CALCULATORS OUT

please.
Error Analysis
1. Human error
Self explanatory.
Estimation, improper usage of equipment,
parallax error - - make sure to read all at
eye level!
2. Systematic error
equipment issues
Make sure to calibrate all instruments


3. Random error
often caused by changes in material or
conditions
Consistency in sample age, location, type will
help reduce.
Humans can cause random error - - multiple
tedious measurements can dull
concentration.
4. The act of measuring
The actual measurement affects the
environment of the sample
Ie. Cold thermometer in warm water
Ie. Animal behavior when aware of outside
observer

Are our results reliable enough to
support a scientific conclusion?
Imagine we chose two children at random from two class
rooms
D8 C1
and compare their height
D8
C1
we find that
one pupil is
taller than the
other
WHY?
REASON 1:
There is a significant difference between the
two groups, so pupils in C1 are taller than
pupils in D8
D8
YEAR 7
C1
YEAR 11
REASON 2:
By chance, we picked a short pupil from D8
and a tall one from C1
D8 C1
TITCH
(Year 9)
HAGRID
(Year 9)
How do we decide which reason is
most likely?
MEASURE MORE STUDENTS!!!
If there is a significant difference between the two groups
D8 C1
the average or
mean height of the
two groups should
be very
DIFFERENT
If there is no significant difference between the two groups
D8 C1
the average or
mean height of the
two groups should
be very
SIMILAR
Remember:
Living things normally show
a lot of variation, so
It is VERY unlikely that the mean height of our two samples
will be exactly the same
C1 Sample
Average height = 162 cm
D8 Sample
Average height = 168 cm
Is the difference in average height of the samples
large enough to be significant?
We can analyse the
spread of the heights of
the students in the
samples by drawing
histograms
Here, the ranges of the
two samples have a
small overlap, so
the difference between
the means of the two
samples IS probably
significant.
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

140-
149
150-
159
160-
169
170-
179
180-
189
Height (cm)
C1 Sample
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

140-
149
150-
159
160-
169
170-
179
180-
189
Height (cm)
D8 Sample
Here, the ranges of
the two samples have
a large overlap, so
the difference
between the two
samples may NOT be
significant.
The difference in
means is possibly due
to random sampling
error
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

140-
149
150-
159
160-
169
170-
179
180-
189
Height (cm)
C1 Sample
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

140-
149
150-
159
160-
169
170-
179
180-
189
Height (cm)
D8 Sample
To decide if there is a significant difference between two
samples we must compare the mean height for each
sample
and the spread of heights in each sample.
Statisticians calculate the standard deviation of a sample
as a measure of the spread of a sample
S
x
=
x
2
-
(x)
2

n
n - 1
Where:
Sx is the standard deviation of sample
stands for sum of
x stands for the individual measurements in
the sample
n is the number of individuals in the sample
You can calculate standard deviation using the formula:
Students t-test
The Students t-test compares the averages and standard
deviations of two samples to see if there is a significant
difference between them.
We start by calculating a number, t
t can be calculated using the equation: (we will use a calculator)
( x
1
x
2
)
(s
1
)
2

n
1

(s
2
)
2

n
2

+
t =
Where:
x
1
is the mean of sample 1
s
1
is the standard deviation of sample 1
n
1
is the number of individuals in sample 1
x
2
is the mean of sample 2
s
2
is the standard deviation of sample 2
n
2
is the number of individuals in sample 2
T-test is calculated from two sets of
measurements
In a t-test, a difference is considered
statistically significant if the probability of it
being due to random variation is 5% or less.
The larger the difference between the means,
the larger the t.
The larger the difference in standard
deviations, the smaller the t.
Using the t-test
Enter values for 2 populations separately.
Calculate the t
Find the number of degrees of freedom =
The total number of values in both, minus 2.
Find the critical value for t using the table
provided =
The level of significance (P) should be 5%
(0.05) and the row is based on degrees of
freedom (d.f.)
Compare calculated value of t with the
critical value of t.
If the critical value is exceeded, there is
evidence of a significant difference
between the means, at the 95%
confidence level (0.05)

Practice Problems
1. Sam Sleepresearcher hypothesizes that people who are
allowed to sleep for only four hours will score significantly
lower than people who are allowed to sleep for eight hours
on a cognitive skills test. He brings sixteen participants into
his sleep lab and randomly assigns them to one of two
groups. In one group he has participants sleep for eight
hours and in the other group he has them sleep for four. The
next morning he administers the SCAT (Sam's Cognitive
Ability Test) to all participants. (Scores on the SCAT range
from 1-9 with high scores representing better performance).
SCAT scores
8 hours sleep group (X) 5 7 5 3 5 3 3 9
4 hours sleep group (Y) 8 1 4 6 6 4 1 2

Calculate an independent t-test for the following data:
X
1
X
2
6 12
4 4
2 7
3 10
9 5
6 8
5 3
Mean of group 1 _____ Mean of group 2 _____
Difference between the means _____
SD of X
1 ____________
SD of X
2 ____________

t = _____
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study_____
What is the critical value for t _____
Is the t significant _____


Calculate an independent t-test for the following data:
X
1
X
2
6 12
4 4
2 7
3 10
9 5
6 8
5 3
Mean of group 1 __5___ Mean of group 2 __7___
Difference between the means _2____
SD of X
1 ____________
SD of X
2 ____________

t = _1.32____
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study__12___
What is the critical value for t _2.18____
Is the t significant No. The calculated value (1.32) is not equal to (or
bigger) that the critical value (2.18). The differences between the groups
is likely to be due to chance.


Calculate am independent t-test for the following data:
X
1
X
2
15 3
11 5
8 4
12 2
7 6
Mean of group 1 _____ Mean of group 2 _____
SD of X
1 _____
SD of X
2 __________

t = _____
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study ____
What is the critical value for t (2 tailed, .05 alpha) _____
Is the t significant? _____
Calculate am independent t-test for the following data:
X
1
X
2
15 3
11 5
8 4
12 2
7 6
Mean of group 1 ___10.6__ Mean of group 2 __4___
SD of X
1 _____
SD of X
2 __________

t = ___4.13_______
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study _8___
What is the critical value for t
Is the t significant? _____

Calculate am independen t-test for the following data:
X
1
X
2
6 3
7 5
6 3
8 2
4 7
11 4
t = _____
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study ____
What is the critical value for t (2 tailed, .05 alpha) _____
Is the t significant? _____

Calculate an independent t-test for the following data:
X
1
X
2
6 3
7 5
6 3
8 2
4 7
11 4
t = __2.48___
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study _10__
What is the critical value for t (2 tailed, .05 alpha) 2.23__
Is the t significant? _____

X
1
X
2
6 3
7 5
6 3
8 2
4 7
11 4
t = _____
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study ____
What is the critical value for t (2 tailed, .05 alpha) _____
Is the t significant? _____

X
1
X
2
6 3
7 5
6 3
8 2
4 7
11 4
t = _____
How many degrees of freedom (df) at in this study ____
What is the critical value for t (2 tailed, .05 alpha) _____
Is the t significant? _____