Sudan

1
Sudan
This article is about the country. For the geographical region, see Sudan (region).
"North Sudan" redirects here. For the Kingdom of North Sudan, see Bir Tawil.
For other uses, see Sudan (disambiguation).
Republic of the Sudan

Jumhryat as-Sdn
Flag Emblem
Motto: (Arabic)
"An-Naar li-n"
"Victory is ours"
Anthem:

Nanu Jund Allah, Jund Al-waan(transliteration)
We are the Soldiers of God, the Soldiers of the Motherland
Sudan highlighted on the globe
Sudan
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Capital
Khartoum
1538N 03232E
[1]
Largest city
Omdurman
[2]
Official languages Arabic, English
Demonym Sudanese
Government Federal Islamist Dominant-party
presidential
constitutional republic
- President Omar al-Bashir (NCP)
- Vice President Bakri Hassan Saleh
Legislature National Legislature
- Upper house Council of States
- Lower house National Assembly
Formation
- Nubian kingdoms 3500 BC
- Sennar dynasty 1504
- Unified with Egypt 1820
- Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1899
- Independence (from the United Kingdom and Egypt) 1 January 1956
- Current constitution 9 January 2005
Area
- Total
1,886,068km
2
(16th)
728,215sqmi
Population
- 2008census 30,894,000 (disputed) (40th)
- Density
16.4/km
2
42.4/sqmi
GDP(PPP) 2014estimate
Sudan
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- Total $93.760 billion
- Per capita $2,657.92
GDP(nominal) 2014estimate
- Total $56.595 billion
- Per capita $1,604.36
Gini(2009) 35.3
medium
HDI (2013) 0.473
low 166st
Currency Sudanese pound (SDG)
Time zone East Africa Time (UTC+3)
- Summer(DST) not observed(UTC+3)
Date format dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on the right
Calling code +249
ISO 3166 code SD
Internet TLD .sd, .
Sudan (Arabic: as-Sdn
i
/sudn/ or /sudn/;), officially the Republic of the Sudan (Arabic:
Jumhryat as-Sdn), is an Arab republic in the Nile Valley of North Africa, bordered by Egypt to the north,
the Red Sea, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the
southwest, Chad to the west and Libya to the northwest. The Nile River divides the country into eastern and western
halves.
[3]
Its predominant religion is Islam.
Sudan was home to numerous ancient civilizations, such as the Kingdom of Kush, Kerma, Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria,
Mero and others, most of which flourished along the Nile River. During the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan
Upper Egypt were identical, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC. By virtue of its
proximity to Egypt, the Sudan participated in the wider history of the Near East inasmuch as it was Christianized by
the 6th century, and Islamized in the 7th. As a result of Christianization, the Old Nubian language stands as the
oldest recorded Nilo-Saharan language (earliest records dating to the 9th century). During Classical Antiquity,
modern-day Sudan was known as Ethiopia.
Sudan was the largest country in Africa and the Arab world until 2011, when South Sudan separated into an
independent country, following an independence referendum. Sudan is now the third largest country in Africa (after
Algeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and also the third largest country in the Arab world (after
Algeria and Saudi Arabia).
Sudan is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement, as well as an observer in the World Trade Organization.
[4]
Its capital
is Khartoum, the political, cultural and commercial centre of the nation. It is a federal presidential representative
democratic republic. The politics of Sudan is regulated by a parliamentary organization called the National
Assembly.
[5]
The Sudanese legal system is based on Islamic law.
Sudan suffers from several challenges. For much of Sudan's history, the nation has suffered from rampant ethnic
strife and has been plagued by internal conflicts including two civil wars and the War in the Darfur region. Sudan
suffers from poor human rights most particularly dealing with the issues of ethnic cleansing and slavery in the
nation.
[6]
Sudan
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Name
The country derives its name from the Arabic bild al-sdn ( ) meaning "land of the Blacks", referring to
the wider region immediately south of the Sahara.
History
Main article: History of Sudan
Prehistoric Sudan
The large mud brick temple, known as the
Western Deffufa, in the ancient city of Kerma
By the eighth millenniumBC, people of a Neolithic culture had settled
into a sedentary way of life there in fortified mud-brick villages, where
they supplemented hunting and fishing on the Nile with grain gathering
and cattle herding. During the fifth millennium BC migrations from the
drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with
agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic
mixing developed social hierarchy over the next centuries become the
Kingdom of Kush (with the capital at Kerma) at 1700 BC.
Anthropological and archaeological research indicate that during the
predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically,
and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.
Kingdom of Kush
Main article: Kingdom of Kush
Nubian pyramids in Meroe.
The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient Nubian state centered on the
confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile and River Atbara. It was
established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the
New Kingdom of Egypt, centered at Napata in its early phase.
After King Kashta ("the Kushite") invaded Egypt in the 8th century
BC, the Kushite kings ruled as Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth dynasty of
Egypt for a century before being defeated and driven out by the
Assyrians. At the height of their glory, the Kushites conquered an
empire that stretched from what is now known as South Kordofan all
the way to the Sinai. King Piye attempted to expand the empire into the
Near East, but was thwarted by the Assyrian king Sargon II. The Kingdom of Kush is mentioned in the Bible as
having saved the Israelites from the wrath of the Assyrians, although disease among the besiegers was the main
reason for the failure to take the city.Wikipedia:Citing sources
The war that took place between King Taharqa and the Assyrian King Sennacherib was a decisive event in western
history, with the Nubians being defeated in their attempts to gain a foothold in the Near East by Assyria.
Sennacherib's successor Esarhaddon went further, and invaded Egypt itself, deposing Taharqa and driving the
Nubians from Egypt entirely. Taharqa fled back to his homeland where he died two years later. Egypt became an
Assyrian colony; however, king Tantamani, after succeeding Taharqa, made a final determined attempt to regain
Egypt. Esarhaddon died while preparing to leave the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in order to eject him. However, his
successor Ashurbanipal sent a large army into southern Egypt and routed Tantamani, ending all hopes of a revival of
the Nubian Empire.
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During Classical Antiquity, the Nubian capital was at Mero. In early Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was
known as Ethiopia (a term also used earlier by the Assyrians when encountering the Nubians). The civilization of
Kush was among the first in the world to use iron smelting technology. The Nubian kingdom at Meroe persisted until
the 4th century AD. After the collapse of the Kushite empire several states emerged in its former territories, among
them Nubia.
Christianity and Islam
Ruins of Old Dongola.
By the 6th century, fifty states had emerged as the political and cultural
heirs of the Meroitic Kingdom. Nobatia in the north, also known as
Ballanah, had its capital at Faras; the central kingdom, Muqurra
(Makuria), was centred at Tungul (Old Dongola), about 13 kilometres
(8.1 miles) south of modern Dunqulah; and Alawa (Alodia), in the
heartland of old Meroe, which had its capital at Sawba (Soba) (now a
suburb of modern-day Khartoum). In all three kingdoms, warrior
aristocracies ruled Meroitic populations from royal courts where
functionaries bore Greek titles in emulation of the Byzantine court. A
missionary sent by Byzantine empress Theodora arrived in Nobatia and
started preaching Christianity about 540AD. The Nubian kings became Monophysite Christians. However, Makuria
was of the Melkite Christian faith, unlike Nobatia and Alodia.
Fresco of Faras Cathedral, 10th11th century
After many attempts at military conquest failed, the Arab commander
in Egypt concluded the first in a series of regularly renewed treaties
known as Albaqut al-sharim (pactum) with the Nubians that governed
relations between the two peoples for more than 678 years. Islam
progressed in the area over a long period of time through intermarriage
and contacts with Arab merchants and settlers. Additionally,
exemption from taxation in regions under Muslim rule were also a
powerful incentive for conversion. In 1093, a Muslim prince of Nubian
royal blood ascended the throne of Dunqulah as king. The two most
important Arab tribes to emerge in Nubia were the Jaali and the
Juhayna. Today's northern Sudanese culture often combines Nubian and Arabic elements.
During the 16th century, a people called the Funj, under a leader named Amara Dunqus, appeared in southern Nubia
and supplanted the remnants of the old Christian kingdom of Alwa, establishing As-Saltana az-Zarqa (the Blue
Sultanate), also called the Sultanate of Sennar. The Blue Sultanate eventually became the keystone of the Funj
Empire. By the mid-16th century, Sennar controlled Al Jazirah and commanded the allegiance of vassal states and
tribal districts north to the Third Cataract and south to the rainforests. The government was substantially weakened
by a series of succession arguments and coups within the royal family. In 1820, Muhammad Ali of Egypt sent 4,000
troops to invade Sudan. His forces accepted Sennar's surrender from the last Funj sultan, Badi VII.
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Turkiyah and Mahdiyah period
Main articles: History of Sudan (18211885) and History of Mahdist Sudan
Ismail Pasha, Sultan of Egypt & Sudan
In 1821, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, had invaded and
conquered northern Sudan. Although technically the Wli of Egypt
under the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad Ali styled himself as Khedive
of a virtually independent Egypt. Seeking to add Sudan to his domains,
he sent his third son Ismail (not to be confused with Ismail the
Magnificent mentioned later) to conquer the country, and subsequently
incorporate it into Egypt. This policy was expanded and intensified by
Ibrahim's son, Ismail I, under whose reign most of the remainder of
modern-day Sudan was conquered.
The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements to the
Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), especially with regard to
irrigation and cotton production. In 1879, the Great Powers forced the
removal of Ismail and established his son Tewfik I in his place.
Tewfik's corruption and mismanagement resulted in the Orabi Revolt,
which threatened the Khedive's survival. Tewfik appealed for help to
the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt in 1882. Sudan was left
in the hands of the Khedivial government, and the mismanagement and
corruption of its officials.Wikipedia:Citing sources
Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi ruler of Sudan.
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade had an
adverse impact on the economy of northern Sudan, precipitating the
rise of Mahdist forces. Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah, the Mahdi
(Guided One), offered to the ansars (his followers) and those who
surrendered to him a choice between adopting Islam or being killed.
The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional Sharia Islamic
laws.
From his announcement of the Mahdiyya in June 1881 until the fall of
Khartoum in January 1885, Muhammad Ahmad led a successful
military campaign against the Turco-Egyptian government of the
Sudan (known as the Turkiyah). Muhammad Ahmad died on 22 June
1885, a mere six months after the conquest of Khartoum. After a power
struggle amongst his deputies, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, with the help
primarily of the Baqqara Arabs of western Sudan, overcame the
opposition of the others and emerged as unchallenged leader of the
Mahdiyah. After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad assumed the title of Khalifa (successor) of the
Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointed Ansar (who were usually Baqqara) as emirs over each of the
several provinces.
Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's brutal
methods to extend his rule throughout the country. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded Ethiopia, penetrating
as far as Gondar. In March 1889, king Yohannes IV of Ethiopia, marched on Metemma; however, after Yohannes
fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces withdrew. Abd ar Rahman an Nujumi, the Khalifa's general, attempted an invasion
of Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at Tushkah. The failure of the Egyptian
Sudan
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invasion broke the spell of the Ansar's invincibility. The Belgians prevented the Mahdi's men from conquering
Equatoria, and in 1893, the Italians repelled an Ansar attack at Akordat (in Eritrea) and forced the Ansar to withdraw
from Ethiopia.
The Flight of the Khalifa after his Defeat at the
Battle of Omdurman
In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their control over Sudan,
once more officially in the name of the Egyptian Khedive, but in
actuality treating the country as a British colony. By the early 1890s,
British, French and Belgian claims had converged at the Nile
headwaters. Britain feared that the other powers would take advantage
of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt.
Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish
control over the Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at Aswan.
Lord Kitchener led military campaigns against the Mahdists from 1896
to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in a decisive victory in the
Battle of Omdurman on 2 September 1898.
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Main article: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
The Mahdist War was fought between a radical group of Muslim
dervishes, called Mahdists, who had over-run much of Sudan, and
the British forces
In 1899, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement under
which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by
Egypt with British consent. In reality Sudan was
effectively administered as a British colony. The British
were keen to reverse the process, started under
Muhammad Ali Pasha, of uniting the Nile Valley under
Egyptian leadership, and sought to frustrate all efforts
aimed at further uniting the two countries.
During World War II, Sudan was directly involved
militarily in the East African Campaign. Formed in 1925,
the Sudan Defence Force (SDF) played an active part in
responding to the early incursions (occupation by Italian
troops of Kassala and other border areas) into the Sudan
from Italian East Africa during 1940. In 1942, the SDF
also played a part in the invasion of the Italian colony by
British and Commonwealth forces. From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan
as two essentially separate territories, the north (Muslim) and south (Christian). The last British Governor-General
was Sir Robert Howe.
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Camel soldier of the native forces of the British
army, early 20th century
The continued British administration of Sudan fueled an increasingly
strident nationalist backlash in Egypt, with Egyptian nationalist leaders
determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of
Egypt and Sudan. With the formal end of Ottoman rule in 1914,
Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan, as was his
brother and successor Fuad I. They continued their insistence of a
single Egyptian-Sudanese state even when the Sultanate was retitled as
the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, but the British continued to frustrate
such reaches for independence.
The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 finally heralded the beginning of the
march towards Sudanese independence. Having abolished the
monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, Muhammad Naguib, whose
mother was Sudanese, and later Gamal Abdel-Nasser, believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was
for Egypt to officially abandon its claims of sovereignty over Sudan.
The British on the other hand continued their political and financial support for the Mahdi successor Sayyid Abdel
Rahman who, they believed, could resist the Egyptian pressures for Sudanese independence. Rahman was able to
resist the pressures, but his regime was plagued with political ineptitude, which garnered him a loss of support in
northern and central Sudan. Egypt and Britain both sensed a great political instability forming, and opted to allow the
Sudanese in the north and south to have a free vote on independence to see whether they wished for a British
withdrawal.
Post-independence
Main articles: History of Sudan (19561969) and History of Sudan (196985)
Sudan's flag raised at independence ceremony on
1 January 1956 by the Prime Minister Ismail
al-Azhari and in presence of opposition leader
Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub
A polling process was carried out resulting in composition of a
democratic parliament and Ismail al-Azhari was elected first Prime
Minister and led the first modern Sudanese government. On 1 January
1956, in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the Egyptian
and British flags were lowered and the new Sudanese flag, composed
of green, blue and white stripes, was raised in their place by the prime
minister Ismail al-Azhari.
Dissatisfaction culminated in a second coup d'tat on 25 May 1969.
The coup leader, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry, became prime minister, and the
new regime abolished parliament and outlawed all political parties.
Disputes between Marxist and non-Marxist elements within the ruling
military coalition resulted in a briefly successful coup in July 1971, led
by the Sudanese Communist Party. Several days later, anti-communist military elements restored Nimeiry to power.
In 1972, the Addis Ababa Agreement led to a cessation of the north-south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This
led to ten years hiatus in the civil war.
Until the early 1970s, Sudan's agricultural output was mostly dedicated to internal consumption. In 1972, the
Sudanese government became more pro-Western, and made plans to export food and cash crops. However,
commodity prices declined throughout the 1970s causing economic problems for Sudan. At the same time, debt
servicing costs, from the money spent mechanizing agriculture, rose. In 1978, the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) negotiated a Structural Adjustment Program with the government. This further promoted the mechanized
export agriculture sector. This caused great economic problems for the pastoralists of Sudan (See Nuba Peoples).
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In 1976, the Ansars mounted a bloody but unsuccessful coup attempt. In July 1977, President Nimeiry met with
Ansar leader Sadiq al-Mahdi, opening the way for reconciliation. Hundreds of political prisoners were released, and
in August a general amnesty was announced for all opponents of Nimeirys government.
Omar al-Bashir
Main article: History of Sudan (1986present)
On 30 June 1989, Colonel Omar al-Bashir led a bloodless military coup. The new military government suspended
political parties and introduced an Islamic legal code on the national level. Later al-Bashir carried out purges and
executions in the upper ranks of the army, the banning of associations, political parties, and independent newspapers,
and the imprisonment of leading political figures and journalists. On 16 October 1993, al-Bashir appointed himself
"President" and disbanded the Revolutionary Command Council. The executive and legislative powers of the council
were taken by al-Bashir.
In the 1996 general election he was the only candidate by law to run for election.
[7]
Sudan became a single-party
state under the National Congress Party (NCP). During the 1990s, Hassan al-Turabi, then Speaker of the National
Assembly, reached out to Islamic fundamentalist groups, even personally inviting Osama bin Laden to the country.
The United States subsequently listed Sudan as a state sponsor of terrorism. The U.S bombed Sudan in 1998. Later,
al-Turabi's influence waned, in favor of more pragmatic leaders who focussed on trying to recover from Sudan's
disastrous international isolation. Sudan worked to appease its international critics by expelling members of the
Egyptian Islamic Jihad and encouraging bin Laden to leave.
Before the 2000 presidential election, al-Turabi introduced a bill to reduce the President's powers, prompting
al-Bashir to dissolve parliament and declare a state of emergency. When al-Turabi urged a boycott of the President's
re-election campaign and signed an agreement with Sudan People's Liberation Army, al-Bashir suspected they were
plotting to overthrow him and the government, which resulted in the jailing of Hassan al-Turabi that same year.
Government Militia in Darfur
In February 2003, the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A)
and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) groups in Darfur took up
arms, accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab
Sudanese in favor of Sudanese Arabs, precipitating the War in Darfur.
The conflict has since been described as a genocide, and the
International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued two arrest warrants for
al-Bashir. Arabic-speaking nomads militias known as the Janjaweed
have been accused of many atrocities.
On 9 January 2005, the Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed between the Sudan People's Liberation
Movement (SPLM) and the government, with the objective of ending the Second Sudanese Civil War. The United
Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) was established under the UN Security Council Resolution 1590 to support its
implementation. The peace agreement led to the 2011 referendum which resulted in the secession of South Sudan;
the region of Abyei is to hold its own referendum in the future.
The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was the primary member of the Eastern Front, a coalition of rebel
groups operating in eastern Sudan. After the peace agreement, their place was taken in February 2004 after the
merger of the larger Hausa and Beja Congress with the smaller Rashaida Free Lions. A peace agreement between the
Sudanese government and the Eastern Front was signed on 14 October 2006, in Asmara.
On 5 May 2006, the Darfur Peace Agreement was signed, aiming at ending the three-year-long conflict. The
Chad-Sudan Conflict (20052007) erupted after the Battle of Adr, which led to the declaration of war by Chad. The
leaders of Sudan and Chad signed an agreement in Saudi Arabia on 3 May 2007 to stop fighting from the Darfur
conflict along their countries' 1,000-kilometre (600mi) border.
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In July 2007 the country was hit by flooding, with over 400,000 people being directly affected. Since 2009, a series
of ongoing conflicts between rival nomadic tribes in Sudan and South Sudan have resulted in a large number of
casualties. The Sudan internal conflict in the early 2010s between the Army of Sudan and the Sudan Revolutionary
Front started as a dispute over the oil-rich region of Abyei in the months leading up to South Sudanese
independence, though it is also related to the nominally resolved war in Darfur.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Sudan
See also: List of cities in Sudan
Jebel Barkal mountain in Nubia, a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
Satellite image of Sudan
Sudan is situated in northern Africa, with a 853km (530mi) coastline
bordering the Red Sea. It has land borders with Egypt, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, South Sudan, the Central African Republic, Chad, and Libya.
With an area of 1,886,068km
2
(728,215sqmi), it is the third largest
country on the continent (after Algeria and Democratic Republic of the
Congo) and the sixteenth largest in the world. Sudan lies between
latitudes 8 and 23N.
The terrain is generally flat plains, broken by several mountain ranges;
in the west the Deriba Caldera (3,042m or 9,980ft), located in the
Marrah Mountains, is the highest point in Sudan; in the east are the
Red Sea Hills.
The Blue and White Nile rivers meet in Khartoum to form the River
Nile, which flows northwards through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea.
The Blue Nile's course through Sudan is nearly 800km (497mi) long
and is joined by the Dinder and Rahad Rivers between Sennar and
Khartoum. The White Nile within Sudan has no significant tributaries.
The amount of rainfall increases towards the south. In the north there is
the very dry Nubian Desert; in the south there are swamps and
rainforest. Sudans rainy season lasts for about three months (July to
September) in the north, and up to six months (June to November) in
the south. The dry regions are plagued by sandstorms, known as
haboob, which can completely block out the sun. In the northern and
western semi-desert areas, people rely on the scant rainfall for basic
agriculture and many are nomadic, travelling with their herds of sheep and camels. Nearer the River Nile, there are
well-irrigated farms growing cash crops.
There are several dams on the Blue and White Niles. Among them are the Sennar and Roseires Dams on the Blue
Nile, and the Jebel Aulia Dam on the White Nile. There is also Lake Nubia on the Sudanese-Egyptian border.
Rich mineral resources are available in Sudan including asbestos, chromite, cobalt, copper, gold, granite, gypsum,
iron, kaolin, lead, manganese, mica, natural gas, nickel, petroleum, silver, tin, uranium and zinc.
Desertification is a serious problem in Sudan. There is also concern over soil erosion. Agricultural expansion, both
public and private, has proceeded without conservation measures. The consequences have manifested themselves in
the form of deforestation, soil desiccation, and the lowering of soil fertility and the water table.
The nation's wildlife is threatened by hunting. As of 2001, twenty-one mammal species and nine bird species are
endangered, as well as two species of plants. Endangered species include: the waldrapp, Northern White Rhinoceros,
Tora Hartebeest, Slender-horned Gazelle, and hawksbill turtle. The Sahara oryx has become extinct in the wild.
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Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Sudan
Officially, the politics of Sudan takes place in the framework of a federal presidential representative democratic
republic, where the President of Sudan is head of state, head of government and commander-in-chief of the Sudan
People's Armed Forces in a multi-party system. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the
bicameral parliament the National Legislature, with its National Assembly (lower chamber) and the Council of
States (upper chamber). The judiciary is independent and obtained by the Constitutional Court.
However, following the Second Sudanese Civil War (19832005) and the now-low-scale war in Darfur, Sudan is
widely recognized as an authoritarian state where all effective political power is obtained by President Omar
al-Bashir and the ruling National Congress Party (NCP).
In 1993, Sudan was transformed into an Islamic authoritarian single-party state as al-Bashir abolished the
Revolutionary Command Council and created the National Islamic Front (NIF) with a new parliament and
government obtained solely by members of the NIF. At the same time, the structure of regional administration was
replaced by the creation of twenty-six states, each headed by a governor, thus making Sudan a federal republic.
Executive posts are divided between the NCP, the SPLA, the Sudanese Eastern Front and factions of the Umma
Party and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP).
According to the new 2005 constitution, the bicameral National Legislature is the official Sudanese parliament and is
divided between two chambers the National Assembly, a lower house with 450 seats, and the Council of States,
an upper house with 50 seats. Thus the parliament consists of 500 appointed members altogether, where all are
indirectly elected by state legislatures to serve six-year terms.
Despite his international arrest warrant, al-Bashir was a candidate in the 2010 Sudanese presidential election, the
first democratic election with multiple political parties participating in twenty-four years. In the build-up to the vote,
Sudanese pro-democracy activists say they faced intimidation by the government and the International Crisis Group
reported that the ruling party had gerrymandered electoral districts. A few days before the vote, the main opposition
candidate, Yasir Arman from the SPLM, withdrew from the race. The U.S.-based Carter Center, which helped
monitor the elections, described the vote tabulation process as "highly chaotic, non-transparent and vulnerable to
electoral manipulation." Al-Bashir was declared the winner of the election with sixty-eight percent of the vote.
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Sudan
Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir, wanted by
the ICC for war crimes and crimes against
humanity.
[8]
Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbours and
much of the international community, owing to what is viewed as its
radical Islamic stance. For much of the 1990s, Uganda, Kenya and
Ethiopia formed an ad-hoc alliance called the "Front Line States" with
support from the United States to check the influence of the National
Islamic Front government. The Sudanese Government supported
anti-Ugandan rebel groups such as the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA).
As the National Islamic Front regime in Khartoum gradually emerged
as a real threat to the region and the world, the U.S. began to list Sudan
on its list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. After the US listed Sudan as
a state sponsor of terrorism, the NIF decided to develop relations with
Iraq, and later Iran, the two most controversial countries in the region.
From the mid-1990s, Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions as a result of increased U.S. pressure
following the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, in Tanzania and Kenya, and the new development of oil fields
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12
previously in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over the Hala'ib Triangle. Since 2003, the
foreign relations of Sudan had centered on the support for ending the Second Sudanese Civil War and condemnation
of government support for militias in the war in Darfur.
Sudan has extensive economic relations with China. China obtains ten percent of its oil from Sudan. According to a
former Sudanese government minister, China is Sudan's largest supplier of arms.
On 27 December 2005, Sudan became one of the few states to recognize Moroccan sovereignty over Western
Sahara.
Armed Forces
Main article: Sudan People's Armed Forces
Sudanese Air Force Hongdu JL-8
The Sudan People's Armed Forces is the regular forces of Sudan and is
divided into five branches; the Sudanese Army, Sudanese Navy
(including the Marine Corps), Sudanese Air Force, Border Patrol and
the Internal Affairs Defense Force, totalling about 200,000 troops. The
military of Sudan has become a well-equipped fighting force, thanks to
increasing local production of heavy and advanced arms. These forces
are under the command of the National Assembly and its strategic
principles include defending Sudan's external borders and preserve
internal security.
However, since the Darfur crisis in 2004, safe-keeping the central government from the armed resistance and
rebellion of paramilitary rebel groups such as the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), the Sudanese Liberation
Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) have been important priorities. While not official, the
Sudanese military also uses nomad militias, the most prominent being the Janjaweed, in executing a
counter-insurgency war. Somewhere between 200,000 and 400,000 people have died in the violent struggles.
International organizations in Sudan
Several UN agents are operating in Sudan such as the World Food Program (WFP); the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nation (FAO); the United Nations Development Program (UNDP); the United Nations
Industrial Development Organizations (UNIDO); the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF); the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); the United Nations Mine Service (UNMAS), the United Nations Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the World Bank. Also present is the International
Organization for Migration (IOM).
Since Sudan has experienced civil war for many years, many Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are also
involved in humanitarian efforts to help internally displaced people. The NGOs are working in every corner of
Sudan, especially in the southern part and western parts. During the civil war, international nongovernmental
organizations such as the Red Cross were operating mostly in the south but based in the capital Khartoum. The
attention of NGOs shifted shortly after the war broke out in the western part of the Sudan known as Darfur. The most
visible organization in South Sudan is the Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS) consortium.
Even though most of the international organizations are substantially concentrated in both South Sudan and Darfur
region, some of them are working in the northern part as well. For example the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization is successfully operating in Khartoum, the capital. It is mainly funded by the European
Union and recently opened more vocational training. The Canadian International Development Agency is operating
largely in northern Sudan.
Sudan
13
Legal system
The legal system in Sudan is based on English common law and Islamic sharia. Islamic law was implemented in all
of the north as of September 1983, by President Jafar An-Numeri, this applied to all residents of the Sudan regardless
of their religion. The 2005 Naivasha Agreement, ending the civil war between north and south Sudan, established
some protections for non-Muslims in Khartoum. For example,
International Court of Justice jurisdiction is accepted, though with reservations. Under the terms of the Naivasha
Agreement, Islamic law did not apply in the south. Since the secession of South Sudan there is some uncertainty as
to whether Sharia law will now apply to the non-Muslim minorities present in Sudan, especially because of
contradictory statements by al-Bashir on the matter.
The judicial branch of the Sudanese government consists of a Constitutional Court of nine justices, the National
Supreme Court, the Court of Cassation,
[9]
and other national courts; the National Judicial Service Commission
provides overall management for the judiciary.
Human rights
Main articles: Human rights in Sudan, Freedom of religion in Sudan and Slavery in Sudan
Since 1983, a combination of civil war and famine has taken the lives of nearly 2 million people in Sudan.
[10]
It is
estimated that as many as 200,000 people had been taken into slavery during the Second Sudanese Civil War.
[11]
Sudan ranks 172 of 180 countries in terms of freedom of the press according to Reporters Without Borders, yet more
curbs of press freedom to report official corruption are planned.
[12]
Muslims who convert to Christianity can face the death penalty for apostasy, see Persecution of Christians in Sudan
and the death sentence against Mariam Yahia Ibrahim Ishag (who actually was raised as Christian).
Darfur
Darfur refugee camp in Chad, 2005
A letter dated 14 August 2006, from the executive director of Human
Rights Watch found that the Sudanese government is both incapable of
protecting its own citizens in Darfur and unwilling to do so, and that its
militias are guilty of crimes against humanity. The letter added that
these human-rights abuses have existed since 2004. Some reports
attribute part of the violations to the rebels as well as the government
and the Janjaweed. The U.S. State Department's human-rights report
issued in March 2007 claims that "[a]ll parties to the conflagration
committed serious abuses, including widespread killing of civilians,
rape as a tool of war, systematic torture, robbery and recruitment of
child soldiers."
Over 2.8 million civilians have been displaced and the death toll is estimated at 300,000 killed. Both government
forces and militias allied with the government are known to attack not only civilians in Darfur, but also humanitarian
workers. Sympathizers of rebel groups are arbitrarily detained, as are foreign journalists, human-rights defenders,
student activists and displaced people in and around Khartoum, some of whom face torture. The rebel groups have
also been accused in a report issued by the U.S. government of attacking humanitarian workers and of killing
innocent civilians.
Sudan
14
Disputed areas and zones of conflict
The states of South Kurdufan and Blue Nile are to hold "popular consultations" to determine their constitutional
future within the Sudan.
The Hala'ib triangle is disputed region between Sudan and Egypt. It is currently under Egyptian administration.
The Abyei Area is disputed region between Sudan and South Sudan. It is currently under Sudan rule.
Bir Tawil is a terra nullius occurring on the border between Egypt and Sudan, claimed by neither state.
Kafia Kingi and Radom National Park was a part of Bahr el Ghazal in 1956. Sudan has recognized South Sudan
independence according to the borders for 1 January 1956.
In mid-April 2012, the South Sudanese army captured the Heglig oil field from Sudan.
In mid-April 2012 the Sudanese army recaptured Heglig
States and regions
Main articles: States of Sudan, List of Sudan's state governors and Districts of Sudan
Political map of Sudan. The Hala'ib Triangle has
been under Egyptian administration since 2000.
Sudan is divided into 18 states (wilayat, sing. wilayah). They are
further divided into 133 districts.
Al Jazirah Khartoum Sennar
Al Qadarif North Darfur South Darfur
Blue Nile North Kurdufan South Kurdufan
Central Darfur Northern West Darfur
East Darfur Red Sea West Kurdufan
Kassala River Nile White Nile
Sudan
15
Regional bodies and areas of conflict
In addition to the states, there also exist regional administrative bodies established by peace agreements between the
central government and rebel groups.
Central and northern statesDarfurEastern
Front (Sudan)Eastern FrontAbyeiAbyei
areaSouth Kurdufan and Blue Nile (state)Blue
Nile states
The Darfur Regional Authority was established by the Darfur Peace
Agreement to act as a co-ordinating body for the states that make up
the region of Darfur.
The Eastern Sudan States Coordinating Council was established by
the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement between the Sudanese
Government and the rebel Eastern Front to act as a coordinating
body for the three eastern states.
The Abyei Area, located on the border between South Sudan and
the Republic of the Sudan, currently has a special administrative
status and is governed by an Abyei Area Administration. It was due
to hold a referendum in 2011 on whether to join an independent
South Sudan or remain part of the Republic of the Sudan.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Sudan
See also: Communications in Sudan, Transport in Sudan and List of companies based in Sudan
Oil and gas concessions in Sudan -
2004
In 2010, Sudan was considered the 17th-fastest-growing economy in the world
and the rapid development of the country largely from oil profits even when
facing international sanctions was noted by The New York Times in a 2006
article. Over a four-year period to 2014, the Sudanese government's budget was
yearly on the order of 140M, while UKAid provided 30M to 54M per
annum.
[13]
Because of the secession of South Sudan, which contained over 80
percent of Sudan's oilfields, the economic forecast for Sudan in 2011 and beyond
is uncertain.
Even with the oil profits before the secession of South Sudan, Sudan still faced
formidable economic problems, and its growth was still a rise from a very low
level of per capita output. In any case, the economy in the Sudan has been slowly
growing over the last ten years, and according to a World Bank report the overall
growth in GDP in 2010 was 5.2 percent compared to 2009 growth of 4.2 percent.
This growth was sustained even during the crisis in Darfur and period of
southern autonomy preceding South Sudan's independence.
While historically agriculture remains the main source of income and employment hiring of over 80 percent of
Sudanese, and makes up a third of the economic sector, oil production drove most of Sudan's post-2000 growth.
Currently, the International Monetary Fund IMF is
Sudan
16
Development in Khartoum.
working hand in hand with Khartoum government to implement sound
macroeconomic policies.This follows a turbulent period in the 1980s
when debt-ridden Sudan's relations with the IMF and World Bank
soured, culminating in its eventual suspension from the
IMF.Wikipedia:Citing sources The program has been in place since the
early 1990s, and also work-out exchange rate and reserve of foreign
exchange. Since 1997, Sudan has been implementing the
macroeconomic reforms recommended by the International Monetary
Fund.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Khartoum Skyline
In 1999, Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of
1999, recorded its first trade surplus. Increased oil production (the
currentWikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological
items production is about 520,000 barrels per day (83,000m
3
/d))
revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones helped
sustain gross domestic product (GDP) growth at 6.1 percent in 2003.
These gains, along with improvements to monetary policy, have
stabilized the exchange rate. The People's Republic of China is a major trading partner, and owns a 40 percent share
in the Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. The country also sells Sudan small arms, which have been used
in military operations such as the conflicts in Darfur and South Kordofan.
Oil was Sudan's main export, with production increasing dramatically during the late 2000s, in the years before
South Sudan gained independence in July 2011. With rising oil revenues, the Sudanese economy was booming, with
a growth rate of about nine percent in 2007. Sustained growth was expected the next year in 2008 because of not
only increasing oil production, but also to the boost of hydroelectricity (annual electricity yield of 5.5 TWh)
provided by the Merowe Dam. The independence of oil-rich South Sudan, however, placed most major oilfields out
of the Sudanese government's direct control. In order to export oil, South Sudan must rely on a pipeline to Port
Sudan on Sudan's Red Sea coast, as South Sudan itself is landlocked, as well as on Sudan's superior refinery
infrastructure. The exact terms of a revenue-splitting agreement between Juba and Khartoum have yet to be
established, but Sudan will likely receive a significant portion of the income from South Sudan's oil sales as a fee for
the use of Sudanese pipelines, refineries, and port facilities, perhaps as much as 50 percent of the profits.
Agriculture production remains Sudan's most-important sector, employing eighty percent of the workforce and
contributing thirty-nine percent of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Instability,
adverse weather and weak world-agricultural prices ensures that much of the population will remain at or below the
poverty line for years.
The Merowe Dam, also known as Merowe Multi-Purpose Hydro Project or Hamdab Dam, is a large construction
project in Northern Sudan, about 350 kilometres (220mi) north of the capital, Khartoum. It is situated on the River
Nile, close to the Fourth Cataract where the river divides into multiple smaller branches with large islands in
between. Merowe is a city about 40 kilometres (25mi) downstream from the dam's construction site.
The main purpose of the dam will be the generation of electricity. Its dimensions make it the largest contemporary
hydropower project in Africa. The construction of the dam was finished December 2008, supplying more than ninety
percent of the population with electricity. Other gas-powered generating stations are operational in Khartoum State
and other States.
The Corruptions Perception Index has indicated Sudan as one of the most corrupt nations in the world.
[14]
According
to the Global Hunger Index of 2013, Sudan has an GHI indicator value of 27.0 indicating that the nation has an
'Alarming Hunger Situation' and earning the nation the distinction of being the 5th hungriest nation in the world.
[15]
Sudan
17
According to the 2013 Human Development Index (HDI) Sudan ranked the 171st place in Human Development,
indicating Sudan still has one of the lowest human development in the world. Almost one-fifth of Sudan's population
lives below the international poverty line which means living on less than US$1.25 per day.
Demographics
Sudanese Arab of Al-Manasir
Student from Khartoum
Main article: Demographics of Sudan
In Sudan's 2008 census, the population of Northern, Western and
Eastern Sudan was recorded to be over 30 million. This puts present
estimates of the population of Sudan after the secession of South Sudan
at a little over 30 million people. This is a significant increase over the
past two decades as the 1983 census put the total population of Sudan,
including present-day South Sudan, at 21.6 million. The population of
metropolitan Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and
Khartoum North) is growing rapidly and was recorded to be 5.2
million.
Despite being a refugee-generating country, Sudan also hosts a refugee
population. According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by
the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, 310,500 refugees
and asylum seekers lived in Sudan in 2007. The majority of this
population came from Eritrea (240,400 persons), Chad (45,000),
Ethiopia (49,300) and the Central African Republic (2,500). The
Sudanese government UN High Commissioner for Refugees in 2007
forcibly deported at least 1,500 refugees and asylum seekers during the
year. Sudan is a party to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of
Refugees.
Ethnic groups
The Arab presence is estimated at 70% of the Sudanese population.
Others include the Arabized ethnic groups of Nubians, Zaghawa, and
Copts.
Sudan has 597 groups that speak over 400 different languages and
dialects. Sudanese Arabs are by far the largest ethnic group in Sudan.
They are almost entirely Muslims; while the majority speak Sudanese
Arabic, some other Arab tribes speak different Arabic dialects like
Awadia and Fadnia tribes and Bani Arak tribes who speak Najdi Arabic; and Rufa'a, Bani Hassan, Al-Ashraf,
Kinanah and Rashaida who speak Hejazi Arabic. In addition, the Western province comprises various ethnic groups,
while a few Arab Bedouin of the northern Rizeigat and others who speak Sudanese Arabic share the same culture
and backgrounds of the Sudanese Arabs.
The majority of Arabized and indigenous tribes like the Fur, Zaghawa, Masalit and some Baggara ethnic groups,
who speak Chadian Arabic, show less cultural integration because of cultural, linguistic and genealogical variations
with other Arab and Arabized tribes.
Sudanese Arabs of Northern and Eastern parts descend primarily from migrants from the Arabian Peninsula and
some of the pre-existing indigenous populations of Sudan, especially the Nubian people, who also share a common
history with Egypt. Additionally, a few pre-Islamic Arabian tribes existed in Sudan from earlier migrations into the
Sudan
18
region from Western Arabia, although most Arabs in Sudan are dated from migrations after the 12th century.
The vast majority of Arab tribes in Sudan migrated into the Sudan in the 12th century, intermarried with the
indigenous Nubian and other African populations and introduced Islam.
In common with much of the rest of the Arab world, the gradual process of Arabization in Sudan following these
Arabian migrations after the 12th century led to the predominance of the Arabic language and aspects of Arab
culture, leading to the shift among a majority of Sudanese today to an Arab ethnic identity. This process was
furthered both by the spread of Islam and an emigration to Sudan of ethnic Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, and
their intermarriage with the Arabized indigenous peoples of the country.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Sudan consists of numerous other non-Arabic groups, such as the Masalit, Zaghawa, Fulani, Northern Nubians,
Nuba, and Bija.
Religion
Minaret in Port Sudan
Main article: Religion in Sudan
Further information: Islam in Sudan and Christianity in Sudan
At the 2011 division which split off South Sudan, over 97% of the
population in the remaining Sudan adheres to Islam. Muslims are
divided between two groups Sufi and Salafi (Ansar Al Sunnah)
Muslim. Two popular divisions, the Ansar and the Khatmia, are
associated with the opposition Umma and Democratic Unionist Parties,
respectively.
Significant but long-established groups of Coptic Orthodox and Greek
Orthodox Christians exist in Khartoum and other northern cities.
Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox communities also exist in Khartoum
and eastern Sudan, largely made up of refugees and migrants from the
past few decades. The largest groups affiliated with Western Christian
denominations are Roman Catholic and Anglican. Other Christian groups with smaller followings in the country
include the Africa Inland Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Sudan Church of Christ, the Sudan Interior
Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Sudan Pentecostal Church, the Sudan Evangelical Presbyterian Church (in the
North). The government's actions against the Nuba people, predominantly Christian and traditional inhabitants of the
mineral-rich Nuba Mountains, have been labeled ethnic cleansing.
[16]
Religious identity plays a role in the country's political divisions. Northern and western Muslims have dominated the
country's political and economic system since independence. The NCP draws much of its support from Islamists,
Salafis/Wahhabis and other conservative Arab Muslims in the north. The Umma Party has traditionally attracted
Arab followers of the Ansar sect of Sufism as well as non-Arab Muslims from Darfur and Kordofan. The
Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) includes both Arab and non-Arab Muslims in the north and east, especially those
in the Khatmia Sufi sect.
Sudan
19
Languages
See also: Languages of Sudan
The Arabic-speaking Rashaida came to Sudan from
Arabia about 170 years ago
Approximately 70 languages are native to Sudan.
[17]
Sudanese Arabic is the most widely spoken language in the
country. It is the variety of Arabic spoken throughout northern
Sudan. It has much borrowed vocabulary from the indigenous
languages (Nuba, Fur, Zagawa, (languages)). This has resulted in
a variety of Arabic that is unique to Sudan, reflecting the way in
which the country has been influenced by African, Arab, and
western cultures. Few nomads in Sudan still have similar accents
to the ones in Saudi Arabia. Other important languages include
Beja (AKA Bedawi) along the Red Sea, with perhaps 2 million
speakers; Fur in the west (Darfur), with perhaps a million
speakers; and the various Nubian languages, with over 6 million
speakers along the Nile in the north. The most linguistically
diverse region in the country is the Nuba Hills area in Kordofan,
inhabited by speakers of multiple language families, with Darfur
and other border regions being second.
Beja is the sole Cushitic language in Sudan. Arabic is Semitic, the
NigerCongo family is represented by many of the Kordofanian languages, and Indo-European by Domari (Gypsy)
and English. Historically, Old Nubian, Greek, and Coptic (Egyptian) were the languages of Christian Nubia, and
Meroitic the language of the Kingdom of Kush which conquered Egypt.
Sudan also has multiple regional sign languages, which are not mutually intelligible. But 2009 a proposal for a
unified Sudanese Sign Language had been worked out, but was not widely known.
[18]
Before 2005, only Arabic was the official language. In the 2005 constitution, Sudan's official languages became
Arabic and English.
Culture
Further information: Music of Sudan, List of Sudanese writers and List of Sudanese singers
Sudanese culture melds the behaviors, practices, and beliefs of about 578 ethnic groups, communicating in 145
different languages, in a region microcosmic of Africa, with geographic extremes varying from sandy desert to
tropical forest. Recent evidence suggests that while most citizens of the country identify strongly with both Sudan
and their religion, Arab and African supranational identities are much more polarising and contested.
[19]
Sudan
20
Music
Main article: Music of Sudan
A Sufi dervish drums up the Friday afternoon
crowd in Omdurman
Sudan has a rich and unique musical culture that has been through
chronic instability and repression during the modern history of Sudan.
Beginning with the imposition of strict sharia law in 1989, many of the
country's most prominent poets, like Mahjoub Sharif, were imprisoned
while others, like Mohammed el Amin (returned to Sudan in the mid
1990s) and Mohammed Wardi (returned to Sudan 2003), fled to Cairo.
Traditional music suffered too, with traditional Zr ceremonies being
interrupted and drums confiscated
[1]
. At the same time, however, the
European militaries contributed to the development of Sudanese music
by introducing new instruments and styles; military bands, especially
the Scottish bagpipes, were renowned, and set traditional music to
military march music. The march March Shulkawi No 1, is an example,
set to the sounds of the Shilluk.
Sport
The most popular sports in Sudan are athletics, (track and field), and football. Though not as successful as football,
handball, basketball, and volleyball are also popular in Sudan.
Sudanese football has a long history. Sudan was one of the four African nations the others being Egypt, Ethiopia
and South Africa which formed African football. Sudan hosted the first African Cup of Nations in 1956, and has
won the African Cup Of Nations once, in 1970. Two years later, the Sudan National Football Team participated in
the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. The nation's capital is home to the Khartoum League, which is considered to be
the oldest football league in Africa.
Sudanese football teams such as Al-Hilal and El-Merreikh are among the nation's strongest teams. Other teams like
Khartoum, El-Neel, Al-Nidal El-Nahud and Hay-Al Arab, are also starting to grow in popularity.
Clothing
Most individual Sudanese wear either traditional or western attire. A traditional garb widely worn in Sudan is the
jalabiya, which is a loose-fitting, long-sleeved, collarless ankle-length garment also common to Egypt. The jalabiya
is accompanied by a large scarf worn by women, and the garment may be white, colored, striped, and made of fabric
varying in thickness, depending on the season of the year and personal preferences.
A similar garment common to Sudan is the thobe or thawb. Like the jalabiya, the thawb is a long, tunic-like garment,
although it may have a collar, be less loose-fitting, or have shorter sleeves or length than the jalabiya. The word
"thawb" means "garment" in Arabic, and the thawb itself is the traditional Arab dress for men, although the word
may also refer to similar tunic-like garments worn by women.
Sudanese
Arab writer
Leila Aboulela
Sudanese tourists by the
Meroe pyramids in various
types of clothing.
Sudanese women in Darfur Herders at the camel market
on the far west side of
Omdurman
Sudan
21
Education
Khartoum University established in 1902
Main article: Education in Sudan
Education in Sudan is free and compulsory for children aged 6 to 13
years. Primary education consists of eight years, followed by three
years of secondary education. The former educational ladder 6 + 3 + 3
was changed in 1990. The primary language at all levels is Arabic.
Schools are concentrated in urban areas; many in the West have been
damaged or destroyed by years of civil war. In 2001 the World Bank
estimated that primary enrollment was 46 percent of eligible pupils and
21 percent of secondary students. Enrollment varies widely, falling
below 20 percent in some provinces. Sudan has 19 universities; instruction is primarily in Arabic. Education at the
secondary and university levels has been seriously hampered by the requirement that most males perform military
service before completing their education.
The literacy rate is 70.2% of total population, male: 79.6%, female: 60.8%.
References
[1] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Sudan& params=15_38_N_032_32_E_type:country
[2] ( Table 8 (https:/ / unstats.un. org/ unsd/ demographic/ products/ dyb/ dyb2009-2010/ Table08. pdf))
[3] Collins, Robert O. (2008). A History of Modern Sudan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85820-5.
[4] http:/ / www. wto. org/ english/ thewto_e/ whatis_e/ tif_e/ org6_e. htm
[5] http:/ / www. parliament. gov. sd/ en/
[6] , 2009 U.S Dept of State Human Rights Report: Sudan (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2009/ af/ 135978. htm)
[7] The New York Times. 16 March 1996. p. 4.
[8] " The world's enduring dictators (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ 8301-503543_162-20055835-503543/ the-worlds-enduring-dictators/ )". CBS
News. May 16, 2011.
[9] http:/ / www. nydailynews.com/ news/ world/ sudanese-woman-sentenced-death-christian-freed-court-article-1. 1840177
[10] Staff writer (April 2001). . U.S. Committee for Refugees. Archived 10 December 2004 on the Internet Archive.
[11] " SUDAN: CSI highlights slavery and manifestations of racism (http:/ / www. irinnews. org/ Report/ 25987/
SUDAN-CSI-highlights-slavery-and-manifestations-of-racism)". IRIN. September 2001.
[12] Sudanese Authorities Urged Not to Introduce "Censorship Bureau" (http:/ / allafrica. com/ stories/ 201405231846. html?aa_source=slideout)
[13] DfID Sudan: "Operational Plan 2011-2015" (https:/ / www. gov. uk/ government/ uploads/ system/ uploads/ attachment_data/ file/ 209587/
Sudan2. pdf)
[14] Corruption Perceptions Index 2013. Full table and rankings (http:/ / cpi. transparency. org/ cpi2013/ results/ ). Transparency International.
Retrieved: 4 December 2013.
[15] Welthungerhilfe, IFPRI, and Concern Worldwide: 2013 Global Hunger Index - The challenge of hunger: Building Resilience to Achieve
Food and Nutrition Security (http:/ / www.ifpri. org/ sites/ default/ files/ publications/ ghi13. pdf). Bonn, Washington D. C., Dublin. October
2013.
[16] content.time.com (http:/ / content.time.com/ time/ world/ article/ 0,8599,2077376,00. html)
[17] Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. Dallas: SIL International. Online version: "Languages
of Sudan" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_country. asp?name=SD)
[18] [18] Karen Andrae (2009)
[19] "Hamilton, A. and Hudson, J. (2014) Bribery and Identity: Evidence from Sudan. Bath Economic Research Papers, No 21/14" (http:/ / www.
bath.ac. uk/ economics/ research/ working-papers/ 2014-papers/ 21-14. pdf)
Sudan
22
Bibliography
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Jok, Jok Madut (2007). Sudan Race, Religion and Violence. Oneworld Publications (Oxford). ISBN
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Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2001). Slavery in Mauritania and Sudan The State Against Blacks, in The Modern
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O'Fahey, Rex Sen; Spauling, Jay Lloyd (1974). Kingdoms of the Sudan. Methuen Publishing (London). ISBN
978-0-416-77450-4. Covers Sennar and Darfur.
Peterson, Scott (2001). Me Against My Brother At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda A Journalist
Reports from the Battlefields of Africa. Routledge (London; New York City). ISBN 978-0-203-90290-5.
Prunier, Grard (2005). Darfur The Ambiguous Genocide. Cornell University Press (Ithaca, New York). ISBN
978-0-8014-4450-0.
Welsby, Derek A. (2002). The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the
Middle Nile. British Museum Press (London). ISBN 978-0-7141-1947-2.
Zilf, Imat asan (translation: Clark, Peter) (1980). Karari The Sudanese Account of the Battle of
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Article
"Quo Vadis bilad as-Sudan? The Contemporary Framework for a National Interim Constitution". Law in Africa
(Cologne; 2005). Vol. 8, pp. 6382. ISSN 1435-0963 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ search?fq=x0:jrnl&
q=n2:1435-0963).
External links
Government of Sudan (http:/ / www. sudan. gov. sd/ en) website
Sudan (http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ for/ sudan. htm) web resources provided by GovPubs at the
University of ColoradoBoulder Libraries
Sudan (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ Africa/ Sudan) at DMOZ
Wikimedia Atlas of Sudan
Sudan (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ su. html) entry at The World
Factbook
Sudan profile (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-africa-14094995) from the BBC News
Sudan
23
Coordinates: 15N 032E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Sudan&
params=15_N_032_E_region:SD_type:country)
Article Sources and Contributors
24
Article Sources and Contributors
Sudan Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=621832371 Contributors: (jarbarf), *drew, -- April, 100110100, 11844a, 1297, 14chan14, 1exec1, 212district, 2D, 2help, 334a,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Flag of Sudan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Sudan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Vzb83
File:Emblem of Sudan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emblem_of_Sudan.svg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Thommy9
File:Sudan (orthographic projection) highlighted.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sudan_(orthographic_projection)_highlighted.svg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Dinamik
File:Sudan - Location Map (2011) - SDN - UNOCHA.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sudan_-_Location_Map_(2011)_-_SDN_-_UNOCHA.svg License: unknown
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File:Steady2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steady2.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Tomchen1989
file:speakerlink-new.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speakerlink-new.svg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Kelvinsong
File:Western Deffufa - Kerma.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western_Deffufa_-_Kerma.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors:
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File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 2001.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sudan_Meroe_Pyramids_2001.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 1.0
Contributors: Photographer: B N Chagny
File:423376435 a86473d559-1-.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:423376435_a86473d559-1-.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors:
FlickreviewR, Look2See1, Udimu
File:Sudan Farras fresco of cathedral 22dez2005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sudan_Farras_fresco_of_cathedral_22dez2005.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Bestiasonica, Dustsucker, Ejdzej, G.dallorto, JMCC1, Mr. bobby, Shakko, Slomox, Sven-steffen arndt, 2 anonymous edits
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arndt, Wutsje
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Adamus, J, 1 anonymous edits
File:COSV - Darfur 2008 - Market.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COSV_-_Darfur_2008_-_Market.jpg License: unknown Contributors: COSV
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
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File:Camel Market (8626639754).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Camel_Market_(8626639754).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors:
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