Evolution of Australian Biota

Preliminary - Stage 6 2 Unit Biology
8.5 - Evolution of Australian Biota:

Prerequisite Knowledge:
Identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in
multicellular organisms:
Living things are made up of cells
In multicellular organisms new cells are produced by cell division for growth
repair and reproduction
In unicellular organisms cell division divides the organisms into 2 new organisms
Relate natural selection to the theory of evolution:
!he four main points of "arwin#s !heory of $volution by %atural Selection are&
In any population there are variations
In any generation there are some individuals that do not reach maturity and
reproduce' the characteristics of these individuals are removed from the
population
!he individuals that survive and reproduce are well adapted to the
environment' they have favourable conditions (survival of the fittest)
*avourable conditions are passed on to offspring' they become more and more
common in the population
Discuss evidence that suggests that crustal plates move over time:
!he theory of plate tectonics holds that the continents and oceans are carried on
the large crustal plates of the $arth#s surface which move on top of the semi-
molten interior
$vidence for this includes the age of the sea floor around mid-oceans ridges the
matching edges of continents and fossils of similar organisms found in different
parts of the world+
,opyright - 2../' 0hmad Shah Idil
1. Evidence for the rearrangement of crustal lates and continental drift
indicates that Australia was once art of an ancient suer continent:
Identify and describe evidence that supports the assertion that Australia
was once part of a landmass called Gondwana including:
Matching continental margins
Positions of midocean ridges
!preading "ones between continental plates
#ossils in common on Gondwanan continents, including
1lossopteris and 1angamopteris flora, and marsupials
!imilarities between present day organisms on Gondwanan
continents
0ll landforms were originally 2oined together in a giant landmass called Pangaea
In the 3urassic 46. million years ago Pangaea split into two super continents&
1ondwana and Laurasia
1ondwana& 0ustralia 0frica 5adagascar %ew 6ealand South 0merica India
Laurasia& $urope %orth 0merica 0sia (e7cept India)
0bout 6. million years ago 0ustralia split from 1ondwana
$vidence that 0ustralia was once part of 1ondwana&
1eological evidence&
- !he roc8 strata around continental margins match e7actly in many places
eg& 4) South 0ustralia 9 0ustralia 2) :est 0frica 9 east South 0merica+
- 5id-ocean ridges are formed where plates are moving apart
- :hen plates move apart molten roc8 rises up and forms new sea floor+
- In these areas called spreading ;ones the new roc8 that forms is older the
further it is from the ridge
- !his proves that the plates have been moving apart steadily for a long time
Biological evidence&
- !he fossil record and present day organisms provide evidence that
0ustralia was part of 1ondwana
- *ossil $vidence&
o Glossopteris and Gangamopteris are fossil plants found in roc8s of the
same age in 0ustralia 0frica India South 0merica 0ntarctica and
%ew 6ealand
o *ossils of marsupials have been found on all the continents that were
part of 1ondwana
o !his is evidence that the continents were once 2oined
- $7tant <rganisms&
o $othofagus or the southern beech trees are found in forests of
0ustralia %ew 1uinea %ew 6ealand and South 0merica
o 5any plants and animals e7ist only where the $othofagus still live'
e+g+ a parasitic fungus a moss and bugs which depend on the moss
o 5any groups of animals in 0ustralia have close relatives in South
0merica 0frica India and %ew 6ealand but not in %orthern 0sia
$urope or %orth 0merica
o !hese animals include& parrots ratites (flightless birds) marsupial
mammals chelid turtles some gec8oes many families of earthworms
terrestrial molluscs spiders and insects and the scorpion genus
%ercophonius
Discuss current research into the evolutionary relationships between e&tinct
species, including megafauna and e&tant Australian species:
5egafauna are large animals such as elephants and whales
5egafauna are not the ancestors of present animals eg 8angaroos didn#t come
from giant 8angaroos rather they both evolved from a common ancestor+
<ver the last /.8 years most of the world#s megafauna have become e7tinct
!wo theories have been put forward to e7plain this&
,limate ,hange& 5egafauna were mainly suited to glacial conditions+ !heir
large bodies enabled them to live in e7treme conditions+ In $urasia and %orth
0merica when permafrost was replaced with forest the megafauna died out
and animals more adapted to forest began to thrive+ In 0ustralia the
temperature changed from cold-dry to warm-dry+ 0s a result water sources
began to dry up and many animals lost their habitat and died out+
=uman $7pansion& !he time of the e7tinction of megafauna matches very
closely the pattern of human migration into these areas+ 5egafauna are also
large and slow which ma8es them susceptible to hunting+ In 0frica humans
evolution occurred there so hunting increased slowly allowing animals to
ad2ust+ !hat is why there are still megafauna there+ =owever in places where
humans arrived as s8illed hunters the most e7tinction occurred+
Living fossil (or relict species) are organisms that have changed little or not at all
since ancient times+
0ustralia has many e7amples of living fossils such as& 4) Stromatolites 2) !he
:ollemi Pine >) ,rocodiles ?) @ueensland lungfish and /) 5onotremes+
!olve problems to identify the positions of midocean ridges and spreading
"ones that infer a moving Australian continent:
5id-ocean ridges occur where continental plates are moving apart
Spreading ;ones are the new areas of floor created at ridges where molten roc8
rises out from the mantle and solidifies
!here are spreading ;ones on the southern side of the Indo-0ustralian plate and
collision ;ones on the northern side
!his implies that 0ustralia is moving north
Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from
secondary sources and use available evidence to illustrate the changing
ideas of scientists in the last '(( years about individual species such the
platypus as new information and technologies become available)
<ver the past 2.. years scientists# attitudes to the platypus has changed greatly
0 dried platypus s8in sent to $ngland 2.. years ago in 4ABC was considered to
be a fa8e' the bill was thought to have been stitched on
Since then there has been much debate as to how it should be classified
*eatures that separate it from other mammals& It lays eggs no true teeth and an
absence of mammary glands though it can secrete mil8
It has been shown to be able to regulate body temperature in a primitive way
It is a highly specialised animal
!. "he changes in Australian flora and fauna over millions of #ears have
haened through evolution
Discuss e&amples of variations within a species:
!he small differences between organisms relating to the same species are called
variations+ !hese include features such as colour si;e or biochemical differences+
$7amples of variations include&
*he whitenaped honeyeater: In 0ustralia eastern populations have a short
bill and an orange eye-patch+ !hese belong to the race lunatus+ Populations in
western 0ustralia have larger bills and white or green eye-patches+
*he common heath: !his flower show remar8able variations in the colour of
the flowers from pure white to pin8 to deep red+
Identify the relationship between variation within a species and the chances
of survival of species when environmental change occurs:
0ccording to the theory of natural selection there will always be variations within
species+
:hen environmental change occurs the individuals that have a variation that
allows them to live in the new environment can survive while those without the
variation die out+
So the greater the variation within a species the greater the chance that it will be
able to survive in a situation of environmental change+
Identify and describe evidence of changing environments in Australia over
millions of years:
:hen 0ustralia and 0ntarctica were 2oined 6/ mya the climate was cool and wet
5uch of the land was covered in temperate rainforest
0bout ?/ mya when 0ustralia moved north and split from 0ntarctica 0ustralia
became cooler and drier+
0s 0ustralia moved northward it became warmer and rainforests shran8 and
sclerophyll and grasslands increased
0s 0ustralia moved north of the !ropic of ,apricorn the northern edge became
tropical
<verall 0ustralia has become dry and warm particularly inland
"uring the current @uaternary period there have been many dramatic temperature
fluctuations including many ice-ages+
!he last 42.... years has been a warm period in which fire has become a
significant environmental factor+
<ther environmental changes that have shaped ecosystems besides climate are&
Sea levels have risen and fallen' mainland 0ustralia and !asmania have been
2oined and parted at least C times in the past >. million years
$rosion continues ma8ing 0ustralia the flattest continent
>/ mya volcanic activity created e7tensive lava flows around the east coast of
0ustralia
0round 2. mya the $astern =ighlands were slightly uplifted
Identify areas within Australia that e&perience significant variations in
temperature and water availability:
!emperature variation in 0ustralian inland deserts and grasslands can be very
great+ In the day the temperature may be over ?.D but fall very Euic8ly at night
In winter temperatures can go from 2.D to below free;ing
5ost bodies of water in 0ustralia are unreliable' they fluctuate greatly
Identify changes in the distribution of Australian species, as rainforests
contracted and sclerophyll communities and grasslands spread, as
indicated by fossil evidence:
0s 0ustralia became warmer and drier rainforests shran8 and grasslands and
sclerophyll communities increased
0s a result those organisms well suited to these conditions undertoo8 Fadaptive
radiation# i+e+ the change in a species from its original form to a different form
adapted to different environments or ways of life+
!wo groups that are part of the sclerophyll family are eucalypts and acacias
Both forms have adapted to survive in dry hot conditions
!he B/. species of acacia are found almost everywhere from tropical to
temperate arid and semi-arid+
!he C.. species of eucalypts are found mainly in open woodland and forests
0nother group Proteaceae has diversified into ban8sias waratahs grevilleas etc
5arsupials as it got warmer in 0ustralia diversified to many ecosystems
Placentals died out e7cept bats
*rogs in 0ustralia have developed an independence of permanent water and many
of them now occupy inland arid areas
Discuss current theories that provide a model to account for these changes:
$vidence used for the theories of changes to 0ustralian species come from two
places& Giversleigh and %aracoorte
0t Giversleigh the change from rainforest to dry habitat was observed
*ossils from %aracoorte as well as pollen from :ylie Swamp indicate that
during the @uaternary inland la8es dried up and vegetation changed from forest
to open woodland
!hese two places contribute to the following two theories&
,limate& Increase in climate and decline in water availability is shown in the
contraction of rainforests and in the e7pansion of open woodland+ !he rise and
fall of 0ustralian mammals and the radiation of marsupials is also related to
climate
=uman Impact& =umans arrived as an e7otic species in 0ustralia+ !heir
actions may have contributed to the megafauna#s e7tinction and use of fire
changed the environment+ 0rrival of $uropeans drastically changed the
environment due to unsustainable agricultural methods
Discuss Darwin+s observations of Australian flora and fauna and relate
these to his theory of evolution:
:hen "arwin travelled around the world in the ship *he ,eagle the similarities
between organisms that he observed convinced him that an evolutionary tree
e7isted
=e observed that many 0ustralian flora and fauna had similar counterparts from
other parts of the world
,rows in 0ustralia loo8 li8e $nglish 3ac8daws
0nother bird loo8ed li8e an $nglish magpie
!he rat-8angaroo (potoroo) was similar to a $uropean rabbit
!he 0ustralian ant-lion was almost identical to its $uropean counterpart
!he similarities between organisms that "arwin observed provided evidence that
organisms are related due to coming from a common ancestor
0lso "arwin observed that 0ustralian flora were well adapted to 0ustralian
conditions suggesting that natural selection had favoured them
!he great amount of marsupials in 0ustralia which "arwin considered inferior to
placentals showed that they only e7isted since there was no competition+ %o
competition meant no natural selection and so marsupials thrived
Gather information from a secondary source to describe some Australian
fossils, where these fossils were found and use available evidence to e&plain
how they contribute to the development of understanding about the
evolution of species in Australia:
Lightning ridge (%S:)
4BC/ - Steropodon& It was a monotreme similar to the platypus and the
echidna+ Lived 4.. million years ago
Giversleigh (%orth-western @ueensland)
6 species of thylacine (!asmanian tiger) have been found
Si;e ranged from Burmese cat to "oberman
1iant Gat-Hangaroo (proleopines) were found in 4CCC+ !hey were
carnivorous+
-.altadeta ima& !hey had large ridged premolars and sharp forward 2utting
lower incisors+
0 2aw from a possum - representing the Striped Possum
"iprotodontid& a large cow-si;ed herbivore
0 complete s8ull of monotreme obdurodon
!hingadonta a marsupial with very strange teeth
*angaroo 0 small herbivorous 8angaroo with huge teeth
5urgon (Southern @ueensland)
*irst evidences of marsupials in 0ustralia
0 placental mammal called a condylarth
0lcoota (north east of 0lice Springs)
1iant thunder bird
:olf-si;ed Powerful !hylacine
0lcoota marsupial lion
Bluff downs&
(northern @ueensland)
Bluff-downs giant python
%aracoorte& (South-east South 0ustralia)
1iant short-faced 8angaroo
0 giant sna8e
Present information from secondary sources to discuss the /u&ley
0ilberforce debate on Darwin+s theory of evolution:
"arwin#s boo8 *he 1rigin of !pecies caused great uproar in the community
especially among religious clergy
Several debates happened each side arguing they point of view of evolution
!he most famous of these is the debate between !homas =u7ley ("arwin#s
Bulldog) and Bishop Samuel :ilberforce (Soapy Sam)+
:ilberforce& IGoc8s pigeons were what roc8 pigeons had always beenJ
:ilberforce as8ed =u7ley whether it was his grandmother or his grandfather that
came from a mon8ey+
=u7ley replied that he would rather have an ape for an ancestor than a person who
uses their intelligence to Fintroduce ridicule into a grave scientific discussion#+
$. %ontinuation of secies has resulted& in art& from the reroductive
adatations that have evolved in Australian lants and animals
Distinguish between the processes of meiosis and mitosis in terms of the
daughter cells produced:
5itosis&
cell division where two daughter cells are produced that are identical to the
parent cell
It is used for growth and repair
0lso basis of se7ual reproduction
"ivision occurs only once
!he stages are Interphase Prophase 5etaphase 0naphase and !elophase
,ells produced are diploid (identical number of chromosomes to parent)
5eiosis&
,ell division that produces ? cells with half the number of chromosomes
compared to the parent cell (haploid)
!hese cells are se7-cells' also called gametes
1ametes are either male or female' produced by both genders
1ametes fuse together during fertilisation to form a ;ygote which multiplies
by mitosis to form a new organism
!he number of chromosomes found in most normal cells is called the diploid
number' in humans it is ?6
:e say that 2n is the diploid number n is the haploid number
2n K ?6 n K 2>
=uman males produce gametes called sperm females produce ova or eggs
:hen two gametes 2oin the normal number of chromosomes is achieved
Similar chromosomes can be paired up and are called homologous
In homologous chromosomes one is from the mother one from the father
Gandom segregation is during meiosis the separation of chromosomes by
chance into the resulting daughter cells+ !his means that the gametes produced
can have any combination of chromosomes+ !his results in increased variation
Similarities&
Both are types of cell division
,hromosomes are replicated before both types of divisions
%ompare and contrast internal and e&ternal fertilisation:
*ertilisation is the process by which the male and female gametes fuse to form a
diploid ;ygote+
,onditions needed for fertilisation&
1. Both male and female gametes need to be produced and ready at same time
!. 0rrangements need to be bring the gametes in contact with each other
$. :ater needs to be present (male gametes must swim to the female gamete)
$7ternal *ertilisation&
*ertilisation ta8es place outside the body
5ost aEuatic animals have e7ternal fertilisation
5ale and female gametes are shot into the water in the hope of fertilisation
!o ensure fertilisation millions of gametes are released
!he chances of fertilisation are increased because&
o ,yclical reproductive behaviours
o Synchronised timing of gamete production and release
o !he development of courtship and mating behaviours in animals
Internal *ertilisation&
<ccurs inside the body of the female in animals or in the female part of the
plant in se7ually reproducing plants
!he male gamete is transferred directly to the female gamete
0s a result the number of female gametes is reduced greatly
%umber of male gametes produced is still as high
Geproductive strategies&
o Bringing the opposite se7es together with courtship and mating behaviours
o =aving a method of gamete transfer
Discuss the relative success of those forms of fertilisation in relation to the
colonisation of terrestrial and a2uatic environments:
$7ternal fertilisation is successful in water as the gametes can spread very far and
wide in the water increasing the chances meeting other gametes from the opposite
gender encouraging fertilisation
0lso ;ygotes are able to spread to large areas enabling successful colonisation of
large areas of water+
$7ternal fertilisation would not succeed on land as there is no water through
which the male gametes can swim and the gametes would not spread very far as
the buoyancy of water is not there to support their travelling+
Internal fertilisation enabled the colonisation of land as the watery environment
needed is provided by the female#s physiology
:ithout the need for e7ternal water for fertilisation even the driest environments
could be colonised
Describe some mechanisms found in Australian flora for:
Pollination
!eed dispersal
Ase&ual reproduction
with reference to local e&amples:
*lowers are the reproductive organs of angiosperm plants
*lowers are protected in the bud by sepals (usually petal-li8e)
Petals surround the male and female reproductive organs
5ale reproductive organ&
,alled the stamen
5ade of anther and filament
5eiosis occurs in anther and produces pollen grains
Pollen grains have a thic8 outer layer and 2 haploid nuclei
*emale reproductive organ&
,alled the pistil' made up of a number of carpels
$ach carpel is made of a stigma style and ovary
5eiosis occurs in the ovules which are in the ovary
Pollination and *ertilisation&
Pollination is the transfer of pollen onto a mature stigma
*ertilisation occurs after pollination in the following way&
1. !he pollen on the stigma sends a pollen tube down the style to the ovary
!. !he two haploid nuclei of the pollen grain travel down the tube+ <ne of the
nuclei become the nucleus of the new tube cell while the other nucleus
divides again and they both travel down the tube to the ovule
$. !he pollen tube enters the ovule through a tiny hole called the micropyle
'. <ne of the nuclei fuses with the ovum to form the ;ygote
5. !he other nucleus fuses with the two other haploid nuclei to form a
triploid cell
Self-pollination involved pollen going on to the stigma of the same plant
,ross-pollination involves pollen falling on the stigma of different plants
$7amples of pollination in 0ustralian plants&
Australian
Plant
(ethod of
Pollination
Adatations of )lower
:attle :ind Large masses of pollen produced - can be carried over many
8ilometres by wind+ Pollen is produced in such large
Euantities so higher chances of landing on stigma of another
flower+
Bottlebrush Birds Spectacular bright red flowers attract birds
Birds visit flower for nectar pollen attaches to their bodies
and is spread from flower to flower
5elaleuca Bat Strong smelling flower thic8 nectar dull flowers
1revillea Parrot Produces lots of nectar' no petals 2ust masses of stamens
=eath
Ban8sia
Possums Produces a lot of nectars food supply for possums+
%o petals
0ustralian :asp It flowers and matures during wasp#s breeding season
<rchid Geleases scent similar to female wasp and flowers similar
to female wasp so as the male tries to mate pollen rubs off+
Seed dispersal is the spreading of seeds away from the parent plant+ 0dvantages
of seed dispersal are&
Species are more li8ely to survive dangers such as disease fire or
environmental change if the seeds are covering a very widespread area+ If the
seeds are not spread the entire population can get wiped-out in one go
"ecrease in competition for space light or nutrients+ Less competition from
parent plant or plants from same generation+
$7amples of seed dispersal in 0ustralian plants&
Australian Plant "#e of
*isersal
Adatations
*eather spear grass :ind Seeds attached to fine hairs which float in the bree;e
Seeds can be carried hundreds of 8ilometres
Sheep#s Burr 0nimal Seeds have hoo8s that attach to the fur of animals and
are carried over large distances
0cacia#s %ative
Gaspberry
0nts !he ants carry the fruit away to the nest but the seed is
covered in a coating the ant can#t eat+
Some mechanisms of ase7ual reproduction include&
Binary *ission& $very time a single celled organism under goes mitosis it
creates 2 new organisms+
Spore *ormation& *ungi reproduce ase7ually by producing thousands of
single-celled spores+ !hese will germinate if the conditions are right+ 0 type of
plant (ferns) also produces spores+
Budding& !he parent produces a replica of itself by mitosis+ !his replica
continues to grow as a new organism but is attached to the parent+ !his tends
to form large colonies such as coral
Legetative Propagation& *lowering plants produce new plants from points on
roots or stems called nodes+ 1rasses do this+
Gegeneration& It is a process that organisms grow bac8 body parts that have
been removed or lost+ In some cases it can be a form of ase7ual reproduction
of the bro8en body part grows to form a new organism+
Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure:
#ertilisation
!urvival of the embryo and of the young after birth
!o ensure fertilisations se7ually mature individuals need to be brought together
!his process is called mating
5any factors influence mating behaviour& temperature food phases of moon etc
Some adaptations of 0ustralian species to ensure fertilisation include&
Bower Bird& !hey lac8 showy plumage so the male decorates its nest with
bright blue ob2ects to attract the female+ !hey have elaborate courtship rituals
0ustralian Brolgas& Performs an elaborate dance before mating
,ommon !rout& !hey come together during the full moon of their mating
season and release their gametes into the water
Shar8s& !he male gametes are transferred directly into the female through
claspers which go into the female#s opening called a cloaca+
:hales Seals and "olphins& 0ll have internal fertilisation where the male
gametes are deposited directly into the female+ !hey often have spectacular
courtship rituals+
!he survival of the embryo and of the young after birth is very important+
$7amples of 0ustralian animals include&
Animal +urvival of Em,r#o +urvival of -oung after Birth
Platypus $mbryo develops inside
the egg within the uterus
for ? wee8s+ Incubation for
4. days+ $ggs are stuc8 to
the fur of abdomen
0fter hatching young platypus
remains in the burrow for several
months obtaining nutrients by
suc8ling on mil+ Moung leave nest
when they have grown fur
Hangaroo Internal fertilisation
Partial internal
0fter birth underdeveloped
young crawls into mother#s pouch
development
Lery short gestation period
in the uterus
and continues development while
feeding on mil8 for ? months+
1astric brooding frog 0fter e7ternal fertilisation
the female swallows the
eggs and they are
incubated in the stomach+
0ll digestive processes
stop for 6-A wee8s
!he larvae develop in the
stomach which acts as a uterus+
!he developed froglets leave the
stomach through the mouth
-&plain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has increased
the chances of continuity of the species in the Australian environment:
!hese adaptations have developed as a result of natural selection and thus these
are the Ffittest# for their environment+
Since these reproductive adaptations are well suited to their environment chances
if continuity are increased for the plant+
Discuss the conditions under which ase&ual reproduction is advantageous,
with reference to specific Australian e&amples:
0se7ual reproduction results in the production of offspring genetically identical to
the parent
If the environment is unchanging and the characteristics of a particular organism
are well suited to the environment then ase7ual reproduction would be
advantageous since all the offspring will have the advantageous characteristics
0n e7ample would be !phagnum in the 0ustralian 0lps+ It has managed to
colonise whole valleys through ase7ual reproduction
0se7ual reproduction is also advantageous when the parent plant can provide
nutrients to the newly developing plant (Spinife7)+ 0lso the parent plant can
provide water to the small plant (darling lily)+
'. A stud# of alaeontolog# and ast environments increases our
understanding of the ossi,le future range of lants and animals
-&plain the importance of the study of past environments in predicting the
impact of human activity in present environments:
!he 8nowledge gained from palaeontology (fossils) and the study of past
environments can help us to understand present day ecosystems
!his 8nowledge can be used to predict and determine the future for 0ustralia#s
plants and animals
Palaeobiologists gain 8nowledge about the long term changes that have occurred
in ecosystems over millions of years+ 0t Giversleigh fossils are being used to see
how 0ustralia#s biota evolved
Identify ways in which palaeontology assists understanding of the factors
that may determine distribution of flora and fauna in present and future
environments:
!he main findings of palaeontology in 0ustralia are&
1. Loss of biodiversity over time - reduction in rainforest
!. !hylacine - numbers were already declining $uropeans finally 8illed them all
$. 0nalysis of plant and animal fossils can allow palaeontologists to create a
picture of the ecosystems at the time+
5ain causes of e7tinction& climate drier agriculture and hunting
-&plain the need to maintain biodiversity:
Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the natural functions of the $arth
Such as providing clean water air productive soil and recycling matter
5any human activities rely on biodiversity& agriculture forestry fisheries
tourism te7tiles etc
!he general health of the planet depends on biodiversity

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Preliminary - Stage 6 2 Unit Biology

8.5 - Evolution of Australian Biota:

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