Shiraz Ramji

swramji@sfu.ca
Irish Bardic Poetry and the
Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa
Draft written for reflection by Shiraz Ramji
In this paper I will focus on selected pieces of the Irish Bardic poetry
created/written by dispossessed women banfilid! and men filid! durin" the
se#enteenth and the ei"hteenth century to communicate and transmit historical$
reli"ious$ social$ educational and political e%periences of colonization by &n"land
from one "eneration to the ne%t' I will then re#iew the similarities of Irish Bardic
poetry with the poetry and son"s written by the dispossessed women and men in
North America and South Africa in the twentieth century to protest a"ainst
&uropean (olonization' Ireland became independent in )*++' South Africa became
independent in )**,' North American Nati#e populations$ includin" the -irst
Nations people in (anada are stru""lin" for their land ri"hts' I ha#e included the
national anthems of Ireland$ South Africa$ and the -irst Nations people to
demonstrate their poetic tradition of e%pressin" their stru""les$ hopes$ and future
#isions'
Bardic poetry refers to the writin"s of poets trained in the Bardic Schools of
Ireland and .aelic parts of Scotland before the ei"hteenth century Ber"in$ )*/0!'
1ost of the te%ts preser#ed are in the in 1iddle Irish or &arly 1odern Irish' 2ld
Irish refers to the period between si%th and ninth century$ 1iddle Irish refers to the
period from tenth to twelfth century$ and &arly 1odern Irish refers to the period
between thirteenth to se#enteenth century Simms$ )**3!' Prior to the ac4uisition of
the Roman alphabet alon" with the or"anized (atholic (hristianity in the fifth
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
century$ Ireland was a non5literate society 1c(one$ )**)!' Poetic schools e%isted in
Ireland before (hristianity and the trainin" of poets recei#ed had its ori"in in the
druidic learnin" associated with the reli"ion of (eltic .aul$ Britain$ and Ireland' In
early writin"s the term 6bard7 and 6fili7 are both used for a 6poet7' A fili is
someone with a special responsibility for traditional 8nowled"e$ laws$ lan"ua"e$
"rammar and senchus$ whereas a bard was a poet or #ersifier'
Irish filid$ file$ and bards formed a professional hereditary caste of hi"hly
trained learned poets' 9he bards were immersed in the history and traditions of clan
and country$ as well as in the technical re4uirements of #erse that was syllabic and
used assonance$ half rhyme and alliteration' As officials of the court of 8in" or
chieftain$ they performed a number of official roles' 9hey were chronicles and
satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed
them' Bards wor8 consisted of e%tended "enealo"ies and journalistic accounts of the
deed of their lords and ancestors' 9he Irish bard was not necessarily an inspired
poet$ but rather a professor of literature and man of letter$ hi"hly trained in the use
of polished literary medium$ belon"in" to a hereditary caste in a an aristocratic
society$ holdin" an official position by #irtue of his trainin"$ his learnin"$ his
8nowled"e of the history$ and traditions of his country and his clan Ber"in$ )*)+!'
9he early modern .aeltacht spea8ers of Irish .aelic! maintained both a low
and hi"h culture entirely in the oral domain' Ireland had maintained a class of
professional poets and "uardians of culture$ the filid$ since before the birth of
(hrist$ who passed 8nowled"e from one "eneration to the ne%t #ia a hi"hly efficient
system of oral teachin" and #erse composition' Accordin" to 2sborn Ber"in )*/0!$
2
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
almost all bardic poetry is written in one standard literary dialect$ and remained
unchan"ed for fi#e hundred years' Since poetry was a profession$ a8in to$ and of
e4ual status with$ law$ it e%cluded women' :ow culture was analo"ous to poetic
acti#ity in British Isles; mnemonic #erse$ ele"y$ romance$ entertainment$ satire'
Accordin" to <ane Ste#enson and Peter Da#idson +00)!$ who ha#e compiled
an antholo"y of early modern women poets$ the period )=+05)/00 was passin" of the
old order in .aelic society' 9he &lizabethan and (romwellian colonization of
Ireland were attended by a deliberate attempt to destroy the "uardians of the .aelic
culture as natural leaders of resistance to colonization by &n"land' In si%teenth5
century Ireland$ poets$ scholars$ and men of learnin" were han"ed or otherwise
murdered as deliberate policy$ while those who sur#i#ed were prosecuted as
6corrou"hes$ bards$ rhymers and common idle men and women7 Ste#enson >
Da#idson$ +00)!' 9he sophisticated$ intricate poetry of bardic order was profoundly
#ulnerable in this new political climate$ particularly "i#en the len"th and intensity of
the trainin" of a fili$ and the fli"ht $ death$ or proscription of the noble families who
had patronized them Ste#enson > Da#idson$ +00)!' 9he chief effect of this on
poetry is the brea8down of the classic .aelic literary lan"ua"e' 9he .aelic poetry
from the si%teenth century is mostly 6art7 poetry$ inter te%tual with a poetic
tradition "oin" bac8 a thousand years'$ syllabic in structure$ and re4uirin" a trained
ear to be appreciated$ while from the se#enteenth century$ we ha#e a fol8 poetry$
composed in common$ demonic meters$ respondin" in less sophisticated ways to the
immediate pressure of e#ents or emotions' 9his poetry has re"ular stress Ste#enson
> Da#idson$ +00)!'
3
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
9he destruction of the class of professional poets may ha#e in itself opened
up opportunities for women Ste#enson > Da#idson$ +00)!'' -emale poets were
8nown in literature$ le"islation$ or life' -ew women had access to bardic schools
because of rou"h conditions of the trainee poet?s life' 9he 4ualifications re4uired
were readin" well$ writin" in mother5ton"ue$ and a stron" memory' 9he dau"hter of
poets are probably the only ones that could be educated as descendents of the poets
and if reputable within their tribes Ber"in$ )*)+!' Bardic schools were located in
the solitary recess of a "arden$ or in an isolated enclosure out of reach of any noise'
9he structure of bardic school was a sheltered$ low hut with limited furniture
consistin" of a table$ and chairs and cloth han"ers' 9he beds were 8ept at con#enient
distance from each other' 9here were no windows to let in the dayli"ht' 2nly candles
were used for the li"ht' Ber"in$ )*)+!'
Accordin" to Ber"in )*)+!$ the students$ after screenin" with e%aminations$
were di#ided into classes accordin" to a"e$ "enius$ and years of schoolin"' 9he
professors "a#e a subject suitable to the capacity of each class' 9hey also determined
the number of rhimes$ and obser#ed the syllabus$ 4uartans$ concord$
correspondence$ termination$ and the union accordin" to the rules' &#ery Saturday
and on the e#es of festi#al days$ the students of bardic schools li#ed amon"st the
.entlemen and rich farmers of the country' 9he course was si% to se#en years before
a de"ree or mastery was conferred' In the middle A"es$ bardic poetry e%cluded
women as a policy' @omen?s relation to bardic poetry was as patrons Ste#enson >
Da#idson$ +00)!'
4
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Irish poetry of the se#enteenth$ ei"hteenth and nineteenth centuries is the
resistance poetry of colonized dispossessed people' Accordin" to Sean 2?9uama
)*3)!$ about 3= percent of Irish land was transferred to the &n"lish colonialists'
1ost of the Irish poetry durin" the colonial period is political poetry$ or a response
to social and lin"uistic injustice' 9he purely personal lyric #oice is rare and often
e%pressed in fol8 poetry' A stron" personal feelin" is attached to public issues' And it
is a 8ind of poetry that demands a listenin" rather than a readin" audience' Irish
poetry is associated with music$ and the music of words "i#es it its special aesthetic
character Anott!'
Poetry is a "enre fre4uently chosen by Irish$ Nati#e Americans and South
Africans resistance writers because it can be shared immediately$ either by bein"
recited or by bein" circulated in cyclostyled paper' A poem is a hidin" place to
e%press immediacy of emotion in a concentrated form' Resistance poets write to
ma8e others thin8$ to clarify their won thin8in"$ and to re#eal repressed truths to
the world' Poetry is easier to copy$ distribute$ memorize$ and chant or perform
publicly' 9he colonial "o#ernments tolerated poetry because it reached a smaller
audience' Resistance poetry transmits history as it simultaneously ad#ocates
re#olutionary chan"e' Resistance poetry preser#es and redefines cultural ima"es for
particular historical moments' Accordin" to &ze8ial 1aphahele$ a South African
resistance writer$ poetry is 6a fu"iti#e means of e%pression Al#arez5Pereyre$ )*/*!'
In the Appendi% are some of the poems written by dispossessed women and
men of Ireland$ South Africa$ and Nati#e America to demonstrate their political$
social$ reli"ious$ and historical e%periences of colonization by &n"land and other
5
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
&uropean countries' In the Appendi% A$ are the first three stanzas from the national
anthems of Ireland$ South Africa and Nati#e (anada to show their resistance to
colonization and their hopes and #isions' 9he commonalities of the three anthems
are about the ownership and protection of the ancestral land' 1ajority of the
population of Ireland and South Africa are (hristians' Bowe#er the national
anthem of Ireland does not mention 6.od7 in the whole anthem'
9he South African anthem written in )**/ in fi#e ethnic and racial lan"ua"es
for reconciliation$ as8s .od to bless Africa and accept their citizens as the children
of .od' 9he anthems of Ireland written in )*0/ and Nati#e (anada written in )**C
are demandin" reco"nition of their history of ownership of their ancestral land'
Dnli8e South Africa$ (atholic (hristianity came to Ireland before the colonization
of Ireland in the se#enteenth century' 9he &n"lish colonizers were protestant
(hristians$ and had #ery little success in con#ertin" Irish (atholics to protestant
(hristians' Nati#e (anadians were indoctrinated with (hristianity in the residential
schools as part of colonization process$ but mana"ed to 8eep their own indi"enous
spiritual identity with the E(reator? of the uni#erse includin" the land$ water and
air' 9he Irish anthem has secular reference to father and children as defenders of
Ireland' 9he Irish anthem written before independence in )*++ is called Soldiers?
Son"$ and sounds li8e a son" of resistance or a son" of defiance a"ainst colonial rule
and subju"ation' 9he South African anthem was written three years after
independence and reflects stron" reli"ious beliefs in peace and hope for the future'
In the Appendi% B are two socio5political poems are about the feelin" of loss
of poetry by the Irish and Nati#e (anadians$ and one poem from South Africa
6
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
encoura"in" people to use poetry to resist colonization' 9he Irish social poetry$
69he Bi"h Poets are "one for the family of (uchonnact 2 Dalai"h7 written by
Daibhi 2 Bruadair in the se#enteenth century after the colonization of Ireland$
reflects the an"er and despair at the loss of tradition of bardic poetry and bardic
schools' Nati#e (anada poetry 62n .ettin" Published7$ written by Dorris Seale in
)**C$ show the loss of the indi"enous poetry throu"h demands to chan"e the words
and therefore the messa"e by &uro5centric editors and publishers' 9he South
African social poetry 6Four cattle are "one7 by I' @' @' (itashe )*3,! carries the
messa"e of hope by resistin" colonization in a non5#iolent way throu"h the use of
pen and poetry'
In the Appendi% ( are three reli"ious poems relatin" to the e%periences of
dispossessed Irish$ Nati#e (anadian and South African women and men' 9he
anonymous Irish poetry 6Blessed 1ary7 as8s 1ary for help and support' 9he
Nati#e (anada poetry challen"es the 6patriarchal <esus7 to ima"ine li#in" as one of
the dispossessed women' 9here is an"er about <esus?s i"norance or lac8 of concern
for dispossessed women' 9he South African poetry is about an ima"inary reli"ious
con#ersation between a de#oted mother tal8in" from her "ra#e and her son who is
frustrated about the reli"ious messa"e of submissi#eness to the colonizers' All three
poems are focused on the representation of women?s #oice and e%periences'
In the Appendi% D are selected sections of three poems on social class$ and on
the domination of the poor by the rich as e%perienced by dispossessed women and
men in Ireland$ North America (anada! and South Africa' 9he Irish poetry on
social class is 6A 9ric8 of this 9reacherous @orld7 by 2?(onchuir' Be li#ed in the
7
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
second half of the se#enteenth century after the colonization of Ireland' 2nly two of
2?(onchuir poems are published' 9he Nati#e (anada poetry on social class 61y
(ountry7 is by Buffy Sainte51arie' It is a selection from her )*GG recordin" titled
6:ittle @heel Spin and Spin7' 9he South African poetry on social class is 6Inside a
Domestic @or8er7 written in )*30 by Boitumelo 1ofo8en"' It represents the #oice
of an an"ry wor8er$ yet her options for employment are more limited e#en than her
predecessors' 9his poem has two parts$ an initial telephone call to a potential
employer and an inter#iew in her home to emphasize the social class di#ision in the
community'
8
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
R&-&R&N(&S'
Alwarez5Pereyre$ <ac4ues )*3,!' The Poetry of Commitment in South Africa'
:ondon$ DA; Beinemann
Ber"in$ 2sborn' )*/0!' Irish Bardic Poetry.
Ireland; Dublin Institute for Ad#anced Studies
Bi"elow$ Bill'$ Peterson$ Bob' &ds'!)**3!' Rethinking Columbus: the next !!
years. 1ilway8ee$ @isconsin; Rethin8in" Schools'
(oolahan$ <ohn' )*3)!' Irish "ducation: Its #istory and Structure.
Dublin$ Ireland; Institute of Public Administration
DeShazer$ 1ary A' )**,!' A Poetics of Resistance: $omen %ritings in "l Sal&ador'
South Africa and the (nited States.
Ann Arbor$ 1I; 9he Dni#ersity of 1ichi"an Press
-ife$ (onnie' +00C!' The Colour of resistance: A contem)orary collection of %riting
by Aboriginal %omen. 9oronto$ (anada; Sister Hision
I"natie#$ Noel' )**G!' #o% the Irish became $hite. New For8; Routled"e
Anott$ &leanor' )*G0!' Irish classical )oetry commonly called bardic )oetry'
Dublin$ Ireland; (ultural Relations (ommittee of Ireland
:eonard$ Aeith D' +00=!' *ettered +enius: the African American bardic )oetry
from sla&ery to ci&il rights.(harlottes#ille; Dni#ersity of Hir"inia Press
1c(one$ Aim' )**0!' Pagan Past and Christian Present in "arly Irish ,iterature.
Aildare$ Ireland; Au Sa"ar
2?9auma$ Sean' )*3)!' An -uanaire ./!!0.1!!: Poems of the -is)ossessed.
9homas Ainsella' 9rans'!
1ountrath$ Portlaoise$ Ireland; 9he Dolmen Press
Simms$ Aatherine' )**3!' :iteracy and Irish Bards' In Pryce$ Buw &d'! ,iteracy in
2edie&al Celtic Societies (ambrid"e$ D'A'; (ambrid"e Dni#ersity press'
Ste#enson$ <ane and Da#idson$ Peter' +00)!' "arly 2odern
$omen Poets 3.4!0.5!!6. An Antholo"y' 2%ford Dni#ersity Press
@illiams$ .wyn' )*=,!' An introduction to $elsh )oetry: *rom the beginning to
the sixteenth Century. -reeport$ New For8; Boo8s for :ibraries Press
9
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendi% A; Selected Stanzas from the National Anthems of Ireland$ Nati#e (anada$ and South Africa

Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa )G005+000!'
National Anthem of Ireland
+
nd
Stanza!
9he Soldiers? Son" was written in )*0/$
by Brendan Behan?s uncle Peader
Aearney' It was sun" at the .P2 durin"
the )*)G &aster Risin" and at the
#arious internment camps' It became
the national anthem of Ireland in )*++'
Soldiers? Son"
In #alley "reen or towerin" cra"$
2ur fathers fou"ht before us$
And con4uered Eneath the same old fla"
9hat?s proudly floatin" o?er us'
@e?re the children of a fi"htin" race$
9hat ne#er yet has 8nown dis"race$
And as we march$ the foe to face
Nati#e (anada Anthem
,
th
stanza!
An alternati#e anthem
of -irst Nations People in (anada
@ritten by :eonore Aeeshi"59obias
-ife$ )**C!
@e ha#e always wal8ed on the ed"e
2f your dreams$ stal8ed
you as you made wild your way
throu"h this "reat land$
"eneration after "eneration
And$ 2 (anada$ you ha#e always been
Afraid of us$ scared$ because you 8now
Fou can ne#er li#e without us
National Anthem of South Africa
)
st
and +nd stanza!
@ritten in fi#e lan"ua"es in)**/$
to represent the messa"e of
reconciliation between
ethnic and racial "roups'
9he first two stanzas were written by a
&noch Sonton"a$
A 1ethodist school teacher in )3*/!!
.od bless Africa
1ay her "lory be lifted hi"h
Bear our petitions
.od bless us$ Four children
.od we as8 Fou to protect our nation
Inter#ene and end all conflicts
Protect us$ protect our nation
Nation of South Africa$ South Africa
10
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendi% B; Selected sections from the socio5political poetry of Ireland$ Nati#e (anada$ and South Africa
Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa )G005+000!'
Irish socio5political poetry
C
rd
stanza!
9he Bi"h Poets are .one
-or the family of (uchonnact 2 Dalai"h
By Daibhi 2 Bruadair c')G+=5)G*3!
After those poets$
for whom art
and 8nowled"e were wealth$
alas to ha#e li#ed this fate befall us;
their boo8s in corners "rayin" into
nothin"
and their sons
without one syllable of their secret
treasure'
A Nati#e (anada poetry
2n .ettin" Published
by Doris Seale -ife$ )**C!
Anowin" better
9hey too8 our words$
So carefully set down
In a certain way
2ne beside another I
@e were intent to say
&%actly what we meant I
And rearran"ed them
9o fit
Some concept of the mind
Some alien bent
-rom another place and time
@e are at home
And not at home
@here e#en our words
1ay be used
A"ainst us'
South African socio5political
poetry
By I' @' @' (itashe
Al#are5Pereyre$ )*3,!
Four cattle are "one$ my country menJ
.o rescue themJ .o rescue themJ
:ea#e the breechloader alone
And return to the pen'
9a8e paper and in8$
-or that is your shield'
Four ri"hts are "oin"J
So pic8 up your pen'
:oad it$ load it with in8'
Sit on a chair'
Repair not to Boho
But fire with your pen
11
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendi% (; Selected sections from reli"ious poetry of Ireland$ Nati#e (anada$ and South Africa
Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa )G005+000!'
Irish poetry on reli"ion
Blessed 1ary
By Anonymous )G00 plus!
Blessed 1ary
1other of "od
Direct me always
9oward my "ood'
Rescue me
from e#ery ill
Rescue me
both body and soul'
Rescue me
2n land and sea
Rescue me
from the slab of pain
Nati#e (anada poetry on reli"ion
<esus (hrist
By 1arcie Rendon -ife$ )**C!
<esus (hrist
@asn?t born a woman
1enstruation
@ould ha#e 8ept him out of the
9emple at a"e )+
Be would ha#e been raped
Bitch5hi8in" from Bethlehem to
<erusalem
Bis nursin" children
@ould ha#e screamed
And star#ed
@ithout mil8 for
,0 days and ,0 nites
9he loa#es and fish
@ould ha#e been made
Into hotdish
9o ser#e a few more nope
<esus (hrist
@asn?t born a woman
Be wouldn?t ha#e had
9ime to be crucified
South African poetry on reli"ion
Hoice from the Dead
By 2' 1' 1tshali )*/G!
Fes$ Bea#en is in your heart'
.od is no picture
@ith a snow5white beard'
@hatJ
Fes$ .od is that crippled be""ar
Sprawlin" at the street5corner'
9here is no hell burnin"
@ith sulphur and brimstone'
@hatJ
Fes$ Bell is
9he hate flic8erin"
In your eye'
12
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendi% D; Selected sections from social class poetry of Ireland$ Nati#e (anada$ and South Africa
Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa )G005+000!'
Irish poetry on the domination of
the poor
A 9ric8 of this 9reacherous @orld
By 2 (onchuir )G00 plus!
A tric8 of the treacherous world
puts the rich abo#e the reproach'
If you?re poor you ha#e no sense
And <ustice "oes undone'
I ha#e had these thesis pro#ed'
@hen thin"s were all set fair
I?d family and friends in plenty'
Now I?m poor they 8eep their distance'
If I see them they don?t see me'
If they see me they still don?t see me'
9hey hold$ with my fortune "one$
thou"h I?m there it isn?t me'
Any summer day$ from sunrise
:et e#eryone 8now why!
If I don?t see my shadow$ or a bird?s
I?ll see no shadow at all'
Nati#e (anada poetry on the
domination of the poor
1y country )*GG!
By Buffy Sainte 51arie
-rom the son" 6:ittle wheel spin and
spin7
Now that the lon" houses
Reap superstition
Fou?#e ha#e forced us to send
2ur toddlers away
9o your schools$ where they?re tau"ht
9o despise their traditions
-orbid their lan"ua"es$
9emper their say
9hat America?s history
Really be"an
when (olumbus set sail
2ut of &urope and stressed
9hat the nation of leeches
9hat con4uered this land
Are the bi""est and bra#est
And boldest and best
South African poetry on the
domination of the poor
Inside a Domestic @or8er )*30!'
By Boitumelo 1ofo8en"

.ood 1ornin" 1adam
I am respondin" to
Four ad#ert in today?s Newspaper'
I would li8e to come in for an inter#iew'
9han8 you$ 1adam$ I?ll be there'
Remember my name is Sophie'
I can do "eneral household cleanin"
@ashin" and ironin"
(oo8in" and ba8in"
Babysittin"
9elephone answerin"
I can read and write
I am learnin" to dri#e
1y hobbies include lo#in" pets
Is there anythin" else
Fou would li8e to 8nowK
13