waves
Of the three types of surface wave used in ultrasonic testing none have uses in
underwater inspection.
Raleigh Waves
The Raleigh Wave is the main type of surface wave. These waves travel
only on the surface of the material. The atomic motion of the wave is
elliptical, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the surface, thus
resembling a surface wave on water. The wave can be easily damped out if
the surface is in contact with either a solid or a fluid. This mode of travel is
not used underwater.
Lamb Waves
These waves are generated when the thickness of the material is
comparable with the wavelength of the Lamb wave. There are two main
types of Lamb waves, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Each has a series of
modes of travel. In this respect they differ from the wave trains mentioned so
far that only propagate in one mode. On land, Lamb waves are applied for
testing thin wall tubing and for laminar defects, which lie very close to the
Page 117 of 253
surface of the part. They are also used to test the quality of bond in laminate
materials.
Love Waves
Love waves travel on the surface of the material without a vertical
component of displacement, which makes them analogous to a surface
compression wave motion.
Table 8.7 summarises properties of these modes of propagation.
Type of
Wave
Symbol Condition Atomic Motion Single
Velocity
Comments on
Underwater Use
Longitudinal
or
Compression
V
L
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Longitudinal
that is, in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes Used for
thickness and
lamination
measurement
Shear or
Transverse
V
T
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Transverse
that is, at right
angles to the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes Used for defect
sizing
Raleigh
(often
referred to as
surface
waves)
V
S
Semi-infinite
free surface
Compound
that is, motion
up and down as
well as in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes Not used
underwater
Lamb (plate
waves)
V
RN
Thin sheet Compound No Not used
underwater
Thin rods V
O
Small diameter
bars
Compound Yes Not used
underwater
Table 8.7
Properties of Ultrasonic Waves
3 Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves
In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within
any material it is a fundamental principal that the velocity of the sound wave
remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the
case; furthermore the ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can therefore
be used with confidence for inspection tasks.
A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here in a
selection of materials is shown in Table 8.8.
Chapter 8
Page 118 of 253

Acoustic Velocity (ms
-1
) Density
(kgm
-3
)
Modulus
(GNm
-2
)
Modulus
(GNm
-2
)
Material
V
L
V
T
V
S
V
O
E G
Aluminium 6350 3100 2900 5100 2710 70.8 26.5
Araldite 2500 1200
Concrete 4600 2000
Brass (Naval) 4430 2120 1950 3490 8100 98.4 36.4
Copper 4660 2260 1930 3710 8900 122.7 45.5
Lead (Pure) 2160 700 630 1200 11400 16.1 5.6
Air 333 1
Bronze,
Phosphor (5%)
3530 2230 2010 3430 8860
Lead,
Antimony (6%)
2160 810 740 1370 10900
Steel
(Structural)
5940 3250 7850 213.3 82.9
Steel 5850 3230 2790 5170 7800
Steel
Stainless 302
5660 3120 3120 4900 8030
Steel
Stainless 410
7390 2990 2160 5030 7670
Water 1490 1000
Motor Oil 1740 870
Transformer
Oil
1380 920
Nylon 2620 1080 1100 3.59 1.28
Polyethylene 2340 925 940 2.26 0.80
Perspex
(Plexi-glass)
2730 1430 1180 6.33 2.41
Table 8.8
Acoustic Velocities for Different Modes
in Selected Materials
4 Ultrasonic Wavelength
A further property of the ultrasonic wave is its wavelength. This property
indicates how far the ultrasonic stress wave moves forward during one
complete stress cycle and has to be considered when the maximum sensitivity
of any ultrasonic test is being assessed.
The method of calculation is shown in the following equations.
Page 119 of 253

For example, to calculate the wavelength for a 20 kHz ultrasonic compression
wave in aluminium: -

Now calculate the wavelength for a 5 MHz compression probe in steel.
(Answer 1.17 x 10-3m or 1.17mm)
What would the wavelength be if it were a shear wave?
(Answer 6.46 x 10-4m or 0.646mm)
Because the wavelength depends on the velocity of sound, the wavelength of
the ultrasonic signal will change when it passes from one material into another.
For example, when an ultrasonic compression wave passes from perspex into
steel, (perspex would be the material used for the shoe of the transducer and
steel the work piece), the wavelength in steel would be larger than that in the
perspex as the velocity of sound in perspex is smaller than the velocity in steel.
Refer to Table 8.9 and Figure 8.9 below.

Figure 8.9
Compression Wave Passing From One
Material (Perspex) Into another (Steel)
Chapter 8
Page 120 of 253

5 Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials
As the ultrasonic signal propagates through a material a pressure or stress front
will be initiated in the material which will present resistance to the passage of
the sound wave energy. The amount of resistance will depend on the properties
of the material. This is a useful parameter of a material and must be determined
if the pressure or stress magnitude of the ultrasonic wave is to be determined.
5.1 Acoustic Impedance (Z)
The resistance to the passage of ultrasound is called acoustic impedance (Z). It
is the product of density () and acoustic velocity (V). That is: -
Z = x V
(For a compression wave, V would be VL).
5.2 Acoustic Attenuation
A further effect on the sound wave is the reduction in energy of the wave as it
passes through the material. Large amounts of attenuation will reduce the
penetrability of the wave and a loss of the back wall reflection could be caused
by this effect.
The main physical phenomena that attenuate the ultrasonic signal are,
Scattering
Diffusion
Viscous damping losses
Relaxation losses
The first two are due to the wave motion of the ultrasound and the second two
are due to the effect of stressing the atoms in the material.
5.3 The Decibel System
It is usual to measure the amplitude performance or how much a signal is
attenuated in terms of the ratio of one signal to another; e.g. input to output; in
the case of an amplifier the output is larger than the input, while with an
attenuator the reverse is the case. It is therefore consistent to measure the
attenuation of a signal using this technique. It is not an absolute measurement
but gives the relationship of the decay of the power in a signal as it passes
through a piece of material. Figure 8.10 refers.
Page 121 of 253

Figure 8.10
Power in the Ultrasonic Signal
Will Decrease With Distance into the Material
The amount of signal attenuation is given by the curve that joins up the peaks of
the graphs and the attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by

P
1
and P
2
can be any successive two peaks.
This can be calculated mathematically by logarithms using the formula: -
20 Log
10
V1/V2 dB
This last expression is a standard ultrasonic formula for calculating the
attenuation of a signal in dB.
For example, what is the attenuation of the ultrasonic signal between the first
and second echo for the signals shown in Figure 8.11
Chapter 8
Page 122 of 253

Figure 8.11
Attenuation of the Ultrasonic Signal
between the First and Second Echoes

= 20 log10 (1.5)
= 20 x 0.1761
= 3.52 dB
What would the attenuation be if V2 were exactly half V1 and what would
it be if V2 were one-tenth V1?
(Answer 6 dB and 20 dB)
The last two calculated results are most important, as they are both utilised in
practical material testing. It should be remembered that if the signal is halved
that is a 6 dB drop and if the signal is one tenth that is a 20 dB drop. A table
showing the ratios associated with gains of 0 to 20 dB is shown as Table 8.12.
Page 123 of 253

Decibel Gain Ratio V
1
to V
2
Comments
0 1.0 No change, the ratio is 1:1
2 1.26
4 1.6
6 2.0 Double the value (half for loss) ration 2:1
8 2.5
10 3.2
12 4.0 Four fold (or quarter for loss) ratio 4:1
14 5.0
16 6.3
18 7.9
20 10.0 Ten fold (or one tenth for loss) ratio 10:1
Table 8.12
Decibel Gain for the Range 0 to 20 dB
5.4 The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave
Thus far it has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a know
speed in a straight line and it has been mentioned that the wave obeys the laws
of light. In order to predict the direction that the wave travels as it passes
through interfaces into different materials it is necessary to determine what
happens when the wave meets an interface.
An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties (e.g.
water and steel, perspex and steel, water and air etc.).
An interface will include the outside edges of a component and indeed, the back
surface is referred to as the back wall. Similarly the surfaces of a crack or a
porosity bubble are boundaries also.
At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of travel of
the wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the law of reflection
for the wave moving in the initial material (material 1) and the law of refraction
(Snells Law) for the wave that passes into the second material (material 2).
5.4.1 Law of Reflection
This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with the normal angle to the
interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same as the angle that
the incident wave makes with the same normal angle. Figure 8.13 refers.
Chapter 8
Page 124 of 253

Figure 8.13
Reflection of an Ultrasound
Wave from an Interface
When the angle of incidence is 0
o
the reflected angle is also 0
o
so the wave is
reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling in the same
material therefore there will be no change in wavelength of the signal or the
mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for thickness
measurement using ultrasonic compression waves.
5.4.2 Law of Refraction
At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will pass into
the second material. The path in the second material will still be a straight line,
but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with the direction of the
incident wave, as it will have been turned through an angle that can be
determined by Snells Law.
Snells Law of Refraction states that: -

Angle need not be larger than as shown in Figure 8.14. The value of is
determined by the properties of material 1 and material 2. The wavelength will
always change between the two materials.
Page 125 of 253

Figure 8.14
Snells Law
The constant in Snells Law is the ratio of the velocity of sound in the two
materials, so that Snells Law can be written: -
As there are two velocities of sound in a material, VL and VT, if the incident
wave can cause these then there will be two resulting refracted waves.
Now an incident compression (longitudinal) wave at an angle can produce two
stress waves, or forces, at the interface, as it has a component parallel to the
interface given by sine that will produce a shear wave in material 2 and a
normal component given by cos that will produce a compression wave in
material 2. See Figure 8.15.
Chapter 8
Page 126 of 253
Figure 8.15
Force Exerted by the Incident
Wave on the Interface
Both these resulting waves in material 2 will be turned from the incident
direction by an angle determined by Snells Law and the velocity of sound in the
two materials. Figure 8.16 refers.
Page 127 of 253
Figure 8.16
Reflected and Refracted Shear Wave and
Compression Wave at an Interface of Two Materials
The angle that the compression wave makes with the normal in material 2 is
determined from Snells Law, which gives: -
VL
1
= velocity of sound in 1
VL
2
= velocity of sound in 2
Therefore
L
is the angle whose sine is equal to: -
The angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material 2 is
again determined using Snells Law, except that this time the velocity of sound
of the shear wave V
T2
is used in the equation, so that: -
Thus the angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material
2 (
T
) is the angle whose sine is: -
Example: -
Chapter 8
Page 128 of 253
Determine the resultant wave angle and wavelengths when an ultrasonic
compression wave of 50 kHz travelling in perspex meets an interface
with steel at an angle of 10
o
to the normal.
From Table 8.9
V
L
in perspex is 2730 ms
-1

V
L
in steel is 5850ms
-1

V
T
in steel is 3230ms
-1

The incident compression wave in perspex will, on meeting the interface,
produce three ultrasonic waves.
o A reflected compression wave in the perspex
o A refracted compression wave in the steel
o A refracted shear wave in the steel
See Figure 8.17.
Figure 8.17
Diagram of Wave Configuration
from a Perspex Block at 10
o

5.4.2.1 The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex
The law of reflection tells us that the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence, so that the reflected wave makes an angle of 10
o
to the normal.
Page 129 of 253
The wavelength of the reflected wave will be the same as the incident wave, as
they are both compressive and travelling at the same speed. The wavelength is
calculated from the equation: -
5.4.2.2 Refracted Compression Wave in the Steel
For this wave Snells Law gives the angle of refraction thus: -
The wavelength of the compression wave in steel is: -
5.4.2.3 The Refracted Shear Wave in the Steel
Similarly Snells Law gives: -

Chapter 8
Page 130 of 253
The wavelength of the shear wave in steel is given by: -
5.4.2.4 First and Second Critical Angles
If the last calculations are followed and projected it will be seen there are two
critical angles. These are angles of inclination of the incident wave at which the
ultrasonic compression or shear wave will not pass into material 2 from
material 1.
The first critical angle is when the refracted compression wave angle (path 4 in
Figure 8.17) is 90
O
. This means, of course, that the only wave transmitted is the
shear wave.
As the incident angle to the normal increases, the second critical angle is
reached. At this angle, the shear wave is passing along the interface as a
surface wave, having gone through a change of mode.
Show that for the data given in the previous example, the first critical angle
is 27.8
o
and the second critical angle is 57.7
o
.
6 Test Frequency
The test frequency used for flaw detection in land-based equipment varies with
different applications. Table 8.18 gives some examples of frequency and
application.
Applications Frequency Range
Concrete
Wood
Natural rocks
25 100 kHz
Coarse grain metal structures (e.g. cast iron,
copper, stainless steel)
200 kHz 1 MHz
Finer grain metal structures 400 kHz 5 MHz
Plastics 200 kHz 2.25 MHz
Forgings 1 10 MHz
Welds 1 2.25 MHz
Table 8.18
Selected Applications and Frequencies
7 Ultrasonic Transducers
A transducer is any device that transforms energy from one form to another.
Page 131 of 253
In the case of the ultrasonic transducer, it transforms high frequency electrical
signals to the same high frequency mechanical signals and vice versa. There
are two possible types of device for doing this. At the lower frequency end of the
scale (below 100 kHz) a magneto-strictive device is used, and above this range
Piezo electric devices are used. At the moment, ultrasonic non-destructive
testing uses Piezo electric devices, while magneto-strictive devices are widely
used in sonar and underwater signalling.
Magneto-strictive devices use the expansion and contraction of magnetic
materials under the influence of a varying magnetic field, to generate a
mechanical pulse from a magnetic signal. The device also works in reverse,
the input of a mechanical signal generating a magnetic signal.
The Piezo electric transducer makes use of the property that certain
crystalline and ceramic materials have whereby, if the material is subjected
to a mechanical extension of contraction, it generates an electrical signal
related to the size of the mechanical input. This effect is also reversible; an
electrical signal will generate mechanical extensions and contractions. Early
transducers were made from quartz, and Rochelle salt crystals, but now they
are made from a range of synthetic crystalline and ceramic materials that
include barium titanate, lithium sulphate and potassium zirconium titanate.
In practice the transducer is mounted in a probe assembly for protection and to
enable electrical connections to be made. The crystal is fitted with electrodes;
often silver foil, to apply the voltage across the crystal if it is acting as a
transmitter, or to take the voltage signal from it if it is acting as a receiver. The
crystal is attached to the case by the mounting, which acts not only as a fixing
but also as a backing to the crystal. The backing has a significant influence on
the transducers performance. Its impedance controls the bandwidth of the
transducer and the damping of the crystals ring. For maximum damping, the
impedance of the backing must equal the impedance of the crystal. Also, it must
have the ability to attenuate completely the sonic energy transmitted from the
back of the Piezo electric element so that this signal is prevented from returning
to the back of the Piezo electric crystal, which would thereby produce an
unwanted signal.
A shoe is added to protect the crystal from physical damage or wear, and also
from the environment. Most transducers are completely sealed units.
Furthermore, the shoe can be shaped to act as a lens. In this respect, sound
waves behave like light waves and acoustic lenses are designed in a similar
manner to light lenses.
The shoe should absorb as little of the sound as possible and so its impedance
is usually selected to be between the crystal and the material with which the
transducer is in contact. Shoes are often constructed of perspex.
Also, a probe that operates in a shear mode can be produced from a Piezo
electric crystal that operates in a longitudinal mode, by having a wedge-shaped
shoe. The wedge shape directs the longitudinal wave at an angle to the surface
of the test part. Depending on the angle of incidence, this will produce partial or
total conversion of the longitudinal wave into a shear wave, as previously seen.
Figure 8.19 refers.
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Figure 8.19
Basic Arrangement of a
Single Crystal Transducer
7.1 Types of Transducers (Probes)
There are a number of different types of probes some designed for specific
tasks. However, in the sphere of underwater inspection and NDT it is only
necessary to be familiar with the main types.
All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the test specimen
with maximum efficiency. The configuration of any probe is dependant on the
actual task it is designed for. There are broadly four types of probe.
Single Crystal Probes
Twin Crystal Probes
Compression or Zero Degree Probes
Angle Probes
7.1.1 Single Crystal Probes
These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric crystal that both
transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The acoustic characteristics of this
transducer are quite specific and the selected crystals possess particular
characteristics. The crystal must transmit the signal, stop ringing, ring down to
rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring up to produce electrical energy that is
passed onto the receiver amplifier.
So, the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely separated from
the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test. Figure 8.19 indicates the main
design features of a single crystal compression probe.
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7.1.2 Twin Crystal Probes
This type of transducer has separate crystals for transmission and reception.
The two crystals are mounted in the same housing but are carefully isolated
from each other electrically and acoustically. The material properties of the
crystals are quite different from those of the single crystal probe because the
two crystals are not required to ring down in order to receive. One is constantly
transmitting while the other is constantly receiving. The electrical isolation is
achieved by providing two co-axial connectors one for transmit and one to
receive, while the acoustic barrier is generally a thin layer of cork. This is the
arrangement for the transducers mounted on the Baugh and Weedon Sea
Probe and the Wells Krautkramer D meter. Figure 8.20 refers.

Figure 8.20
Twin Crystal Compression Probe
7.1.3 Compression or Zero Degree Probes
This type of probe transmits longitudinal waves that are transmitted into the test
specimen at the normal angle. Thus there is no refraction and the signal passes
directly through the specimen at the normal. This type of probe may be single or
twin crystal. Figures 8.19 and 8.20 refer
7.1.4 Angle Probes
Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the material at
an angle to the interface, and not perpendicular, as is the case of normal angle
probes. The angle is determined to either match the weld angle of preparation
or to introduce the beam at an angle most propitious to reflect from internal
defects. As has been shown this type of probe, in accordance with Snells Law,
can produce shear and compression waves, purely shear waves or surface
waves depending on the probe angle. Figure 8.21 refers.
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Figure 8.21
Single Crystal Angle Probe Using a Piezo electric
Crystal in Compression Mode, The Angle on the Wedge
Producing a Shear Wave in the Material
7.2 Probe Selection
Ultrasonic probes are selected depending on their output characteristics. Single
crystal probes have:
Advantages
Good power output
Greater penetration
Disadvantages
Poor near zone resolution
Cannot measure thin plate accurately
Twin crystal probes:
Advantages
Good near zone resolution
Initial pulse and dead zone are contained in the shoe
Can be focused to any depth
Can measure thin plate
Disadvantages
Less power output
Less penetration
8 Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the transducer and the test surface. This is because
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the small mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists
between the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance
between the shoe of the transducer and the air. For land-based tests, liquids,
greases or pastes are therefore used. Under the sea, the equivalent of the land
based immersion technique exists and transmission across the gap between
the work piece and the probe is not a problem. The surface of the work piece
must, of course, be free from marine fouling or other detritus on the surface as
this would attenuate and scatter the ultrasonic signal to such an extent that it
would not enter the work piece.
9 The Ultrasonic Beam
In order to use the passage of the ultrasonic wave through the material to
search for defects, it is necessary that the effective volume of the material
covered by the beam be visualised. An easy analogy for this is to visualise a
beam of light from a hand torch (flashlight) as this illustrates an ultrasonic beam
exactly.
The shape of the beam can be considered as a short cylindrical portion
containing the Dead Zone and Near Zone followed by a conically shaped Far
Zone (or Far Region).
9.1 The Dead Zone
This is the region immediately ahead of the crystal face. It is a zone that cannot
differentiate reflected signals from defects due to the interference caused by
ringing the crystal to produce the initial pulse. This interference is due to the
crystal vibrations taking time to reach resonance and then taking time to return
to rest. During this ringing period spurious harmonic frequencies are produced
and while the crystal is being stimulated electrically it cannot simultaneously be
stimulated mechanically. The volume of this region is extremely dependant
upon the electronic circuitry that governs pulse length, amplifier recovery time
gain setting and selection of the crystal itself.
This region is usually of the order of 1 to 3 wavelengths in depth and the probe
designer will normally construct the probe so that it is contained within the
dimensions of the shoe. This region of the beam cannot be used for testing.
9.2 The Near Zone
This is the name given to the cylindrical portion of the beam that extends from
the face of the crystal to a predictable depth. As it commences at the crystal
face it includes the dead zone. The depth or length of the near zone is
calculated using the expression: -
D = crystal diameter
4 = constant
= wavelength
This equation calculates the length of the near zone from the crystal face in one
material. If, however, the near zone is not contained within the shoe, an
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allowance must be made for the change in near zone length as the ultrasonic
beam travels from one material into another with a consequent change in
wavelength.
It is possible to identify reflectors in the near zone but it is not possible to size
defects because of the variations in signal intensity that is a characteristic of this
region.
9.3 The Far Zone
In the far zone (or region) the ultrasonic beam spreads from a cylindrical shape
to a cone, as can be visualised by considering a torch of flashlight beam. The
boundary of the cone is defined by the degree of attenuation of the maximum
power at any cross-section of the cone to a given level of reduced power, either
a 6 dB or 20 dB drop.
The angle of spread of the cone is defined as , (in Figure 8.22 the cone angle
is indicated as being /2, which shows the actual angle of spread from the edge
of the cylindrical region of the beam. This angle subtends angle at the face of
the crystal) the following equation is used to calculate the angle of spread of the
far zone from the boundary of the near zone, which is /2: -
= wavelength
D = diameter of the crystal
k = constant (for 6 dB drop k = 0.56 for 20 dB drop k = 1.06)
This region of the beam is generally the part used for thickness measurement,
flaw detection and flaw measurement as the ultrasonic energy of the beam
decays exponentially according to an inverse square rule and is therefore
predictable. Furthermore there are no discernable interfering signals in this
region to confuse the interpretation of the reflected signal. Figure 8.22 refers.

Figure 8.22
The Shape of the Ultrasonic Beam and the Beam Energy Envelope
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10 Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
The first is based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the ultrasonic
beam due to absorption by the flaw. This often involves the transformation of
energy due to the internal friction of the defect or a failure to transmit energy
across the air gap of the defect. This is sometimes referred to as the shadow
method. It can be referred to as a through transmission technique also. Figure
8.23 refers.

Figure 8.23
Flaw Detection by Decrease in
Energy of the Ultrasonic Wave
The second principle of ultrasonic testing is based on the reflection of energy
from a flaw or interface. This is the method used in underwater ultrasonic
inspection and it is the basis of a majority of ultrasonic test systems. The
principle is illustrated in Figure 8.24
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Figure 8.24
Flaw Detection by Reflection
of the Ultrasonic Wave
11 Ultrasonic Test Systems
From paragraph 10 it will be seen that an ultrasonic test system should be able
to measure either the amplitude of the signal if the through transmission type of
test is used or the time required for the ultrasonic signal to travel between
specific interfaces if the pulse/echo method is employed. A versatile test system
will measure both the parameters at the same time. For thickness measurement
the main use of ultrasonic testing sub-sea is for the measurement of the time
the ultrasonic signal takes to travel between specific interfaces, as Figure 8.24
illustrates.
A test system for ultrasonic thickness measurement is based on a pulse/echo
flaw detector circuit. A simple block diagram for this arrangement is shown in
Figure 8.25
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Figure 8.25
Basic Block Diagram
of a Pulse Echo Ultrasonic System
The technique employed is to generate a short duration (up to about 15 cycles)
electrical pulse that is fed to the transmitting crystal, which then rings and
converts the electrical energy to mechanical vibrations because of the Piezo
electric effect. These pulses are produced cyclically so that a wave train is set
up in the test piece. As these pulses of ultrasound impact on reflecting surfaces
such as the back wall, a crack, an inclusion or a lack of fusion, the wave is
reflected back along the transmission path.
This reflected wave train is detected by the receiving crystal; which changes
these mechanical vibrations into pulses of electrical energy, which is then fed to
the amplifier and timing circuits. The circuits compare the time of transmission
with the time of reception to determine the period of time taken for the signal to
be reflected. This indicates the distance to this reflecting surface. This reflected
signal is finally displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) in the case of a flaw
detector and as a digital display in a digital thickness meter
The wave train set up by the pulses of energy effectively sets up a continuous
signal that is used to display information either on the CRT or the digital display
continuously. However electronically there is sufficient time between pulses to
allow the receive crystal to receive the reflected signal.
11.1 The Flaw Detector
There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending on
the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For
ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (or cathode ray
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oscilloscope) as this presents all the information available in the echo system.
With this type of instrument there are four types of presentation.
A-scan
Shows real time depth of the defect, or distance along the beam path
B-scan
Holds the reflector and shows cross-sectional views
C-scan
Illustrates using a plan view and traces the defect
P-scan
Adds all of the above together and gives a three-dimensional computer
impression
The most commonly used diver deployed flaw detector is an A-scan instrument.
As an example of this type of instrument Figure 8.26 gives a drawing of the
control panel of a Baugh and Weedon PA 1011.
Figure 8.26
Drawing of a Baugh and Weedon
PA 1011 A-scan Flaw Detector Control Panel
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11.2 A-scan Flaw Detector Controls
All A-scan flaw detectors have the same basic controls because they are all
manufactured to the same standards and specifications. Some may have
additional features or built in computer chips but the basic controls are all the
same. The standard controls are all illustrated on the drawing in Figure 8.27 and
their functions starting at the top left of the diagram are: -
Course Range Control
This adjusts the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) in steps, which sets the
basic pulse transmission rate of the set. This control is calibrated in
centimetres up to 100
Fine Range Control
This control adjusts the PRF continuously within the step set on the Course
Range Control. These controls together set the time base of the set and
calibrate to different ranges as required for different tests
Delay Control
This control moves the whole time base (X-axis) across the screen without
altering the PRF. This control is used with the two range controls to
complete the calibration procedure
Battery Indicator
A meter to indicate battery life
Reject Control
This control suppresses incoming signals and cleans up the display. It is
analogous with the squelch control on a radio set. Care must be exercised
with the use of this control as it may adversely affect sensitivity
Fine Gain Control
This is calibrated in 1 or 2 dB steps depending on the manufacturer here it is
2 dB. The gain controls are analogous with the volume control on a radio
and together adjust the amplitude of the screen display and affect the
sensitivity of the set
Course Gain Control
This is a calibrated attenuator calibrated in 20 dB steps
On/Off Control
Switches the set on and off. In this set this is also a fine gain control
Transmit Coaxial Connector
The coaxial connector to the transmitting crystal in a twin crystal probe is
connected here
Single/Double Probe Switch
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Selects the mode of operation of the set for either single or twin crystal
probe operation
Receive Coaxial Connector
The coaxial connector to the receiving crystal in a twin crystal probe is
connected here
Charging Connection
The lead to the battery charger is connected here
11.2.1 A-scan Display
If a thickness measuring system using a twin crystal probe with the unit
displaying the information on a CRT is considered it will serve to illustrate how
this type of flaw detector works.
On the CRT a spot moves across the screen at a fixed speed set by the
controls. This has two effects; the first is that as the speed is constant the
distance measured across the screen represents time. The second is that the
phosphors coating the inside of the screen have an after-glow that persists in
between pulses to give an apparently constant display.
The signal processor via the control panel can adjust the speed of scanning of
the spot. Thus the display can be adjusted for different distances or thicknesses
of material.
The transmitted signal is indicated on the screen by the first rise or peak, and a
second peak indicates the reflected signal. This second peak should represent
the thickness of the material provided there is a clear defect free path as it will
be the reflection from the back wall.
If there is a defect inside the material this may present a reflecting
surface to the signal. This situation is discussed later in paragraphs 13 to
15.
Taking the second signal to be the reflection from the back wall the distance
between the two peaks is the time (t) taken for the ultrasonic wave to travel
across the material and return. The thickness of the material can then be
calculated in the following way.
Table 8.8 gives the speed of the longitudinal wave (V
L
) in a selection of
materials. For example, take the test material to be structural steel; the
velocity of the longitudinal wave (V
L
) is 5940 ms
-1
. The time taken for the
wave to cross this material and back is t seconds, measured from the
trace on the CRT screen. The product of V
L
and t then gives the distance
travelled by the ultrasonic wave in this test. This distance is twice the
thickness of the material as the wave has to travel there and back, so the
thickness of the material (d) is given by the following expression: -
d = (V
L
x t)
If a through transmission method was used, see Figure 8.23, that is
where a receiver is placed on the opposite side from the transmitter, the
thickness of the material would be given by: -
d = V
L
x t
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These expressions are based on Newtons Laws of Motion and are the basis for
ultrasonic testing. However, as stated earlier A-scan instruments are provided
with controls to adjust the CRT display, which is part of a calibration procedure.
This procedure adjusts the instrument for time base and therefore electronically
adjusts the value of V
L
.
12 A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement
With any A-scan instrument the CRT display represent time on the base line or
X-axis, which is calibrated to represent distance, while the vertical or Y-axis
gives the amplitude of the returning signal; the higher the amplitude of this
signal the greater the strength of the reflected signal. Of course, in the case of
thickness measurements this signal will be the back wall echo.
A-scan types of ultrasonic instruments all require calibration before they can be
used for testing. Modern instruments incorporate computer chips that assist in
this process but following is outlined the procedure for a standard instrument so
as to illustrate the various stages that must be completed to ensure a valid test
is completed.
12.1 Calibration and Reference Blocks
Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration block, however a
reference block may be used if this is either specified or agreed by the
contracting party.
12.1.1 Reference Block
A reference block is produced to agreed measurements and specifications, is
manufactured to the same tolerances and surface finish as a calibration block
and is used in the same way. The difference between this and a calibration
block is that the reference block is intended to be used only for the specified
task and is not intended to be used for general work on any other components.
12.1.2 Calibration Block
There are several different calibration blocks available for ultrasonic testing. The
two most popular are the V1 and the V2 calibration blocks. A calibration block is
manufactured to standard specifications and to international standards. It is
produced from specified material and is machined to close tolerances and laid
down standard of surface finish. All the dimensions on the block are also
specified and it is used to calibrate ultrasonic flaw detectors in general. A sketch
of the V1 calibration block in Figure 8.27 shows all the major dimensions.
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Figure 8.27
IIW V1 Block
12.2 Pre-calibration Checks
For portable sets check the power supply is fully charged
Switch on the set and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes, or the manufacturers
recommended time. This allows the CRT and other circuits to reach operating
temperature and stabilise.
12.2.1 CRT Display
Adjust the focus and brilliance of the spot on the CRT screen. The spot will
normally not be visible, but will, however, appear as a line across the screen
Use the delay control to adjust the time base to display the initial pulse (the first
transmitted pulse) on the screen
Position the course range control to the required range. (This may be between
10 mm and 1 m depending on the actual instrument).
Select and connect the required probe. (For thickness measurement and
lamination testing this will be a 0
o
or normal angle compression probe either
single or twin crystal).
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12.2.2 Time Base Linearity
Place the probe onto a calibration block and use the course and fine range
(time base) controls to display four back wall echoes on the screen. Adjust the
back wall echoes so that they are equally spaced along the X-axis, then adjust
the second and fourth so that they are on the fifth and tenth divisions on the
graticule. Provided this is achieved the time base is linear.
12.2.3 Linearity of Amplification
Set the reject or suppression control to off or zero. Place the probe over the
1.5 mm diameter hole on a V1 calibration block. Adjust the gain controls to
display the height of the reflected signal to 80% (8 divisions on the graticule) full
screen height.
Note the gain settings.
Use the fine (2 dB or 1 dB) gain control to increase the signal by 2 dB. This
represents the difference in height between 80% and 100%, that is a ratio of
4:5, which will in fact increase the signal on the screen by of its displayed
height and the signal should be at full screen height.
Readjust the fine gain control to attenuate the signal back to 80% full screen
height.
Attenuate the signal by 6 dB. This represents a decrease of and the signal
therefore should reduce to 40% of full screen height.
Now attenuate a further 12 dB. This represents a decrease of of the
displayed signal and the height should then be 10% of the full screen height.
If the gain adjustment does not produce these results the amplifier is not linear
and the instrument must be recalibrated internally, which involves stripping it
down to readjust internal trim settings.
12.3 Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness
Place the probe onto the face of a suitable calibration or reference block that is
25 mm thick ensuring there is adequate coupling
A number of back wall echoes should be displayed on the CRT screen. Adjust
the gain settings as necessary to display the second echo signal amplitude to
75% full screen height
Adjust the fine range and delay controls to alter the screen display so that four
back wall echoes are shown, all equally spaced across the X-axis
As the screen on the CRT has a graticule that is divided into 10 equal segments
the four echoes are adjusted to 2, 5, 7, and 10 divisions along the X-axis.
See Figure 8.28
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Figure 8.28
A-scan Flaw Detector
Calibrated to 100 mm
12.3.1 Setting Sensitivity
On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to conform
to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest specified flaw. This
may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 in size, although this would be a very
sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size that may be achieved is of the order
of 1 to 2 .
Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or the
procedure agreed with the contracting party.
The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected signal
from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the screen and is
not lost in background clutter.
The general practise for scanning with compression probes for laminations is to
adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo from the parent plate is
displayed at full screen height.
An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall echo
from a specified (say 1.5 mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into a reference
block at the maximum range for the test.
Figure 8.27 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1
calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and
contains such a 1.5 mm diameter hole.
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12.3.2 Setting Resolution
The final process in the calibration procedure is setting resolution. This is
adjusting the gain controls so that the CRT display is capable of displaying
several reflected signals from the smallest detectable flaws at the maximum
range of the test. This may be accomplished using an agreed and specified
reference block.
The common method is to display the three signals reflected from the step, cut
out and back wall on the V1 block. Figure 8.29 refers.
Figure 8.29
A Method For Setting
Resolution
13 The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations
It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural welding
is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test surface will
be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the reflected
signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed scan
based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area.
If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary marks
with a paint stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate to give
a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by a
careful scan employing the 6 dB drop method to accurately size the flaw and
determine its shape.
13.1 The 6 dB Drop Method Explained
The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude
signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is very
strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height.
The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal displayed
on the screen reduces in amplitude.
The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is reduced
to the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6 dB reduction in signal
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strength, which gives this method its name. The reason for this reduction at this
point is that now only half the flaw echo signal is being reflected from the flaw
while the remainder of that signal is now not reflected but continues on its
transmission path through the material.
The centre point where the probe is now positioned is marked accurately on the
surface of the test piece and this procedure is continued until the entire outline
of the lamination is plotted on the surface of the plate.
The outline shape is recorded and measured as necessary. Figure 8.30 refers.
Figure 8.30
6 dB Drop Method
13.2 Lamination Plotting
Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be reflected
from these and not the flaw. To avoid this the entire area is scanned with a
compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area may be marked out
in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage. See Figure 8.31
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Figure 8.31
Scanning for Laminations
14 Digital Thickness Meters
Digital thickness meters measure the thickness of the material using
longitudinal waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the
material under test at the normal angle.
The system method can be demonstrated by considering a thickness measuring
system using a twin crystal compression probe with the instrument having a
CRT display. The screen will display the initial pulse and the signal from the
BWE. The distance measured across the screen, the X-axis, represents the
time difference between these two signals. The thickness of the material can
then be calculated as shown in paragraph 11.2.1. A diagram of this system is
shown in Figure 8.33.
Figure 8.33
Schematic Block Diagram of
the Methodology for Digital Thickness Meters
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Of course in a working digital thickness meter the CRT is replaced by either a
liquid crystal display (LCD) or a light emitting diode (LED) digital display. For
underwater use the LED is preferred as it is easier to read in low light.
The most widely used instrument for thickness measurement underwater is the
digital thickness meter. Instruments manufactured by Baugh and Weedon,
Wells Krautkramer, and Cygnus have all been employed for this purpose.
14.1 Procedure for Taking Digital Thickness Readings
For the purpose of stating a typical procedure for taking digital thickness
readings the Baugh and Weedon Sea Probe (See Figure 8.37) will be
considered. This instrument has been used extensively in offshore applications
and a procedure for this type of DTM will also be valid for any other type.
A block diagram of the instrument as shown in Figure 8.34 will help to illustrate
the procedure.
Figure 8.34
Block Diagram of a Sea Probe
Digital Thickness Meter
If Figure 8.34 is compared with 8.25 it will be seen that the circuitry is exactly
similar except for the method of display.
The actual procedure for taking wall thickness readings will be: -
o Ensure the DTM is fully charged prior to use
o Ensure that a properly qualified inspector is available to conduct
the survey
o Take calibration readings and record these onto the appropriate
data sheet. (Strictly speaking this is a confirmation reading as the
type of instrument referred to here is factory calibrated)
o These readings are best done on a reference block in the form of
a step wedge to confirm the instrument is in calibration over its
entire test range
o Record the serial number of the instrument, and the calibration or
reference block
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o Complete a visual inspection of the test surface.
o This should be clean and free from marine fouling and rust
cleaning standard SA 2.
o For a Sea Probe coatings should be removed. (This is not
necessary with a Cygnus DTM)
o Take a calibration reading on the work site
o Take a reading and record the result. Continue this process to
complete the survey.
o Any readings that are outside the CNC must be repeated to verify
accurate results. Any readings thinner than expected may indicate
either laminations, reduced material thickness or possibly an
internal flaw. These readings should be checked with a flaw
detector to verify the situation.
o On completion of the survey take a final calibration reading on the
work site
o Wash off the meter in clean potable water, dry and store in a
clean, dry environment
o Report all results
Figure 8.35 illustrates a typical ultrasonic data sheet
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Figure 8.35
Typical Ultrasonic Inspection
Data Sheet
14.2 Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM
A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is designed to display
multiple reflections simultaneously on the CRT screen.
It is therefore necessary to consider the effects on the ultrasonic beam
generated by a DTM as the beam propagates through the material under test.
The beam may reflect from an inclusion
The beam may reflect from an isolated corrosion pit
The beam might reflect from the sidewalls of a long narrow plate
If the back wall is very corroded the beam may be totally scattered
Poor probe contact will prevent the beam propagating into the material at
all
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If the material under test is very hot a false reading may result due to
different sound velocities between the material and the calibration of the
DTM
Insufficient beam energy will be reflected from a small isolated corrosion
pit because the reflected energy from the BWE will swamp it and the
meter will only display the depth to the back wall
If the scanning surface of the plate is very corroded there may be so
much reflection of the beam that it will not propagate into the material at
all
Should the back wall of the plate be at an angle to the front wall the
reflected signal may not be directed back to the probe and no reading will
be displayed
All of these considerations may be summed up for a DTM by stating that the
major limiting factor with this instrument is that it can only display the depth of
the MAJOR REFLECTOR, It is not designed for any other purpose.
Figure 8.36 refers.
Figure 8.36
Possible Problems Associated With a DTM
Chapter 8
Page 154 of 253
Figure 8.37
Sea Probe SP 200
Underwater Digital Thickness Meter
15 Converting Underwater DTM Readings
With specially designed, underwater DTMs like the Sea Probe (see Figure 8.37)
and Cygnus meter the display gives a direct digital readout of thickness.
With these instruments this reading is based on the value of V
L
for structural
steel because the meter is designed with this velocity set into the circuits. In fact
the meter is factory calibrated for use specifically on structural steel
components. Therefore when these meters are used to test steel structures the
circuitry works out the distance electronically based on the expressions given
above. They will not give an accurate read-out for any other material
To convert readings obtained from materials other than structural steel simply
divide the meter reading by the value of V
L
for steel and multiply by the value of
V
L
for the new material.
For example, if a measurement is made on aluminium the reading
obtained is multiplied by 6350 and divided by 5940 to give the correct
thickness measurement for aluminium.
Say the meter indicates 30.5 mm.
Then the required thickness for aluminium is: -

Page 155 of 253
16 The Use of Angle or Shear Wave Probes
Angle probes as their name indicates propagate the ultrasonic signal into the
material at an angle. As mentioned earlier the actual angle will be determined
by the expected orientation of the flaws that are being scanned for. Most
frequently these will lie on the fusion boundary of a weld and therefore the
probe angle will be the same as the angle of preparation. This will ensure that
any signal reflected from a flaw will be returned along the same path as the
transmission signal because the angle of reflection will equal the incident angle.
There are standard probes available for 45
o
and 60
o
as these angles are
common preparation angles in structural welds. Other angles may be calculated
by trigonometry and the application of Snells Law. Figure 8.38 refers.
Figure 8.38
Angle Probe Scanning
the Preparation Face of a Weld
The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is
maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the
CRT in the same manner as for a 6 dB drop but with angle probes the signal is
reduced to 1/10
th
using a 20 dB drop. This point can be plotted and the defect
size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe.
17 Care and Maintenance of Equipment
The care of all ultrasonic equipment follows the same pattern.
Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls
Wash off all housings with potable water
Charge all batteries in accordance with manufactures recommendations
Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve Hydrogen gas
and cause an explosive hazard)
Store equipment is a dry warm place
Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components
Chapter 8
Page 156 of 253
Never operate equipment that is thought to be damaged get it repaired
Page 157 of 253
This page is blank
Chapter 9
Page 158 of 253
CHAPTER 9
Magnetic Particle Inspection
1 History of Magnetism
Even in very early times, it was known that magnetite (an iron ore FE
3
O
4
)
attracted small pieces of iron. Also, if magnetite were shaped into a shaft and
suspended it would rotate and align its longest axis in a North-South direction.
This gave rise to its name loadstone, derived from an Anglo-Saxon word
meaning way or course. The directive property of magnetite was utilised in
early navigational devices.
The Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an
artificial magnet in 1600. He found that heating and hammering an iron bar
produced a power in the bar that enabled it to attract pieces of iron. This
power, named after him, was called magnetism.
In 1819, the German Oested observed a relationship between electricity and
magnetism. He noticed that when a compass was placed near a current-
carrying wire, the compass needle showed a deflection. This phenomenon is
now known as electro-magnetism.
2 Types of Magnetism
There are three types of magnetism: -
Ferromagnetism
This is shown by materials which can be strongly magnetised and which
show good magnetic properties
Paramagnetism
This is shown by materials, which are weakly attracted by strong magnetic
fields
Diamagnetism
Materials that are repelled by a strong magnetic field show this type of
magnetism. Any externally applied magnetic field induces a like magnetic
field within the material; hence repulsion occurs.
Table 9.1 lists some common materials and their magnetic properties.
Page 159 of 253

FERROMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC DIAMAGNETIC
Iron Platinum Bismuth
Nickel Palladium Antimony
Cobalt Most non-ferrous metals Most non-metals
Steel Oxygen Concrete
Table 9.1
Magnetic Properties Exhibited
by a Selection of Materials

3 Theory of Magnetism
In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are gathered together in groups called
domains. These domains have a magnetic moment, one end acting as a north
pole, the other as a south pole. This magnetic moment is created by the
combined effort of the motion of electrons around the nucleus of the atom and
by electron spin, which is the rotation of the electron about its own axis.
When the material is un-magnetised, the domains lie distributed randomly and
their magnetic effects cancel each other. See Figure 9.2
Chapter 9
Page 160 of 253

Figure 9.2
Magnetic Domains
If an external magnetic field is applied to the material the domains are aligned
north to south in a common direction. Hence, one end of the material will be the
north pole and the other the south pole. Figure 9.3 refers.
Page 161 of 253
Figure 9.3
Material in a Magnetised State
3.1 Polarity
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These poles
are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to be
concentrated at these points. The north or north seeking pole of a magnet is
said to be the pole that points towards the earths North Pole; the south pole of
the magnet pointing towards the earths South Pole. Magnetic poles show
attraction and repulsion, like poles repelling and unlike poles attracting. See
Figure 9.4
Chapter 9
Page 162 of 253

Figure 9.4
Like Poles Repel Unlike Poles Attract

3.2 Magnetic Field
This is described as the area surrounding the magnet in which the magnetic
forces exist. Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux represent the magnetic field.
These lines are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday as a
means of visualising the distribution and density (flux density) of a magnetic
field. The symbol used for magnetic flux is and the SI unit is the weber (1 Wb
= 10
8
Mx). The CGS unit is the Maxwell (Mx) and 1 Mx = 10
-8
Wb. The Tesla (T)
is the SI unit used in practical magnetic particle inspection (MPI) 1 T = 1 Wb.
3.2.1 Characteristics of the Magnetic Lines of Force
The magnetic lines of force-
They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual
movement occurs
Travel from the north pole to the south pole externally
Travel from south pole to north pole internally
They form a closed loop
They all have the same strength
Page 163 of 253
Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles
They do not cross
They seek the path of least resistance
They are in constant tension
Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area
of higher permeability to an area of lower permeability
They prefer to travel in materials that easily accept magnetic fields
See Figure 9.4 and 9.5
Figure 9.5
Magnetic Field Surrounding
a Bar Magnet
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor forms closed
circles perpendicular to the conductor, see Figure 9.6 and 9.7.
Chapter 9
Page 164 of 253

Figure 9.6
Magnetic Field Surrounding a Conductor
Figure 9.7
Diagram of a Magnetic Field
Surrounding a Conductor
(Figures 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8 attributed to University of Iowa)
4 Flux Density (B)
Magnetic flux density is a term used to describe the amount of magnetism
within a specimen and is abbreviated by the letter B. When a magnetising force
Page 165 of 253
is applied, lines of force of magnetism will be created within the specimen, the
number of lines depends on the size of the magnetising force. These lines
represent the magnetic force, and the flux density is the term applied to the
quantity of them that emerge per unit cross section of the specimen.
The unit of flux density is defined as the density of a magnetic field in which a
conductor carrying 1 ampere at right angles to that field has a force of 1 Newton
per metre acting on it. In the SI system this unit is called a Tesla (T). In the CGS
system of units, this was called a gauss (G) and 1 G = 10
-4
T (1 T = 10
4
G). Flux
density is measured as B Tesla.
When a magnetic field is induced in a work piece by an electric current flowing
in a cable arranged either as a coil or parallel conductors the input electrical
force is called the magnetising force (H), and can be defined in the following
way. Consider a very long coil (like a solenoid) uniformly wound with N turns per
meter and let the current flowing in this coil be 1 ampere.
Then the magnetising force H in this coil is N x 1 ampere-turns per meter. (In
common practice the word turns is omitted so that the units H are Am
-1
. In the
CGS units this is called Orsted (Oe) and: -
This equation for the magnetising force is the basis of the calculations for how
much current to use to set up an adequate magnetic field for MPI.
In free space (vacuum, air or other non-magnetic material), B =
o
H. The value
of
o
is 4 x 10
-7
(T Am
-1
) and represents the permeability of free space
(sometimes referred to as the magnetic space constant).
In a magnetic material, B and H can vary independently and the coefficient of
B/H is called the RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and is often given the symbol
r
(for air
r
= 1 while for certain nickel-iron alloys it can be as high as 100,000).
Relative permeability is not a constant value; it varies with B and H. Figure 9.8
gives an indication of the relative permeability for a selection of ferromagnetic
materials, including steel.
Chapter 9
Page 166 of 253

Figure 9.8
Variation of Relative Permeability
With Magnetising Force
When magnetising a piece of steel using an electrical magnetising force, there
is not a uniform increase in flux density with a uniform increase in magnetising
force see Figure 9.9.
Figure 9.9
Induced Magnetic Field
Page 167 of 253
The flux density rises rapidly to point A on the diagram and thereafter rises very
much less rapidly as the condition approaches saturation of the magnetic field;
i.e. there is a very small rise in flux density for a very large rise in magnetising
force.
The shape of this characteristic and the saturation value varies from material to
material.
The graph shown in Figure 9.10 shows flux density values for different
magnetising currents for a field being set up in one direction by a DC supply. If
the field is set up by an AC supply, then the magnetic field will experience a
complete reversal of direction for each cycle and successive cycles will trace
out a loop for the relationship between magnetising force and flux density. This
is known as the HYSTERESIS LOOP. Figure 9.11 refers.
Figure 9.10
Variation of Flux Density With
Magnetising Force
Chapter 9
Page 168 of 253

Figure 9.11
Hysteresis Loop
In Figure 9.11 OP is the initial magnetisation curve as seen in Figure 9.9. After
point P, the current reduces and the flux density reduces. The curve then
passes through H
c
to B
r
then to P, which is the maximum flux density for the
magnetic field in the opposite direction. The current now increases again and
the flux density reduces to H
c
and as the current increases in the opposite
direction the curve climbs to point P at maximum H. Successive cycles trace out
the hysteresis loop P, H
c
, P, H
c
, P. The loop shows that energy is used up
each cycle and is dissipated in the form of heat and whilst this heating effect is
rapidly dissipated underwater, on land the material being magnetised will get
quite hot. The value of B
r
indicates that when the magnetising force is removed
the material will still be magnetic. The name for this is remanence (or residual
magnetism in the USA) and H
c
is the magnetising force required to remove it.
This is known as coercivity. In practice, the residual magnetism is removed by
gradually reducing the magnetising force (lowering the current) so that the loops
get smaller, thus reducing the residual magnetism. Figure 9.15 following refers.
4.1 Remanence or Residual Magnetism
Remanence or residual magnetism is the magnetic flux density that remains in
a material when the magnetizing force is zero. (Note that residual magnetism and
retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point.
However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the
magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.).
The terms retentivity and permeability have been used in connection with
magnetism and MPI for very many years and while they still remain in use the
Page 169 of 253
ideas of relative permeability and remanence have given them a more
fundamental explanation.
4.2 Retentivity
When the magnetising force is removed, the amount of magnetism retained
varies from material to material and this effect was know as retentivity that is a
measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of
a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain
amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after
achieving saturation. (The value of B at point B
r
on the hysteresis curve, Figure 9.11). The
amount has been related to the permeability of the material and the general rule
was that material with high permeability having low retentivity while those with
low permeability have high retentivity. Modern permanent magnets are
generally made from low permeability/high retentivity special alloys that have
been subjected to large magnetising forces. See Table 9.12.
4.3 Permeability ()
Permeability has been defined as the ease with which a material can be
magnetised. Of course, it is only some of the ferromagnetic group that are
usefully magnetised. Those that are easy to magnetise are: -
Soft iron
Low carbon steel
These were said to have high permeability. As a contrast high carbon steel,
which required more magnetising force to produce the same amount of
magnetisation, was said to have low permeability. See Table 9.12
4.4 Coercive Force
The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point H
c
on the
hysteresis curve).
4.5 Reluctance
This is another term that has been in use for many years in MPI. It is a term
used to describe the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the
establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in
an electrical circuit, however it does not have units while resistance does of
course. (This term is sometimes used as the opposite of permeability; low permeability would
indicate high reluctance and visa versa).
Chapter 9
Page 170 of 253

Low Permeability
(Difficult to magnetise)
High Permeability
(Easily magnetised)
High Retentivity Low Retentivity
High Remanence Low Remanence
High Reluctance Low Reluctance
High Coercivity to demagnetise Low Coercivity to demagnetise
Table 9.12
The Relationship Between Permeability and Retentivity
4.6 Demagnetising
After a work piece is magnetised for inspection a residual magnetic field will
remain, the strength of this field will depend on the retentivity of the material.
4.6.1 Measuring the Residual Field
Applying a Field Strength Indicator to the work piece will assess the magnitude
of the residual field. This is a sensitive meter that has a small bar magnet
mounted on a bearing built in. This magnet will swing to align itself with any
magnetic field that is present in the test area. These meters may be calibrated,
in which case the magnitude of the residual field may be read off directly, or
they may be un-calibrated.
It must be emphasised that these meters are only for measuring residual field
strength. They are far too sensitive to measure the magnitude of the induced
field applied for an inspection and will be damaged if they are attempted to be
used for this purpose. See Figures 9.13 and 9.14
Figure 9.13
Field Strength Indicator Diagram
Page 171 of 253
Figure 9.14
Field Indicator
This residual field should be removed: -
Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of magnetic vector fields that would
reduce the sensitivity of the inspection
o A vector is the result of two opposing forces that is orientated in a
different direction to either of them. With an unknown residual field
interacting or opposing the applied field the vector will be
unpredictable
On offshore structures before MPI as they are fixed in the earths
magnetic field subject to constant vibration and may be weakly magnetic
After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive electronic or
electrical equipment
Prior to welding as residual magnetic fields may cause arc blow
As required before any other process is initiated that may be affected by
stray residual magnetic fields
The process is illustrated in Figure 9.15 and only requires that the hysteresis be
collapsed. This can be achieved most easily electrically by reducing the
magnetising force over a short period of time as indicated in the diagram.
Practically this may be accomplished by winding a coil around the site to be
demagnetised then using a rheostat to wind down the current as opposed to
switching it off which would leave a residual field.
Chapter 9
Page 172 of 253

Figure 9.15
Collapsing the Hysteresis Loop
To Demagnetise a Material
There are other methods for demagnetising other than reducing the current with
a rheostat.
4.7 AC Aperture Coil
A pre-formed coil consisting of a large number of windings with internal
diameters up to approximately 1 m is connected to an AC supply. The supply is
switched on, which generates a strong magnetic field surrounding the coil. This
equipment is bench mounted. Any component that is to be demagnetised is
passed slowly through the coil along its axis and withdrawn approximately 1 to
2 m. As the component is withdrawn it cuts fewer and fewer lines of flux, which
collapses the hysteresis. See Figure 9.16
Figure 9.16
AC Coil
Page 173 of 253
As an alternative to withdrawing the component it may be left in place and the
current reduced by a rheostat as outlined above. This also collapses the
hysteresis again demagnetising the component, which may then be removed.
4.8 Reversing DC Aperture Coil
This is a time consuming method, which will not be used offshore but is applied
when it is necessary to demagnetise strong residual fields that have been
induced by a DC force or strong permanent magnets.
The component is placed in the coil then a DC is applied that is high enough to
produce a magnetic field stronger than the residual field. The polarity is then
reversed and the current reduced in measured steps to ensure the residual field
is reduced by each step. This process is continued until the residual field is
reduced to zero. See Figure 9.17
Figure 9.17
Reversing DC Coil
4.9 AC Electromagnets
If an AC induced the residual field it can be removed by stroking with an
electromagnet. The stroking is accomplished in a circular manner ensuring the
return path is as far removed from the metal surface as possible. Figure 9.18
refers.
Figure 9.18
Demagnetising With an AC Yoke
(This method may also be applied with a permanent magnet.)
Chapter 9
Page 174 of 253
4.10 Other Methods to Demagnetise
Demagnetising can be accomplished by heating the component up to the Curie
point (700 720
o
C). This method is not applied offshore.
It is possible to demagnetise by vibrating or beating the component but this has
no practical application.
5 Producing Magnetic Fields
This system of inspection is based on the phenomenon that the path of the
magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material is distorted because inhomogeneities
(like cracks, blowholes, inclusions, grain boundaries etc.) have different
magnetic properties to a greater or lesser degree than the surrounding material.
All systems of magnetic non-destructive testing need some method of detecting
this distortion of the magnetic flux, most often called flux leakage. Of course all
such systems need a method for producing the magnetic field in the first
instance.
5.1 Magnetisation
The magnetic field can be set up in a magnetic material in the following ways: -
Align the test piece North South in the earths magnetic field
Heat the test piece to the Curie point and align North/South
Induced Magnetism: by the use of a permanent magnet
Induced Magnetism: by passing an electric current directly through the
work piece
Induced Magnetism: by passing an electric current through a conductor
close to the work piece
The first two methods are only of interest in a laboratory and are of no further
interest.
The last three methods are applied underwater mainly by diver inspectors but
could also be utilised by ROV
5.1.1 Use of Permanent Magnets
(This also applies to electro-magnets)
A U shaped magnet is used, the work piece completing the magnetic path or
circuit between the poles. The lines of flux that normally exist between the poles
are concentrated in the work piece, instead of returning through the air because
the work piece completes the magnetic circuit in the same manner as a keeper
normally acts. Figures 9.19A and B refer. The direction of the magnetic field set
up using a permanent magnet is shown in Figure 9.19A. The maximum
disturbance to the magnetic field and hence the maximum flux leakage is
caused by defects that are at right angles to the field. This of course is true no
matter how the magnetic field is produced. Figure 9.19C and D refer.
Page 175 of 253

Figure 9.19
Permanent Magnets
Inducing Magnetic Flux
5.1.2 Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets
The strength for a permanent magnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 9934-
1:2001 (this replaces BS 6072:1981 which remains current).
The requirement is that the permanent magnet must be able to lift at least 18
kilograms with a pole spacing of between 75 to 150 mm. The area that can be
inspected lies between the poles and extends to half the pole spacing at right
angles to this dimension. If the magnet is too weak the field will be insufficient to
give a clear magnetic pattern, if too strong a dense accumulation of iron
particles from the detection medium will make the patterns difficult to interpret,
especially in the region of the pole pieces.
On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders good contact between the pole
pieces and the work pieces is easily obtained by having shaped pole pieces, flat
for plate and radiused for cylindrical-shaped work pieces. For more complicated
shapes, for example when examining the weld at 12 oclock on the joint of a
vertical diagonal member on a node, the pole pieces need to rotate as well as
being shaped in order to make good contact. Figure 9.20 refers
Chapter 9
Page 176 of 253
Figure 9.20
Flexible Pole Electro-magnet
Electro-magnets have the advantage that they can be applied and removed
from the work piece easily when the current is off, but this system does need an
electrical supply.
5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets
Any system used for testing will have advantages and disadvantages and the
use of permanent magnets, as a system for MPI is no exception.
5.1.3.1 Advantages
Magnets are cheap and readily available
No power supply is required for permanent magnets
There are no contact problems with the poles and the work piece, thus arching
or damage to the surface is avoided
They will be self-supporting and can be used overhead easily
They are relatively lightweight
5.1.3.2 Disadvantages
All permanent magnets loose strength with age and each time a magnet is used
it will loose a small amount of its strength
They only produce a direct longitudinal field. There is no skin effect.
Page 177 of 253
The magnet will have to be physically removed from the work piece which will
take some force if it is a 18 kg lift magnet or stronger.
There is no control over field strength; the magnet only has one value. This may
cause saturation in some circumstances.
The magnetic poles on the magnet may attract the iron particles in the
indicating medium and mask defect indications in the region adjacent to the
poles.
Good pole contact is extremely desirable to ensure maximum flux density in the
work piece.
5.2 Electromagnet (or Yoke)
Electromagnets are constructed of a soft iron laminated core around which is
wound very many turns of insulated copper wire thus forming a coil. The reason
for using a laminated core is to reduce inductance when the current is flowing.
If an AC electromagnet is used the induced magnetic field will exhibit the skin
effect.
The method of application is as shown for a permanent magnet.
5.2.1 Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets
The strength for an electromagnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 9934-
1:2001.
The requirement is that the electromagnet must be able to lift 4 kilograms
with pole spacing up to 300 mm. As with permanent magnets the inspection
area should be between the poles. See Figures 9.20 and 9.21
Figure 9.21
Electromagnet
5.2.2 Advantages
Either AC or pulsed DC can be used to induce the magnetic field
The current can be adjusted thus controlling flux density
The magnetising current can be switched off for easy removal from the metal
surface
Chapter 9
Page 178 of 253
Mains power can be used there is no need for a transformer
Will not damage the work piece
Lightweight
AC electromagnets can be used to demagnetise
5.2.3 Disadvantages
A power supply is required
Only longitudinal magnetisation can be generated
Mains voltage is carried directly in the yoke
There must be good pole contact on the metal surface to ensure adequate flux
flow in the work piece
5.3 Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece
Induced magnetism is achieved by using contact prods to pass an electric
current directly through the work piece. Sometimes these prods are clamped in
place but mainly they are hand held. (This method has been a recommended method for
magnetisation in Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of
Offshore Structures, 1977, Appendix 1, In-service Inspection.).
Passing a current through the work piece produces a circular field between the
contact points as shown in Figure 9.22. The orientation of this field can be seen
to be different to that produced by permanent magnets, which is longitudinal.
The magnitude of the current employed will depend on:
The plate thickness
Prod separation
The current requirement as stated in BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 is that for every 1
mm prod separation 4 to 5 Amperes current is required. This means that if the
prod separation is 200 mm between 800 and 1000 Amps are required. (This
requirement is equivalent to 100 Amps per one-inch prod separation).
Figure 9.22
Magnetic Field Produced
by Current Flow Prods
Page 179 of 253
When using this technique, care must be taken to ensure that the contact areas
are sufficiently clean to pass the current required without arching or burning.
To ensure that arching is avoided the following applies: -
Do not turn on the magnetising current until there is full and adequate
prod contact
Turn the power off before the prods are removed from the test surface
The prods should have soft tips to assist with good prod contact
Use only low voltage
The prods may be separate, when two hands are required, or mounted on a
bar, which allows one-handed operation.
Direct or alternating current (DC or AC) may be used. DC produces magnetic
fields that penetrate deeper into the work piece. AC produces a skin effect
which confines the current and therefore the magnetic field, to the surface skin
of the metal.
5.3.1 Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per
second. In the United States, 60 cycles current is the commercial norm but 50
cycles current is standard in the UK. Since AC is readily available in most
facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection.
However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials
the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface of the
component. This phenomenon is known as skin effect and it occurs because
induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does
not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is
recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface
defects. See Figure 9.23
Figure 9.23
Skin Effect in a Circular Component
Chapter 9
Page 180 of 253
When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field
strength rises from zero at the centre to a maximum at the surface. However,
the field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor. This is
the "skin effect." It should also be remembered that with AC the field is
constantly varying in strength and direction.
OIS of Great Yarmouth manufacture and supply a composite MPI unit that is
purpose designed and built for underwater use. See Figure 9.24.
Figure 9.24
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
and Current Flow Prods
In the case of prod testing the advantages and disadvantages are listed below
5.3.2 Advantages
Either AC or DC may be used
Low voltage may be used (typically 3 V)
Adjusting current output will control Field strength
There will be no collection of indicating medium around the prods
5.3.3 Disadvantages
Without good prod contact there will be no induced magnetic field
A heavy transformer must be used to drop the voltage
There is always the danger of arching on the metal surface
There is a danger of overheating the equipment
If arching does occur metal inclusions from the prod tips may result
5.4 Induced Magnetism Using a Coil
A conductor carrying a current induces a circular magnetic field around it as
shown with prods. Therefore, ferromagnetic materials near the conductor will be
in this magnetic field and lines of magnetic flux will be concentrated in them as
they have less magnetic resistance than air.
However, a different shaped magnetic field will be produced if the conductor is
wound in the form of a coil around the material to be tested. See Figure 9.25
Page 181 of 253

Figure 9.25
Longitudinal Magnetisation Produced Inside a Coil
A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and touching
the coil, will experience longitudinal magnetism.
This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve to
show how the technique may be applied.
5.4.1 Evenly Spaced Coil
A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so that the area under inspection
is contained within the encircling coil with individual wraps of the coil being
evenly spaced equidistant to each other. Figure 9.26 refers.
Figure 9.26
Evenly Spaced Coil
Chapter 9
Page 182 of 253
The current requirement for this technique is determined from the formulas: -
Where
I = Required current (DC)
T = Wall thickness of the work piece
Y = Coil spacing
4 = Constant
7.5 = constant
If AC is to be used the formula is modified to: -
Where
I = Required current (AC)
10 = Constant
Y = Coil spacing
7.7 = Constant
As AC will produce magnetic flux only on the skin of the work piece the
thickness of the material is of no consequence therefore another constant 10
replaces T.
5.4.2 Close Wrapped Coil
In this technique the inspection area does not have to lie inside the encircling
coils. However, the test zone must still lie close enough to the ends of the coil to
ensure an adequate flux density in this area. Figure 9.27 refers.
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Figure 9.27
Close Wrapped Coil
The current requirement for this technique is determined by the formula: -
Where
I
peak
= The peak current value (AC)
r = The radius of the coil (mm)
N = Number of turns in the coil (minimum 3)
16 = Constant
The distance either end of the coil where minimum field strength of 1.0 Tesla
should be present is given by the formula: -
Where
d = Width of the inspection area (where field strength = 1.0 T)
N = Number of turns in the coil
I = Peak current (Amps)
30 = Constant
It is also possible to produce a transverse magnetic field by looping the
conductor into a configuration called parallel loops, see Figure 9.28
Chapter 9
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Figure 9.28
Parallel Loops
This produces a transverse field between the two sides of the loop. The loop
has to be positioned so that the current in the two sides of it is moving in the
same direction or else the magnetic fields will tend to cancel instead of
reinforce. Furthermore the return cables not forming the parallel loops must be
a minimum of 10d away from the inspection area as shown in Figure 9.28. The
direction of the field may be ascertained by applying the right hand rule. The
required current may be found by applying the formula: -
I
peak
(ac) = 30 x d
It will be noted that this is the coil end effect formula transposed.
5.4.2.1 The Right Hand Rule
If the thumb of the right hand is extended in a thumbs up gesture and the
fingers are loosely gripped the thumb indicates the conventional current flow
and the fingers indicate the direction of the circular magnetic field produced.
See Figure 9.29
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Figure 9.29
The Right Hand Rule
The OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI unit may be used for this technique. Current up to
1000 Amps can be used. See Figure 9.30
Figure 9.31
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
Showing Flexible Cables Connected That May
be used as Parallel Conductors or Encircling Coils
Chapter 9
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This method of magnetising ferromagnetic materials offers development
potential for producing adequate magnetic fields for inspecting structures that
have complicated shapes, like nodes and pipe intersections.
It was shown some 30 years age by Lumb and Winship in their paper on
Magnetic Particle Crack Detection printed in Metal Construction, July and
August 1977, that this method of magnetising could give good uniformity in the
magnetic field between the parallel sides of the loop.
5.4.3 Advantages
Flexible cables can be positioned relatively easily
Large areas can be inspected with one placement of the coil or loop
The field strength and thus flux density can be adjusted
Demagnetising is easily achieved
5.4.4 Disadvantages
A relatively weak field is produced
Long cables are required
Large, heavy step-down transformers are required
Isolating transformers are required on deck
5.5 Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques
Both techniques are used for land base inspections but the continuous
technique is used almost exclusively for underwater applications because of the
possibility of wash out or dilution of the indicating medium in the water.
5.5.1 Continuous Magnetisation
This technique entails magnetising the work piece at the same time as the
indicating medium is applied. The area under inspection is then examined while
the magnetic field is maintained. This method is generally regarded as being the
more sensitive, but indications of defects other than actual damage such as
cracks can be given; for example, leakage fields from the coil wrapped around
the work piece and flux leakage in the vicinity of a prod from spurious
indications such as grain boundaries, due to high flux density in these regions.
The closer the magnetic field is to saturation the more sensitive it is to flux
leakage due to small order inhomogeneities in the material. Figure 9.31 refers.
The recommended flux level for satisfactory crack detection is between 1/3 and
full saturation.
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Figure 9.31
Variation of Types of Defects Giving Indications
as the Field Strength Increases
5.5.2 Residual Magnetisation
In the residual technique the work piece is magnetised and the indicating
medium is still applied at the same time. However, the actual inspection is
completed with the magnetising force removed and the work piece is examined
with only any residual field producing the flux leakage at any discontinuities. As
these fields are much weaker than those produced by the continuous method
there is much lower sensitivity. Of course, the technique does eliminate
spurious or false indications.
Underwater it could be used re-inspect any suspect area where the suspicion is
that a false indication has been identified.
6 How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field
Surface breaking and near-surface indications are detectable by MPI because
of the way these discontinuities interact with the induced magnetic field.
The defect will cause a distortion of the magnetic field because either its
permeability is different to the surrounding metal or consequential poles are
formed at the parameters of surface breaking discontinuities. In either case the
flux density will increase. This is referred to as FLUX LEAKAGE.
With a distortion in the field the flux lines will be grouped together raising the
field strength while with consequential poles the tension in the lines of flux will
increase; there will be increased field density due to this, as with the poles of a
magnet. See Figure 9.32
Chapter 9
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Figure 9.33
Discontinuities Interacting
With the Magnetic Field
The orientation of the defect to the direction of flow of the lines of flux will
determine how strong an indication will be, or even if an indication will be seen
at all. The strongest indication will be given by discontinuities at 90
o
to the lines
of flux as it cuts through the maximum number and causes most distortion to
the field, if the orientation is at 45
o
the indication will be less strong because the
defect is cutting less flux lines. If the flaw is parallel with the lines of force it will
not cut any and will not be seen, as it gives no indication. Figure 9.34 refers.
Figure 9.34
Flaw Orientation
Because of the affect that defect orientation has on how strong an indication will
be given it is most important that the induced magnetic field be applied in two
directions, perpendicular to each other. This will ensure maximum sensitivity for
the test and should ensure that all defects are identified no matter what their
orientation within the magnetic field.
7 Detection of the Magnetic Field
In MPI it is essential that a diver inspector know that a magnetic field does
actually exist in the test area that has been set up. There are test devices;
called flux indicators available designed specifically to detect magnetic fields.
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Those that are used underwater will be examined and explained. The minimum
flux density required in the test area for a valid inspection is 1Tesla.
7.1 Burmah Castrol Strips
This is a strip of steel that has 3 fine longitudinal cuts in it. This is completely
encased in two strips of brass. When this is placed in a magnetic field at 90
o
to
the expected orientation and indicating medium is applied, the cuts will appear
as crack indications provided the field is strong enough. These are available
with different degrees of sensitivity. See figure 9.34 and 9.39
Figure 9.34
Burmah Castrol Strip
7.2 Berthold Penetrameter
The Berthold Penetrameter is shown in Figure 9.35. When the Penetrameter is
placed on the work piece being magnetised, some of the induced flux is
shunted to two slits cut at right angles in the soft iron cylindrical stud that is the
test element. The flux leakage at these air gaps in the test element can be
detected by applying indicating medium to the thin plate that is held in place by
a screw thread and covers the test element. The indication is a thin line of
indicator where the iron particles have collected at the flux leakage. The
direction of the field can be deduced from which line of the cross is shown up.
The field lies at right angles to this line. Varying the distance between the test
element and the plate that covers it will control the sensitivity. Screwing or
unscrewing the cap and setting the calibration numbers against a datum mark
on the swivel holder achieves this.
Chapter 9
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Figure 9.36
Berthold Penetrameter
7.3 Gauss Meter
This is an electric powered meter that will read the field strength directly from
the input of a probe that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a digital
readout in Tesla. Figure 9.36 refers
Figure 9.36
Combined Gauss Meter
and White and Black Light Meter
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8 Detecting the Distortion in the Magnetic Field (Flux Leakage)
The effectiveness of the magnetic particle inspection is determined by the
sensitivity with which it is possible to detect the change in the magnetic field due
to the presence of a defect causing the flux leakage. There are three
possibilities
Moving a compass over the test area and watch for the needle to kick
Using a search coil and looking for a change in impedance
By visual observation using indicating mediums to show the distortion
The first two methods are impractical currently underwater for diver inspectors
although the search coil may have potential for ROV.
8.1 Visual Detection
Visual detection is achieved by observing the distortion of the magnetic field as
shown by the patterns in magnetic particles distributed over the test surface.
These magnetic particles are available in dry powder form, as a liquid
suspension, magnetic ink, or as powders ready to mix with water to form a
useable suspension. There are other types of indicating media but the water-
based ink is the type used underwater and the other types will not be
considered further.
The particles used are fine ferrous oxides that are much lighter than iron filing
and therefore will go into suspension in the water more easily and remain
suspended much longer. For underwater use a fluorescent powder is mixed
with the particles so that they will fluoresce under ultra-violet light, which makes
them easier to see. Non-fluorescent ink powders are also available.
The method of use is to apply the magnetic field and while the test surface is
magnetised the ink is applied. Any flaws cause flux leakage with a resultant
build-up in flux density. The iron oxide in the ink will be strongly attracted to this
strong magnetic field and will collect. Using a suitable ultra-violet light the
indication can be viewed, interpreted and reported.
8.1.1 Ink Properties
Ink properties are required to meet standards for composition, content, safety
and toxicity. The current standard for MPI inks is BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002. This
standard states that inks must, be non-toxic, be free of contaminants, not cause
discomfort to users, and be non-corrosive to the work piece. Additionally the ink
should have the following properties: -
The ink grains should be fine enough to reduce gravitational effects to go
easily into suspension but not be so fine as to coagulate in the liquid
The grains should have an elongated shape to facilitate polarisation
The grains must have high permeability so as to be easily magnetised
The grains must have low retentivity to facilitate removal after the test
The ink itself must have a good contrast against the test background to
ensure good visibility and greater sensitivity
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The concentration of ferrous particles, additives and fluorescent powder is
specified in the standard, as is the method for testing the correct concentration
in any ink.
8.1.2 Ink Colours Used Underwater
The most common ink used is fluorescent ink and this is available in different
colours, although green is the most popular. Black and Red inks are also
available. The fluorescent powder coating the ferrous particles is a salt that
fluoresces when it is illuminated by ultraviolet light.
8.2 Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002
The ink or powder must be supplied as certified manufactured to the ISO
standard with a batch number that should be recorded.
The correct quantity of powder as per manufacturers instructions should
be measured and put into a suitable mixing vessel.
Inks are available which include wetting agents however; it is more
common to add such an agent at this stage. The standard does not allow
the addition of more than 10% by weight of any additives to the ink
o A wetting agent is a chemical that lowers the surface tension of
water; most washing up liquids contain one
Enough water is added to the mixing vessel to make up it into a slurry,
which is then put into a measuring bucket and made up to the correct
quantity with water
o It is becoming increasingly common to have batches of ink
supplied in slurry form all ready to mix with water to the correct
concentration
Once the ink is mixed it should be constantly agitated to ensure the
suspension is maintained and a 100 ml sample should be drawn off
The sample is required to complete a settling test to confirm the ink has been
made up to the correct concentration.
8.2.1 Settling Test
The test is completed to the following procedure: -
Draw off the 100 ml sample into a calibrated settling flask. Either a
Sutherland or thistle type flask is suitable. See Figure 9.37
Allow the sample suspension to settle for 60 minutes
Read off and record the quantity of solids that have collected in the
bottom of the flask.
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Figure 9.37
Settlement Flask
The recommended concentrations for a valid result are different for different
inks.
8.2.2 Fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles 0.1% to 0.3% (0.6 2.4 gm l
-1
) by volume in the ink
Other solids 10% by weight
8.2.3 Non-fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles 1.25% to 3.5% (6 24 gm l
-1
) by volume in the ink
Other solids 10% by weight
8.2.4 Carrier Fluid
Water or paraffin
Soluble Additives no more than 10% by weight
9 Lighting and Viewing Conditions
As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision the ambient light
conditions and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct
levels. The standards for adequate lighting is stated in BS EN ISO 3059:2001.
The minimum requirements for ambient and ultraviolet light as stated in the
standard are summarised below.
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9.1 Visible Light Inspection (Using Non-fluorescent Inks)
There must be a minimum of 500 lux white light in the viewing area. This light
should be provided using a diffused light source if possible. (An 80-watt
fluorescent light tube gives 500 watt at 1 m distance).
9.2 Background and Ultraviolet Light Levels Using Fluorescent Inks
The background light level must be dark with ambient light not exceeding 20 lux
so that the fluorescence from the ink particles has sufficient contrast to be easily
seen.
The ultraviolet light must be a minimum of 1000 W cm
-2
. The wavelength of the
light should be 365 to 400 nm. (Refer to the electromagnetic spectrum in
Chapter 13 Ultrasonic Inspection).
9.2.1 Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health causing burns, cataracts and cancer if
not used under controlled conditions.
As can be seen from the electromagnetic spectrum ultraviolet light covers a
range of frequencies. These have been split into UVA and UVB with UVA, being
the less harmful wavelengths. Wavelengths between 365 and 400 nm produce
UVA which is why they are used for MPI testing.
Mercury vapour spot light bulbs, which produce light by discharging an arc in
mercury vapour contained in the bulb, produce a large amount of ultraviolet light
along with visible white light.
This type of bulb is put into a housing and a Woods filter is placed in front of it.
The woods filter blocks the harmful wavelengths of UV light while allowing UVA
at 365 nm to pass through.
Care should still be exercised when using ultraviolet light to avoid either looking
into it directly or shining it into anyone elses eyes.
9.3 Testing the Ultraviolet Light
There are a number of reasons to test ultraviolet lights used for MPI:
The intensity must be high enough to create sufficient fluorescence in the
ink to make identification of flaws possible
The wavelength of the light must be in the correct part of the spectrum
for operator safety
The mercury vapour bulbs degenerate with use and produce less
ultraviolet light as they age. They must be checked regularly because of
this
The requirements stated in the standard must be met
The procedure for testing an ultraviolet light is laid down below.

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9.3.1 Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure
Switch on the lamp and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes
Lamps designed for underwater use must be immersed in cooling water
during this test otherwise the heat generated will damage the seals
Shine the lamp onto a photometer (black light meter); holding it at the
viewing distance from the meter. (The viewing distance is typically 30
40 cm)
Read the meter and record the result. (The reading must be 1000 W
cm
2
or the lamp must be changed).
The lamp should be checked before every inspection and at least monthly when
not in constant use.
Figures 9.36 9.38 and 9.39 refer.
Figure 9.38
Testing Output From
A Black Light
Figure 9.39
OIS Underwater Black Light
With Castrol Strip Attached by Cord
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Page 196 of 253
10 Cleaning Standard
The inspection area must be cleaned to a minimum SA 2 (for a weld this
must be for at least 75 mm either side of the weld). Additionally sufficient
general cleaning (SA 1) must be completed to allow intimate contact for
magnetising apparatus. See Chapter 10 Figure 10.3.
11 Alternative Forms of Electric Current Applied in MPI
Inducing a magnetic field into a work piece electrically was examined in
paragraph 5 where it was stated that either DC or AC might be used. The type
of current must be considered further as the induced magnetic field strength
and characteristics are determined by this current.
First consider measuring electricity. Either current or voltage may be measured.
For the purpose of inducing a magnetic field the amperage is the more
important value. In underwater inspection the voltage is kept as low as possible
for safety reasons and typically only about 4 volts potential is applied to the coils
or prods. However, up to 1000 A may well be used.
Direct Current
Considering DC firstly the actual current flow is in one direction only, from
positive to negative conventionally. This can be shown on a graph thus
Figure 9.40: -
Figure 9.40
Direct Current
Using DC to induce a magnetic field will produce a field that penetrates into
the work piece and will be a better method for discovering defects that are
just below the metal surface. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field
produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the
component; whereas, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.

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Alternating Current
AC reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 Hz. In the UK, 50 Hz current is
the commercial norm but 60 Hz current is common in many countries. Since
AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for
MPI. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic
materials the magnetic field will be limited to a narrow region at the surface
of the component. This phenomenon is known as "skin effect" and it occurs
because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing
current does not allow the domains down in the material time to align.
Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is
limited to surface defects. See Figure 9.41
Figure 9.41
Alternating Current
Furthermore as the current is constantly reversing no single value for the
current can be measured. To determine a single measured value for an AC
the Root Mean Square (RMS) value is calculated. This is indicated on
Figure 9.41. To calculate the RMS value all that is required is to divide the
peak value by the constant 1.414. The normal situation is that an amperage
reading indicates the current being applied. The meter will be indicating an
RMS value. Therefore to obtain the peak value multiply the meter reading by
1.414. (This may be required if the applied current is close to the saturation
value for the work piece).
Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since some inspection
applications may call for the detection of sub-surface defects. However, the
convenient access to AC drives its use beyond surface flaw inspections.
However, AC can easily be converted to current that is very much like DC
Chapter 9
Page 198 of 253
through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing
AC can be converted to a one-directional current. The three commonly used
types of rectified current are described below. See Figure 9.42
Figure 9.42
Rectified Alternating Current
(Figures 9.30, and 9.43 attributed to University of Iowa)
Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)
When single-phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current
is allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is
blocked out so that a one directional, pulsating current is produced. The
current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero. No current
flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC
repeats at same rate as the un-rectified current (50 or 60 HZ typical). Since
half of the current is blocked out, the amperage is half of the unaltered AC.
This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or
pulsating DC. The pulsation of the HWAC helps magnetic particle
indications form by vibrating the particles and giving them added
mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using
dry particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly improve
inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to power
electromagnetic yokes.
Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)
Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather
than blocking it out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between
the pulses. Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity
switching in the rectified current. While particle mobility is not as good as
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half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface
magnetic field is improved.
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
Three-phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it
has more favourable power transmission and line loading characteristics.
This type of electrical current is also highly desirable for magnetic particle
testing because when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very
closely resembles direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment
wired with three-phase AC would usually have the ability to magnetize with
AC or DC (three phase full wave rectified), providing the advantages of each
current form. However, currently this form of power is not deployed sub-sea.
12 MPI Test Procedure
A general procedure that may be applied or adapted for offshore use would be:
Surface Checks
Obtain the necessary work permits (possibly hot work may be required)
Ensure that an isolating transformer is in the circuit
Test all circuit breakers or Residual Current Devices (RCD)
Check all electric cables for integrity
Confirm rigging and buoyancy is correct
Ensure the ultraviolet light is to BS EN ISO 3059:2001 specifications
Ensure the ink is to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 (settling test)
Confirm the ink distribution system is functioning correctly
Calculate the required current
Function test all the MPI equipment
Ensure the gauss meter is functioning and ready for deployment
Ensure all ancillary equipment is available, (tapes, grinder, hammer,
punch, etc.)
Confirm that the personnel are qualified and briefed
Prepare the recording equipment (CCTV, camera, data sheets)
In Water Preparation
Establish the down lines and working lines on the correct site
Clean the inspection site to the specifications (SA 2 for 75 mm)
Pre-inspection
Establish the datum and place tape measure, mark up the weld
Complete a Close Visual Inspection (CVI) identify areas that may cause
spurious indication during the MPI
MPI
Rig the transformer safely as close as possible to the test site
Switch on the ultraviolet light
Confirm that ambient light is less than 20 lux
Rig and lay out the coils or parallel loops or prods or magnet on the test
site
Demagnetise the work site
Confirm the ink is constantly agitated
Position the gauss meter ready to monitor the induced field strength
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Page 200 of 253
Switch on the current on the diver inspectors command, record current
Read out the indicated field strength on the gauss meter (1.0 T minimum)
Apply ink as required to the weld and complete the inspection
As the inspection progresses confirm adequate field strength at each
clock position
If any indications are identified re-inspect to confirm the findings
With confirmed indications record Location (distance from datum)
Length
Orientation and position on weld
Continuous or intermittent
Branching or not
Weak or strong indication
Complete remedial grinding as per the procedure
Retest after grinding
Mark the ends of the feature with a punch mark if required
Post inspection
Demagnetise
De-rig and recover all equipment to the surface
Wash all equipment with fresh water
Flush out the ink system
Report the results to the client
Cancel work permits
13 Interpretation of Indications
There are three type of indication that may result from an MPI:
Relevant indications
These are produced by defects
Spurious or non-relevant
Caused by sharp changes in geometry, such as the toe of the weld
Brazed joints because of the difference in permeability
Changes in permeability caused by heat treatment.
(The parent plate, the HAZ, the weld itself)
Magnetic writing caused by two different metals
rubbing together
False indications
Caused by other factors such as gravity
Figure 9.43 refers
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Figure 9.43
Spurious or Non-relevant Indications
14 Reporting Indications
Any indications should be reported in a standard manner.
The distance from the datum mark
The length
The orientation and position relative to the weld
Whether the indication is strong or weak
Whether the indication is continuous or intermittent
Whether it branches or not with the orientation of any branches
Position of the indication, whether on the weld, toe, HAZ, parent plate
etc.
Always use the correct terminology.
An example of a report sheet is reproduced in Figure 9.44
Chapter 9
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Figure 9.44
Sample Data Report Sheet
15 Recording Indications
The actual MPI indications may be recorded in a number of ways.
15.1 Ultraviolet Photography
A conventional photograph can be taken using either: -
An ultraviolet lamp and a long exposure on the camera
An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash
Client: MPI report sheet:
Location: Node reference: Depth:
Dive number: Date: Sheet of
Description of workpiece
Equipment: Used: Make & Serial No: Ink: % by vol:
Permanent
magnet:
Make:
Coil: Water based:
Parallel loop: Fluorescent:
U/V lamp: Black:
Ink dispenser: Current used: Amps
Other: AC: DC: Turns:
Cleaning:
HP water: HP grit: LP grit: Hyd wire brush Hand:
Viewing conditions: Ambient light Lux
_ UV/A
W/CM
2
Surface finish:
General report:
Test restrictions:
Client: Inspection engineer
Flux indicator: 3oc 6oc 9oc 12oc
Diver:
Client: MPI report sheet:
Location: Node reference: Depth:
Dive number: Date: Sheet of
Description of workpiece
Equipment: Used: Make & Serial No: Ink: % by vol:
Permanent
magnet:
Make:
Coil: Water based:
Parallel loop: Fluorescent:
U/V lamp: Black:
Ink dispenser: Current used: Amps
Other: AC: DC: Turns:
Cleaning:
HP water: HP grit: LP grit: Hyd wire brush Hand:
Viewing conditions: Ambient light Lux
_ UV/A
W/CM
2
Surface finish:
General report:
Test restrictions:
Client: Inspection engineer
Flux indicator: 3oc 6oc 9oc 12oc
Diver:
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15.2 Cast
This is used with dry powder not ink and therefore has no underwater
application. The indication is exposed with the dry powder and a cast such as
microset is applied. The dry powder particles are captured in the cast.
15.3 Foil Packets (Magfoil)
These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that are
separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is applied to
the test site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles and the mixing
liquid that are kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A triangular wire flux
indicator is also mounted inside the packet.
The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents by
manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the contents
will take on a grey colour.
Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100
seconds.
Apply the magnetising force during this period
The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet
Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5 minutes)
The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth
can be measured. These dimensions will give an indication of defect
length and depth
15.4 Video
Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles
when the ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on
disc.
15.5 Rubberised Tape Transfer
An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The magnetic
particles adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This cannot be
applied underwater. It may have a possible use in a welding habitat.
16 Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which
the test will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will
depend in the main on three factors: -
The diver inspector
The equipment being used
The conditions on site
For maximum efficiency of the operation, the diver inspector should, as well as
being comfortable and as well equipped for the dive as possible: -
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Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment for a particular test
Be confident in his own ability to detect defects with it
Be sure of the value of his contribution to the efficiency and safety of the
plant or structure he is inspecting.
These last three points are obtained from the competence and confidence
imparted to the inspector by good training and an active involvement in the
inspection function.
The sensitivity of the magnetic particle test will depend on several factors, some
of which will be within the control of the inspector and others not. The sensitivity
of detection depends ultimately on the contrast that can be produced between
the defect and its surroundings and the definition, which tells the size, shape
and orientation of the defect.
Figure 9.45 shows some of the factors that will affect the performance. Like a
chain, it will only be as good as its weakest link.
Figure 9.45
Sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection
16.1 Factors Affecting Contrast
The following points should be considered in connection with the contrast of the
test.
16.1.1 Surface Condition (1)
The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an
important factor here. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic
particles were being used.
16.1.2 Lighting (2)
If the ambient lighting is too high, for example because of bright sun near the
surface, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks are used. The
diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet lamp to
detect any deterioration in brightness, which would decrease the efficiency of
detecting defects.
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16.1.3 Ink Condition (3)
Important factors here include the best colour to attract the attention of the
inspector and the right size of particle. This is tightly controlled by the
appropriate standard, there could be some consideration given to larger size
particles that may give better contrast. The physical condition of the ink is also
important. It should be a finely divided suspension of particles that is delivered
to the work piece and so the diver inspector should check to see that the
agitator is working continuously. This should be a regular part of the routine.
16.1.4 Field Strength (4)
This must be high enough to hold the ink to the surface of the defect.
16.2 Factors Affecting Contrast
The following factors are important when considering definition: -
16.2.1 Ink Condition (5)
As can be seen from the chart the ink condition has an affect on both contrast
and definition. The definition can be improved if the defect outline is picked out
by fine magnetic particles.
16.2.2 Geometry of the Work Piece (6)
In the main, MPI has to be carried out by diver inspectors on welds that are
parts of complicated nodes in very difficult position in a hostile environment.
This might be the most significant weakness in the system and methods of
improving the procedures, back up for divers at the work position and redesign
of the equipment with this in mind will bring about a marked improvement in
defect detection.
16.2.3 Efficiency of the Magnetic Field Conditions (7)
The effectiveness with which the inspector can set up the magnetic field
condition is the heart of the magnetic particle inspection. Factors like current
flow, field direction, electrical contact of the prods, coil fill factor, need to be
considered carefully.
17 Glossary of Terms and List of Standards Applicable to MPI
17.1 Glossary
Coercive Force: The force required to reduce the flux density
within a material to zero.
Consequential Poles: Areas of flux leakage that are cause by
discontinuities forming breaks in the surface
of the metal.
Electromagnetism: The magnetic force at right angles to the
direction of flow of an electric current.
Field Strength: The units for magnetic field strength (H) are
Am
-1
. A magnetic field strength of 1 Am
-1
is
produced at the centre of a single circular
Chapter 9
Page 206 of 253
conductor of diameter 1 meter carrying a
steady current of 1 A. See Figure 9.46.
Figure 9.46
Field Strength
Flux: Lines of force in a magnetic field
Flux Density: The number of flux lines per unit area. The
unit is the Tesla (T), symbol B, 1.0 T is the
minimum flux density required for MPI.
Flux Indictor: An implement used to indicate the amount of
flux density produced by an external
magnetising force.
Flux Leakage: A point where a line of flux leaves a material
or the pole of a magnet.
Hysteresis: A diagram produced by plotting field
strength (H) against flux density (B).
Permeability (): The ease with which a material can be
magnetised.
Poles: The ends of a bar or horseshoe magnet
where flux leakage occurs.
Reluctance: The resistance to the flow of flux in a material,
equivalent to resistance in electricity.
Residual Magnetism: The amount of magnetism remaining in a
material after the external field is removed.
Retentivity: The point on the hysteresis loop that indicates
the residual magnetism in a material that
remains after the magnetising force is
removed.
Saturation: The point at which a material will not accept
any more lines of flux.
Vector Field: The resultant field orientation that is caused
by two fields simultaneously interacting with
each at different angles within a component.

Page 207 of 253
17.2 MPI Standards
There are a number of international standards that apply to MPI. Following is
a current list of these.
BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001 Non-destructive testing. Magnetic particle
testing. General principles
(BS 6072:1981 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection is obsolescent
but remains current)
BS EN ISO 3059:2001 Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing and
magnetic particle testing. Viewing conditions
BS EN ISO 4063:2000 Welding and allied processes. Nomenclature of
processes and reference numbers
BS EN 22553:1995:1995 Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic
representation on drawings
BS EN 13622:2002 Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms used for
gas welding equipment
(BS 499-1:1991 Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding,
brazing and thermal cutting is current but partially replaced)
testing. General principles
(BS 6072:1981 Method for magnetic particle flaw detection remains
current but is obsolescent, superseded)
testing. Detection media
testing. Equipment
Chapter 9
Page 208 of 253

Bibliography
E & F N Spon
Iowa State University
Web site
Page 209 of 253

This page is blank
Chapter 10
Page 210 of 253
CHAPTER 10
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
1 General Comments
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to
prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive
marine growth, debris or other fouling. In either case only discrete areas of the
structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket. A number of methods for
cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 10.1
Table 10.1
1.1 HP Water Jets
HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit
blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the
operator and therefore some safety considerations must be included with any
discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 10.2
NO
Hazardous, may damage the
surface
Fast, matt finish HP Water Grit
Entrainment
NO
Only in splash zone,
environmental impact
No diver intervention
required
Inhibitors (Including
Henderson Rings)
YES
Depth limits, control, exhaust More efficient Pneumatics
NO
Will not remove soft growth Effective on hard
growth, safe, no grit
Cavitation Jet
YES
May be depth limited, large
compressor required
Fast, matt finish LP Air Grit
YES
Hazardous, maintenance,
backup team required
Removes all growth,
matt finish
Grit Blasting
YES
Hazardous, leaves reflective
surface
Fast, effective, least
damaging
HP Water Jet
YES
Expensive, limited choice,
bulky hose
More efficient Hydraulics
NO
Slow, diver fatigue, poor
finish
Inexpensive, easy to
deploy
Hand Cleaning
(Scrapers etc)
ROV Disadvantages Advantages Method
NO
Hazardous, may damage the
surface
Fast, matt finish HP Water Grit
Entrainment
NO
Only in splash zone,
environmental impact
No diver intervention
required
Inhibitors (Including
Henderson Rings)
YES
Depth limits, control, exhaust More efficient Pneumatics
NO
Will not remove soft growth Effective on hard
growth, safe, no grit
Cavitation Jet
YES
May be depth limited, large
compressor required
Fast, matt finish LP Air Grit
YES
Hazardous, maintenance,
backup team required
Removes all growth,
matt finish
Grit Blasting
YES
Hazardous, leaves reflective
surface
Fast, effective, least
damaging
HP Water Jet
YES
Expensive, limited choice,
bulky hose
More efficient Hydraulics
NO
Slow, diver fatigue, poor
finish
Inexpensive, easy to
deploy
Hand Cleaning
(Scrapers etc)
ROV Disadvantages Advantages Method
Page 211 of 253

Figure 10.2
Hughes HP Water Jet
Safety considerations are:
Never block or wire the trigger open
When in use never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned
Keep clear of any retro-jets
Never get any part of the body in front of the jet
Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition
and are correctly fitted and tightened
If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system
because of circulation in the water
If grit penetrates the suit or gloves take medical advice immediately
Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming or even killing
if not handled correctly
All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater
use.
1.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice
The Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) has published the following
advice on managing any accident that might occur while using this type of
equipment.
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Page 212 of 253
The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the
extent of the injury beneath ant the damage to deeper tissue. Large quantities
of water may have punctured the skin, flesh and organs through a very small
hole that may not even bleed.
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture,
particularly if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent
infection is particularly important in abdominal injuries.
1.3 Management of any Injury
The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence or
absence of infection and even through the injury seems trivial on the surface
and the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to arrange for
medical examination as quickly as possible. Where surgical examination is not
immediately possible in a remote situation, first aid measures are confined to
dressing the wound and observing the patient closely for the development of
further complaints over four or five days. The development of fever and a rising
pulse rate suggest the injury is serious together with persistence or occurrence
of pain. On evacuation, the diver should carry the following card, which outlines
the possible nature of the injury.
This man has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500
psi (100Mpa, 1000 bar, 1019 Kgcm
-2
) with a jet velocity of 900 mph (1440
Kmhr
-1
). Please take this into account when making your diagnosis.
Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organism occurring at low
temperatures have been reported. These may be gram negative pathogens
such as are found in sewage, bacterial swabs and blood cultures may
therefore be helpful
2 Standard of Surface Finish
The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was
originally a Swedish standard for specifying blast cleaning of steel prior to the
application of paint coatings. This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO
8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1: 1989 and .BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001,
BS 7079-A1: Supplement 1: 1996 The specifications from these standard
normally applied offshore are:
SA 1
Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection)
SA 2
Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion
products
SA 2
Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment resulting in dull matt metal
finish. (This is the most widely adopted cleaning level applied offshore as it
leave a surface, sometimes referred to as stippled, that does not unduly
reflect light. It is an excellent surface for CVI, MPI Video, Photography and
all other NDT.)
Page 213 of 253
SA 3
Thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for most
inspection but will reflect light and is therefore not such a good surface if
Video and Photography are employed.
3 Area to Be Cleaned
The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a
valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in un-
necessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA 2 should include the weld and an
area 75mm wide either side of it. Also an area large enough to allow access for
inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA 1 either
side of the weld. An area approximately 1m wide should be sufficient. See
Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3
Cleaned Area
4 Profile Grinding
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structures
life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have
process faults such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc,
spatter or any other fabrication flaws. If pressure vessels such as caissons and
conductors are constructed to PD 5500:2000 all welds should be dressed to
comply with the requirements of the standard. Profile grinding obviously has an
established place in welding fabrication.
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Page 214 of 253
Regarding the in-service stage for any structure the need to employ profile
grinding may be dictated by:
The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during
MPI or EMD investigations are actually cracks
The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed
during inspection activities
The practice of removing identified notches and stress raisers discovered
during the normal IMR cycle
When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised either by
the CNC or by instructions from the Duty Holders engineering department via
the on site Client Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be
given in a written instruction.
4.1 Profile Grinding
The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features
are identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the
annual IMR program.
A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any
indications to a maximum depth of 2mm in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a
requirement to re-inspect after each step to determine whether the indication
has been ground out or not.
The on-shore engineering department in accordance with their requirements
and procedures will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains
after the full 2mm depth is reached. Figure 10.4 applies.
Page 215 of 253

Figure 10.4
Remedial Grinding
Chapter 10
Page 216 of 253

Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
Page 217 of 253
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Chapter 11
Page 218 of 253
CHAPTER 11
Other NDT Methods Used Offshore
1 Introduction
There are a number of non-destructive test methods employed for particular
inspection tasks on offshore structures. These methods may not be used so
frequently as the NDT techniques outlined in Chapter 1 but they are important
additions to the spread of techniques that can be employed to test structural
integrity. An outline of the methods, principles of operation, advantages,
disadvantages and uses are contained below.
2 Radiography
Radiography is a well-proven method of NDT that has been employed in
industry for many years to test welds and many other items. It is extensively
used in the Health Service as X-rays to enable health workers to see inside the
human body. Offshore radiography is used in pipeline survey, topside platform
inspections and occasionally underwater for specific tasks. The worlds Navies
employ radiography for specialist mine disposal activities. Table 18.2 indicates
the advantages and disadvantages of the method as a non-destructive test.
Permanent records are produced as
radiographs
Safety requirements are very high
The radiograph can be viewed by
many
Storage and transport of the
radioactive sources are expensive
due to the safety requirements
It is a well proven method In the UK Government approval is
required
Measurements can usually be taken
directly off the radiograph
The radiographers must be HSE
controlled and carry dosimeters
Cleaning standard is only SA 1 Costs are high because of the safety
requirements and the production
methods to produce radioactive
isotopes
Interpretation of the radiograph often
requires trained radiographic
interpreters
Table 18.2
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Radiography as an NDT Technique
Page 219 of 253
3 Production of Radiation
Radiography employs two methods of producing radiation and two types of
radiation, X-rays and Gamma () rays. X-rays are produced electronically and
therefore there is no storage of radioactive sources but the equipment is bulky
and heavy, rays are produced by radioactive isotopes that are always a
source of radiation and are therefore always potentially harmful to personnel
and storage must be extremely carefully controlled.
3.1 X-ray Production
X-rays can be produced within a thermionic valve where a stream of electrons
emitted from the cathode bombards an anode. The impact of the electrons on
the anode produces photons or X-rays. See Figure 11.2

Figure 11.2
Production of X-rays
As well as being bulky and heavy high voltages are required to produce the
electron stream and this presents a hazard to diver deployment. Commercially
this equipment is not used underwater.
4 Production of Rays
Radiation is produced by the spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of an
unstable element as it emits particles thereby reducing to a lower energy state
to become stable. The units of measure of this radiation are the Curie (Ci).
Some radioactive isotopes exist naturally but they emit low levels of radiation
and bombarding certain elements, such as Iridium, with neutrons, produces
artificial isotopes. This changes the atomic structure of the element because the
neutrons are captured in its nucleus.
The most common source used offshore is Iridium 192 that has a radiation
output of some 480 Ci when first produced. This drops as the isotope ages.
Iridium 192 can penetrate approximately 90mm of steel but is normally limited to
Chapter 11
Page 220 of 253
50mm. Cobalt 60 is an alternative source that is used offshore if a stronger
source is required.
In use the source is housed in a radiation shielded housing that may be
constructed with depleted uranium. The housing is designed with an aperture
that can be opened remotely to expose the source for a controlled exposure.
There is at least one diver deployable source that is remotely controlled. The
diver will place the film cassettes and the source in its housing unexposed. The
housing is connected to a compressed air supply on the surface and is locked
with a key in the safe, housed position. The last task for the diver when all is set
up is to unlock the safety and withdraw the key and leave the site. The safety
zone is maintained as 8m.
The housing aperture is opened from the surface remote control to expose the
source. On completion of the timed exposure the aperture is closed and an
ROV would confirm via a visual indicator that the source is housed. The diver
then returns to lock the unit and adjust it for the next exposure. The aim would
be to cover the pipe radius in three hits. Figures 11.3 to 11.5 refer

Figure 11.3
Diver Deployed Radioactive Source in Housing
Page 221 of 253

Figure 11.4
Source Placed at 12 Oclock
Setup for First Exposure
(Arrow indicates direction of 3 oclock)

Figure 11.5
Source Connected to Surface Unlocked
with Key Removed Ready to be exposed
Chapter 11
Page 222 of 253

The method of placing the film cassettes is illustrated in Figure is 11.6

Figure 11.6
Placing Film Cassettes for Double Wall
Single Image Technique
4.1 Safety
It is imperative to maintain an 8m-exclusion zone at all times. The most
important factor when handling radioactive sources is safety; there can be no
compromise. The company supplying the source, equipment and radiographers
must be Home Office approved and the staff are all badged and monitored.
5 How the Method Works
The radiation emitted from the source will cause silver halides contained in the
film emulsion to react in the same way that light causes a reaction in
photography. The more radiation falling on the film the darker it will appear
when developed. Figure 11.7 illustrates the method.
Page 223 of 253

Figure 11.7
Radiation Exposing the Film
The preferred method of recording an image is the single wall, single image or
panoramic technique, which is illustrated in Figure 11.8. The alternative when
there is only access to one side is the double wall single image technique as
shown in Figure 11.6.

Figure 11.8
Single Wall Single Image or
Panoramic Technique
Chapter 11
Page 224 of 253

5.1 Radiograph Quality
The quality of the radiograph is important because it will determine how small a
defect can be found. Radiography is best at recording volumetric defects not
planar as illustrated in Figure 11.7. The quality of the radiograph is commonly
indicated by the use of an Image Quality Indicator (IQI). This is a plastic packet
that contains wires of different diameters that record or not on the radiograph.
The size of the smallest wire that records is the size of the smallest defect that
will show on the radiograph. See Figure 11.9

Figure 11.9
Image Quality Indicator
6 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
Eddy current testing of welds is widespread offshore because developments
have taken place to improve the equipment design to better adapt it to the
environment. Eddy current techniques are used to: -
Detect and size for length and depth surface breaking cracks in
conducting materials whether magnetic or non-magnetic
Inspecting tubes and bar materials during production
Sorting pure metals and alloys
Taking coating thickness measurements
Page 225 of 253
Assessing stress in conducting materials
Assessing the thickness of marine growth
The most sensitive area for stress cracks propagating is the toes of welds and
this type of defect will be surface breaking. Eddy currents can find this type of
defect through paint coating and therefore has real potential in the offshore
scene.
6.1 How the Method Works
As shown in Chapter 9 MPI when an electric current is passed through a
conductor a circular magnetic field at 90
o
to the current flow is generated
around the conductor. If the conductor is twisted into a coil the magnetic field
vectors into a longitudinal flux orientation. With the eddy current technique this
is called the PRIMARY FIELD. If this coil is brought to close proximity to a
conducting material the primary field will pass through the material and produce
a circular electric current orientated at right angles to the direction of the primary
magnetic field. This induced electric current is called an eddy current and this is
the principal that transformers work on. Figure 11.10 refers.

Figure 11.10
The Eddy Current Principle
These eddy currents will induce another magnetic field that is called the
secondary field, which has the opposite orientation to the primary field. These
two fields can be balanced via the instrumentation that can have a display that
would then read zero.
This would be the case with a plane conducting material with no discontinuities.
If there were a surface breaking crack in the plate this will cause the lines of
current flow to bunch together which in turn will cause the induced lines of
magnetic flux to bunch. As seen in Chapter 9 this increases the flux density, this
in turn increases the magnetic field strength in the secondary magnetic field.
This causes an imbalance between the two fields that will be indicated on the
instrument display, which is commonly a CRT. Figure 11.11 refers.
Chapter 11
Page 226 of 253

Figure 18.12
Effects of a Crack
Interacting With the
Eddy Currents
There are a number of factors that can affect the eddy currents apart from
surface breaking cracks: -
Probe lift off can cause spurious indications
Varying permeability can cause spurious indications
If the probe is close to the edge of a plate edge effect will cause
spurious indications
Differences in material thickness can cause spurious indications
Figure 11.12 refers

Figure 18.13
Spurious Indications

Page 227 of 253

Other factors that effect eddy currents are: -
Test probe frequency
The higher the frequency the less the penetration
Material permeability
The higher the permeability the less the penetration
Material conductivity
The higher the conductivity the less the penetration
Table 11.13 indicates the advantages and disadvantages of the method.
EMD/ACFM Advantages over MPI MPI Advantages over EMD/ACFM
Can size a defect for length and
depth
Well proven industrial technique
Works through non-conducting
materials
Easier to use on complex geometry
Data recorded directly onto
computer
Good for finding transverse or complex
branching cracks
Permanent record of inspection data Good for finding shallow cracks
Quicker than MPI Gives a visual unambiguous indication
Lower cleaning standard required Better for use with remedial grinding
Works on non-magnetic materials The equipment is less complex
Interpretation is completed topside The equipment is less costly
Off-line interpretation is available
There are no lighting problems
ROV deployment may be possible
Table 11.13
Advantages of EMD/ACFM over MPI
Finally there are a number of important points to note that must apply during
any EMD or ACFM inspection.
The probe operation must be agreed between the surface technician and
the diver inspector
The terminology to be used during the dialogue between the technician
and the diver inspector must be agreed and understood by both
Cleaning standard must be a minimum of SA 2
Chapter 11
Page 228 of 253
The diver inspector must appreciate the important points concerning
probe manipulation and know the name of the parts of the probe
The weld must be correctly marked
The diver inspector must be aware of the limitations of the technique
regarding weld profile, seams and component geometry
7 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)
ACPD is a method for sizing the depth of a surface-breaking defect. The
method is not used to detect defects only to size a known flaw. The method can
be used on any conducting material as it relies solely on the resistance path to
an alternating current.
Alternating current exhibits a skin effect as has been mentioned previously. The
skin effect is more prevalent the higher the frequency of the alternating current.
A pair of probes, called field probes is placed in contact with the surface of the
material being tested and a current is applied across them. The current will flow
from one probe to the other through the skin of the material. A second probe,
which is the equivalent of the two prods of a voltmeter, measures the potential
drop between them when they are placed in the current field established by the
field probes. This establishes a baseline reading. The sensing probe is then
placed to straddle the crack and a different reading is obtained because the
resistance path is longer. Care must be exercised to ensure that the current
carrying conductor for the field probes is kept as far away from the measuring
probe and its umbilical as possible to avoid any interference with the readings.
See Figure 11.14

Figure 11.14
Methodology for ACPD
Page 229 of 253
To size the depth of the crack the two readings are compared and a simple
formula is applied to calculate the actual crack depth. A probe designed for
underwater deployment is shown in Figure 11.15.

Figure 11.15
ACPD Underwater Probe
8 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
ACFM will find and size surface-breaking defects in most metals even through
coatings up to 5mm thick. ACFM has largely replaced MPI offshore in the UK
sector of the North Sea. The method is applied by diver inspectors and may be
achievable by ROVs in the near future. The diver inspector manipulates the
probe and the surface technician interprets the results and records the data.
The minimum qualification for the diver inspector is 3.1U. A 3.2U diver inspector
is often specified; however as remedial grinding may be necessary. The
scanning techniques and terminology are as for the EMD techniques in
paragraph 7.1 above. ROV deployed probes will require 3.3U qualified
personnel.
Cleaning standard of SA 1 is required.
The ACFM method was evolved to combine the ACPD technique of sizing with
a method that does not require surface contact. This is achieved by inducing an
electric field similar to EMD methods. With ACFM the induced electric field then
induces magnetic fields as with EMD methods and these magnetic fields are
measured electronically to determine crack length and depth. The fact that
electric fields exhibit the skin effect is utilised to confine the measurement of the
magnetic field to the crack area only. Figure 11.16 refers.
Chapter 11
Page 230 of 253

Figure 11.16
Principle of Operation of ACFM

8.2 Application of the Technique
The standard ACFM probe contains both the field induction and the magnetic
field sensors in one probe assembly. No electrical contact is required to the
worksite and therefore cleaning to SA 1 is sufficient.
There are two cables connected to the probe, one for input current to the field
induction unit and one to carry output current from the magnetic field sensors.
These two cables are contained in a single umbilical. Care should be exercised
not to pass this close to the probe assembly as it could alter the induced field
strength.
The diver inspector under directions from the surface technician manipulates
the probe. The surface technician will brief the diver as detailed in paragraph
6.1 before the inspection. Interpretation is completed on the surface by the
surface technician and the results are all recorded in real time and can be
reviewed at any time during or after the inspection.
The system does not suffer from probe lift off as EMD does. Cracks can be
sized for length and depth.
Page 231 of 253

9 Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
Flooded members can be detected in two ways
Gamma Radiography
Ultrasonically
The most widely used in the North Sea is radiography.
FMD is used to identify tubular members that have flooded. It is used as a batch
testing method on a go/no go system. If a member is tested and found to be
dry it is a go and considered to be serviceable and fit for purpose. If it is
flooded it is a no go and is identified for further follow up analysis and testing
to determine where it has failed, why it has failed and what ramifications this
has on the structure.
9.1 Radiographic FMD
This technique places and exposes a source on one side of the tubular while a
dosimeter is held opposite on the other side. The radiation penetrating the
tubular will be much less if it is flooded than if it is dry. The diameter and wall
thickness of the member must be known so that the expected doses may be
calculated. The most common source used for this method is caesium 137 and
safety zones must be established around the ROV when it is on deck with the
source fitted. The last person to leave the ROV before launching is the
radiographer and the first person to approach it on recovery is the radiographer.
No cleaning is required as long as the thickness can be assessed as the
software will compensate for the marine growth.
Figure 11.17 illustrates the technique and Figure 11.18 shows a typical
configuration on an ROV.

Figure 11.17
Radiographic FMD
Chapter 11
Page 232 of 253

Figure 11.18
Radiographic FMD Mounted on ROV
10 Ultrasonic FMD
The ultrasonic technique uses a standoff ultrasonic method with an A-scan
display. The 500 kHz probe is mounted on a standoff frame which must be held
exactly at the normal to the surface of the member. The ultrasonic signal is
propagated through the water to the near wall of the member. If the member is
dry there is a reflected signal from the near wall only. If the member is flooded
there is a reflected signal from the near wall and from, either the far wall or the
surface of the internal water. It is a go/no go method the same as the
radiographic technique. Figure 11.19 refers.
Page 233 of 253

Figure 11.19
Ultrasonic FMD
The cleaning standard is SA 2. As this method is diver deployed the necessary
cleaning can be accomplished by the diver prior to taking the reading.
11 General Point for all FMD Readings
All FMD readings must be taken at either the 6 oclock position on any
horizontal members or as low as possible on any vertical or vertical diagonal
members. This is because this is the point where liquid will accumulate. It is
also vital to know the diameter and wall thickness of any member that is to be
tested.
Chapter 11
Page 234 of 253

Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
Page 235 of 253
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Appendix 1
Page 236 of 253
Appendix 1
Extract of Offshore
Technology Report OTH 84 206
Category A (Defects)
Cracks
Cracks can be divided into three categories:
Fine cracks not more than 1mm wide
Medium cracks between 1mm and 2mm wide
Wide cracks more than 2mm wide
The edges of the fracture are normally sharp and the aggregate may also be
fractured. The usual cause is structural movement. Although all concrete
structures have some cracks in them they will not become significant until they
are measurable, which usually only occurs in-service
Delamination
A Delamination is a thin sheet of concrete, which has become partially or
completely detached from the main structure. Beneath the Delamination the
surface of the structure is much rougher and shows aggregate. Delamination is
caused by corrosion of a layer of reinforcement or possibly impact damage and
is principally an in-service defect
Pop-out
A pop out is a small conical depression in the concrete surface, usually with a
piece of corroding reinforcement at its base. It is caused by the expansion of
isolated particles in the concrete or by corrosion of the ends of reinforcing bars.
This causes the surface of the concrete to be put under tension and will so
produce local failure in the form of a conical piece of the concrete popping out
from the structure. The edges will usually be sharp and well defined. Pop outs
are an in-service defect
Impact Damage
Impact damage is described as a rough area in which the smooth surface of the
concrete has been removed by means of a blow or impact. It is caused by a
blow from an object, which will dislodge part of the structure usually at the
edges or corners. Impact damage could occur either during the construction
phase or the installation phase. It should have been found and corrected
Tearing
Tearing is crack-like in its appearance but the width will vary and the edges are
often rough and indistinct. Coarse aggregate will not be broken. It will be widest
at the mid-length point and it will tend to taper towards the ends. There may be
some indications of rust staining. While the concrete was inside the slip form
Extract of Offshore
Page 237 of 253
shutter it adhered to the surface of the shutter and so when the shutter was
moved upwards the concrete was torn apart
Exposed Reinforcement
The steel reinforcement bars become visible on the surface of the concrete
accompanied by rust staining. There are two ways in which this occurs: either
by displacement of the steelwork during construction or by removal of the
outside covering of concrete during the in-service life of the structure (impact
damage)

Figure A1.1
Exposed Reinforcement
Faulty Repair
Any repair, which allows the ingress of seawater to the reinforcement cage,
should be described as faulty. Normally this will have the appearance of a
patch, which will be of different texture and colour to the surrounding concrete.
There may also be cracking around the edge of the repair and maybe a poor
porous surface to the repair. The cause is normally a defect, which has
occurred during the construction phase and ahs been repaired badly
Appendix 1
Page 238 of 253

Figure A1.2
Faulty repair
Variable Cover
Concrete protect the reinforcement cage by passivation but in order for this to
be effective then there must be a minimum thickness of concrete over the
reinforcement. This defect may not be visible but in extreme cases there may
be some rust staining seen. The cause is either due to the reinforcement cage
being displaced or the slip form shutter being dislodged. Variable cover is a
construction defect.
All of the above are defects primarily because they will allow a more or less
unrestricted flow of seawater to the reinforcement cage, thus allowing corrosion
to take place
Category B (Areas of Concern)
Embedded Objects
Consists of objects such as wire, nails, wood etc., which have been accidentally
dropped into the concrete while it is still wet and become embedded objects.
They will all have been included at the time of construction
Extract of Offshore
Page 239 of 253

Figure A1.3
Embedded Object
Cast in sockets
The visible description of cast in sockets is just a small hole, which may have
some threads visible inside. They will have been caused by the use of bolt
fixings during the construction phase. The bolts will have been removed leaving
the sockets still embedded in the concrete. They may well be filled with mortar.
Cast in sockets will have been included during the construction phase

Figure A1.4
Cast in Socket
Appendix 1
Page 240 of 253
Recessed metal plates
This is a metal plate, which has been cast into the structure. Usually it will be
recessed some way into the concrete in order to allow the slip form shutter to
pass unhindered. The recess will have rough uneven sides, there may also be
some corrosion of the plate and so possibly some staining and cracking of the
concrete around the plate.
These plates will be included in the structure during the construction phase

Figure A1.5
Recessed Metal Plate
Water jet damage
Water jets can be used to cut through concrete, so great care must be taken in
order to prevent the damage of the surface of the concrete during cleaning
operations. If damage occurs it will form dark lines in an irregular pattern over
an area of concrete, which has been cleaned. Aggregate may be exposed and
the surface will feel rough to the touch.
The damage is caused by the use of pressures which are too high, or by the
use of a jet which is too small.
Water jet damage will occur in-service
Extract of Offshore
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Figure A1.6
Water Jet Damage
Abrasion
Abrasion can look similar to water jet damage but the surface will be smooth.
Although the aggregate may well be visible the edges will be well defined.
Abrasion will be caused by movement of hard objects against the concreter
wearing away (abrading) the surface of the concrete. This is normally an in-
service problem

Figure A1.7
Abrasion
Appendix 1
Page 242 of 253
Honeycombing
Honeycombing will appear as an area of coarse aggregate, which has little or
no grout around it. Voids will be apparent in the concrete. The course aggregate
will not be broken.
It is caused by insufficient compaction or vibration of the concrete during
construction, or maybe grout loss beneath a shutter. Also it can be caused by
the concrete not having sufficient fine material present.
Honeycombing occurs during the construction phase
Category C (Blemishes)
Construction joint
This will be a fairly straight line on the surface with irregular ridges and/or
depressions along its length. The edges may be indistinct and may be
accompanied by some tearing. The coarse aggregate will not be broken. The
colour or texture of the surface above and below the joint nay differ somewhat.
This blemish is formed at the end of one pour of concreter and beginning of
another pour where the formwork has not been tailored to fit the structure very
well.
It will occur during the construction phase and may be useful as a datum for the
location of defects etc.
Formwork misalignment
This will show as a step or a ridge on the surface of the concrete.
It is caused by the poor tailoring or fitting of shutters during the fabrication or the
structure.
It will occur during the construction phase
Figure A1.8
Formwork Misalignment
Extract of Offshore
Page 243 of 253
Blowholes
These will be small holes in the surface of the concrete usually less than 10mm
in diameter with sharp edges. There will not normally be any aggregate visible.
Blowholes are caused by air bubbles being trapped against the formwork face.
There will always be some blowholes in a concrete structure but they will not be
significant unless they are frequent, due to insufficient vibration of the liquid
concrete slurry
They will occur during the construction phase
Figure A1.9
Blowholes
Scabbling
This will have a rough surface appearance due to the surface of the concrete
having been removed so exposing the course aggregate.
This is an intentional removal of the smooth surface, usually prior to placing
further concrete. It will normally be done at the construction phase
Appendix 1
Page 244 of 253

Figure A1.10
Scabbling
Rubbing down marks
Irregular marks on the surface of the concrete may have the appearance of
brush marks on wet concrete.
These are caused by the rubbing down of the concrete to remove surface
blemishes as they emerge from the formwork. It may indicate a repair.
Rubbing down marks will have been done at the construction phase
Good repair
This will be a repair, which has a smooth and complete appearance, which in
not likely to allow seawater ingress to the reinforcement cage.
This will have been done to repair a slight defect from the construction phase
Extract of Offshore
Page 245 of 253
Figure A1.11
Good Repair
Regular horizontal ridge
These are ridges formed on the surface of the concrete, which are spaced
regularly and will normally extend all around the structure.
As the slip form shutters rise the concrete should be self-supporting as it
emerges from the bottom of the shutter. The shutter will be jacked up
approximately once every hour and will then be stationary for the next hour.
While the shutter is stationary there is often some sagging of the concrete from
the base of the shutter, which will form a ridge.
This will be formed at the construction phase
Irregular horizontal ridge
Irregular horizontal ridges may be from 50mm to 250mm apart but will not
expose aggregate.
These ridges are a feature of slip forming. The shutters are tapered at the top
and the pressure of each pour of concrete may cause outward movement of the
shutters at the bottom allowing grout seepage below the shutters.
These are formed during the construction phase
Vertical drag marks
These are straight vertical marks with a coarse surface, sometimes referred to
as pebble runs.
The drag marks are normally caused by stones or pebbles being trapped
behind the slip form shutters and being dragged up the structure with them, so
Appendix 1
Page 246 of 253
causing indentation in the surface of the concrete. They can also be caused by
dents or deformations in the shutter itself.
Vertical drag marks are formed during the construction phase
Figure A1.12
Vertical Drag Marks
Resin mortar repair
This is a patchy of a plastic type of substance on the surface of the structure.
It indicates that a defect has been repaired, maybe in the service life of the
structure.
It can be an in-service blemish
Extract of Offshore
Page 247 of 253
Figure A1.13
Resin Mortar Repair
Curing compound
These are large areas of coloured coating, which may well be peeling off and
flaking.
Curing compounds are applied to concrete during the construction process to
reduce water loss by evaporation during the curing of the concrete.
Therefore curing compound will be applied during the construction phase
Appendix 1
Page 248 of 253
Figure A1.14
Curing Compound

Grout run
These will often be associated with a construction joint and will have the
appearance of ragged, irregular runs of grout, adhering to the surface of the
concrete.
They are formed by the leakage of concrete from the bottom of poorly fitting
shutters. The concrete underneath will be unaffected by the run and so it will not
pose a problem.
Grout runs will be formed during the construction phase
Extract of Offshore
Page 249 of 253
Figure A1.15
Grout Run
General Concrete Terms
Spalling
Spalling does not appear as a specific term, this is because spalling is
considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose piece
of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area. One of the Category A
defects will be the cause of the spall.
Grout
Grout is a semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water.
Gunite
Concrete sprayed by compressed air. Will have high strength and density, used
to repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colourisation
than normal concrete.
Cable Duct
Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally
grout filled after tensioning.
Prestressed concrete
Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction
of compressive stress on the structure.
Base Raft
The foundation slab bearing on the seabed.
Appendix 1
Page 250 of 253
Caisson
Large cylindrical structure often referred to as a cell.
Cell
Void bounded by diaphragm walls, term used synonymously with caisson for
the base cells of a structure.
Invert
The lowest point of an opening or tunnel.
Soffit
The underside of a concrete beam.
Jarlan Hole
Perforation in a breakwater wall, used to dissipate the forces from wave action,
some of the force will be repelled and some will be admitted through the wall
where the ventury principle dissipates the energy thus reducing the forces
acting on the wall.
Laitance
This is a fine powdery substance, which accumulates on the surface of concrete
as it sets; it will need to be removed prior to any new pour being applied.
Exudation
Exudation consists of salts, which dissolve, in the concrete when fluid is passing
through a crack; it shows on the surface of the concrete as a whitish semi-fluid,
which accumulates around the crack. Note that on the surface it will always run
downwards, however in water it may drift sideways or even upwards, owing to
the fact that its density may be less than the water around it.
Reporting
When inspecting concrete always report:
All defects using correct terminology
Length of defect
Width of defect
Depth of defect
Location on the structure
Any staining
As far as possible report all defects in three dimensions
Weathering
Weathering is the term used for the deterioration of concrete due to
environmental forces; this is the concrete equivalent of corrosion in steel.
Weathering may be caused by:
Erosion from water borne particles both in the splash zone and near the
seabed may be caused by cavitation in the water flow
Extract of Offshore
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Frost damage in the splash zone, water will penetrate the structure to a
degree and will freeze and expand during winter weather thus causing
the concrete to crack and spall
Chemical attack, such as salt attack will cause the concrete to become
softened; it occurs near the surface of the structure and will take a very
long time to show. Alkali Aggregate Reaction from the aggregate can
cause cracking but takes a number of years to manifest itself
Corrosion of the reinforcement can occur if the seawater is allowed to
flow too freely through the concrete reinforcement cage or pre-stressing
tendons. This could lead to catastrophic failure, especially with pre-
stressed structures
Appendix 1
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Appendix 1
Page 253 of 253

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