8

STOICHIOMETRY
Chemical formulas and equations

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
*what symbols mean
+ reacts with
produces
reactants products

Balancing Equations
- a balanced equation should contain the smallest possible whole-number coefficient
- balance first those elements that occur in the fewest chemical formulas

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
systematic way of solving numerical problems and of checking our solutions for
possible errors
*conversion factor fraction whose numerator and denominator are the same quantity
expressed in different values





FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE
Law of Conservation of Mass
the total mass of the products of a chemical reaction is the same as the total
mass of the reactants, so that the mass remains constant during the reaction

Law of Definite Composition/ratio
the ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION of a pure substance IS ALWAYS THE SAME,
regardless of its source
Law of Multiple Proportion/ratio
if two elements A and B combine to form more than one compound, the masses
of B that can combine with a given mass of A are in the ratio of SMALL WHOLE
NUMBERS

1 mole = 6.02 x 10
23
atoms = 6.02 x 10
23
molecules
= atomic mass of an element
= FW of a compound
= 22.4 L of any gas at STP

FORMULA WEIGHTS

Formula weight sum of atomic weights of each atom
eg. FW of H
2
SO
4
= 2(AW of H) + (AW of S) + 4(AW of O)
Molecular weight formula weight of a molecule
eg. MW of C
6
H
12
O
6
= 6(12.0 amu of C) + 12(1.0 amu of H) + 6(16.0 amu of O)
Formula units three-dimensional arrays of ions; formula weight of compounds with 1
atom each element
eg. FW of NaCl = 23.0 amu of Na + 35.5 amu of Cl
Percentage Composition (atomic weight) mass contributed by each element on a
substance

( )( )


eg. C
6
H
12
O
6

()()

AVOGRADROS NUMBER AND THE MOLE
mole
= amount of matter that contains as many objects (atoms, molecules or whatever
objects we are considering) as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of isotopically
pure
12
C
= 6.02 x 10
23
atoms = 6.02 x 10
23
molecules Avogradros number
= atomic mass of an element
= formula weight of a compound
Molar mass
= mass in grams per mole (of a substance)
= formula weight of a compound
= atomic mass of an element
= mass in amu of an atom
Interconverting masses and moles
mass to moles and moles to mass

Empirical Formula
GRAMS
use
molar
mass
MOLES
use
Avogradro's
number
FORMULA
UNITS

9
relative number of atoms of each element it contains

Molecular Formula (continuation/from Empirical Formula)
formula obtained from percentage composition is always the empirical formula
the subscripts in the molecular formula of a substance are always a whole-number
multiple o the corresponding subscripts in its empirical formula
formula weight depending on the no. of atoms of eah element it contains




Combustion Analysis
empirical formulas for compounds containingprincipally carbon and hydrogen as
their component element




QUANTITATIVE INFORMATIVE BALANCED EQUATIONS
mole concept relative no of molecules masses of the substances stoichiometrically
equivalent quantities

Conversion sequence


LIMITING REACTANTS
limiting reactant reactant that is completely consumed; least number of mole
excess reactant left over when the reaction stops


Theoretical Yield





AQUAEOUS REACTIONS AND SOLUTION
STOICHIOMETRY

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
solvent greatest/dominant quantity
solute other substances

Electrolytic Properties
electrolyte has ions, can conduct electricity
nonelectrolyte no ions, cannot conduct electricity

|more ions | better conducting of electricity |strong electrolyte

Strong electrolyte
absence of reverse arrow
exist in solutions COMPLETELY as ions
Weak electrolye
half arrows
exist in solutions mostly in form of MOLECULES, with only SMALL FRACTIONS as
ions.

SOLVATION
MASS %
elements
Assume
100g
sample
GRAMS
of each
element
use
molar
mass
MOLES
of each
element
calculate
mole
ratio
EMPIRICAL
FORMULA
Mass
increase in
CO2 & H2O
absorbers
numbers of
moles of C &
H in the orig
compound
empirical
formula
subtract
mass of C &
H from orig
compound
MolarMass
Difference (for
3rd element)
Molar Mass
(moles per
mass)
Empirical
Formula
Grams reactant moles reactant moles product grams product
Grams
of a
substan
ce
use
molar
mass of
A
Moles of
substan
ce A
use
coefficie
nts of A
& B
from
balance
d
equatio
n
moles of
substan
ce B
use
molar
mass of
B
Grams
of
substan
ce B

10
When ionic solid (NaCl) dissolves in water, it dissociates into its component ions
(Na
+
, Cl
-
). Solvation/water stabilizes the ions in the solution and prevent them from
recombining into an ionic solid (NaCl). The dispersion of ions creates conduction of
electricity.

*Water is a very effective solvent for ionic compounds because it is an electrically
neutral particle having o- and o+ charge.

PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
Precipitation reaction between two solutes that results in the formation of an insoluble
product (precipitate)
occur when certain pairs of oppositely charged ions attract each other so
strongly that they form an insoluble ionic solid (opposite of salvation)

Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds
Solubility of a substance at a given temperature amount of substance that can be
dissolved in a given quantity of solven at the given temperature

Insoluble hindi nadidissolve, attraction between ions is to great for the water
molecules to separate the ions
*all ionic compounds of group 1A are soluble in water

To predict whether a precipitate forms
1. note ions present in the reactants
2. consider possible combinations of the cations and anions
3. use (4.1) table below to determine if any of these combinations is insoluble

Table 4.1 Solubility Guidelines for Common Ionic Compounds in Water

Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions two reactants exchange ions (double replacement)

Ionic Equations
complete ionic equation equation with all the soluble strong electrolytes shown as
ions
Pb
2+
(aq) + 2 NO
3
-(aq) + 2 K
+
(aq)

+ 2 I
-
(aq) PbI
2
(s) + 2 K
+
(aq) + 2 NO
3
-(aq)

spectator ions ions present but play no direct role in the reaction (eg. 2 K
+
(aq), 2
NO
3
-(aq))

net ionic equation includes only the ions and molecules directly involved in the
reaction
Pb
2+
(aq) + 2 I
-
(aq) PbI
2
(s)
ACID-BASE REACTIONS
Acid
form H
+
ions, increases concentration of H
+
(aq) ions; proton donors
Base
produces OH
-
; accept H
+
ions; proton acceptors

monoprotic acids yield one H
+
per molecule
diprotic yield two H
+
per molecule, ionization requires two steps


Summary of the electrolytic behavior of common soluble ionic and molecular compounds


Strong Electrolyte Weak Electrolyte Nonelectrolyte
IONIC All None None
MOLECULAR Strong acids
Weak acids and
Weak bases
All other compounds

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How to use the table:
1. Determine if ionic or molecular compound
- If ionic it has ions strong electrolyte
- if not molecular nor ionic, it may be nonelectrolyte
2. If molecular determine if it gives off H
+
or OH
-

- H
+
acid
- OH
-
base
3. Know if Strong or Weak acid or base
- use the table
- if it is an acid, and is not listed in the table, it may be weak aci

Salt any ionic compound whose cation comes from a base, anion comes from an acid

Acid-Base Reactions with Gas Formations
Sulfide ions and carbonate ions react to form gases that have low solubilities in
water
Molecular equation:
2 HCl (aq) + Na
2
S (aq) H
2
S (g) + NaCl (aq)
Net ionic equation:
2 H
+
(aq) + S
2-
(aq) H
2
S(g)

Carbonates and bicarbonates react with acids to giving carbonic acid then, forming
CO
2
gas.
HCl (aq) + NaHCO
3
(aq) NaCl(aq) + H
2
CO
3
(aq)
H
2
CO
3
(aq) H
2
O (l) + CO
2
(g)

Decomposition of H
2
CO
3
produces bubbles of CO
2
gas.
Molecular equation:
HCl(aq) + NaHCO
3
(aq) NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)
Net ionic equation:
H
+
(aq) + HCO
3
-
(aq) H
2
O (l) + CO
2
(g)

Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation - loss of electrons; positive oxidation number
Reduction - gain of electrons; negative oxidation number

oxidized atoms become positively charged Ca Ca
2+
reduced atoms become negatively charged Ca
2+
Ca

*Whenever one substance is oxidized, some other substance must be reduced
Oxidation numbers actual charge for monatomic ion
1. atom in elemental form 0
2. monatomic ion charge on the ion
3. nonmetals negative oxidation numbers
a. Oxygen -2
b. Hydroen +1
c. Fluorine -1
4. sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms 0

Displacement reactions
reaction of a metal with either acid or metal salt salts and hydrogen gas
Zn (s) + 2 HBr (aq) ZnBr
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)

Activity Series
*when a metal is oxidized, it reacts to form various compounds
active metals most easily oxidized; alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
noble metals form compounds less readily; transition elements


Concentration of solutions
amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or quantity of
solution

12
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Energy - capacity to do work or to transfer heat
work energy used to cause an object with mass to move against a force
heat energy used to cause the temperature of an object to increase

Electrostatic potential energy interactions between charged particles (kind of potential
energy)

Q
1
and Q
2
have same sign two charges repel each other E
el
is positive
Q
1
and Q
2
have diff sign two charges attract each other E
el
is negative

Units of Energy
cal energy required to raise the temp of 1g of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C
- 4.184 J
J = 1 kg-m
2
/s
2


System and Surroundings
System the portion we single out for study
Surroundings everything else except for system
Open system matter and energy can be exchanged with the surroundings
Closed system energy can be exchanged with the surroundings but not matter
Isolated system neither energy nor matter can be exchanged

Internal Energy sum of all kinetic and potential energy of all its components
AE = E
final
- E
initial

E
final
> E
initial
AE = positive deposits of energy
E
final
< E
initial
AE = negative withdrawal of energy

AE = q + w
AE = q
v
q
v
heat @ constant volume

Endothermic absorbs heat; Exothermic flows out

Enthalpy heat flow (inout or outin) @ constant pressure
AH = q
P

AH = H
products
- H
reactants

q
P
heat @ constant pressure
AH change

Calorimetry measurement of heat flow
heat capacity temperature change of an object when it absorbs a certain amount
of heat
molar heat capacity heat capacity of ONE MOLE OF A SUBSTANCE
specific heat capacity heat capacity of ONE GRAM OF A SUBSTANCE

C
s
= h
s
= specific heat capacity
q = H
c
=

quantity of heat transferred
h
c
=

A


H
c
= h
c
mAT

*reactants internal; solution external
q
SOLN
= -q
RXN


Bomb calorimetry measurement of combustion reactions
q
RXN
= -CcalAT

Ccal = total heat capacity of calorimeter
=

A
kJ/C

q
P
= AE = q
SOLN
= -q
RXN
= H
c
= CcalAT

Hesss law
overall AH = EAH = AH
1
+ AH
2
+ AH
3
+ AH
n


standard enthalpy of formation
1. mole
2. same state

AHf
AHrxn = EnAHf(products) - EmAHf(reactants)