Physics For Scientists and Engineers Lecture 14

1
Physics for Scientists &

Engineers, with Modern
Physics, 4
th
edition
Giancoli
Piri Reis University 2011-2012/ Physics -I
2
Chapter 14-15-16
Oscillations, Wave Motion and Sound
3
Units of Chapter 14
Simple Harmonic Motion
Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM
The Simple Pendulum
Damped Harmonic Motion
Forced Vibrations; Resonance
4
14-2 Simple Harmonic Motion
If an object vibrates or oscillates back
and forth over the same path, each
cycle taking the same amount of
time, the motion is called periodic.
The mass and spring system is a
useful model for a periodic system.
5
We assume that the surface is frictionless. There is a point where the
spring is neither stretched nor compressed; this is the equilibrium
position. We measure displacement from that point (x = 0 on the
previous figure).
The force exerted by the spring depends on the displacement:
6
The minus sign on the force indicates that it is a restoring force it is
directed to restore the mass to its equilibrium position.
k is the spring constant
The force is not constant, so the acceleration is not constant either
7
Displacement is measured from the equilibrium
point
Amplitude is the maximum displacement
A cycle is a full to-and-fro motion; this figure
shows half a cycle
Period is the time required to complete one cycle
Frequency is the number of cycles completed per
second
8
If the spring is hung vertically, the only
change is in the equilibrium position,
which is at the point where the spring
force equals the gravitational force.
9
Any vibrating system where the restoring force is proportional
to the negative of the displacement is in simple harmonic
motion (SHM), and is often called a simple harmonic oscillator.
10
14-3 Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
We already know that the potential energy of a spring is given by:
The total mechanical energy is then:
The total mechanical energy will be conserved, as we are
assuming the system is frictionless.
11
14-3 Energy in the Simple
Harmonic Oscillator
If the mass is at the limits of its
motion, the energy is all potential.
If the mass is at the equilibrium
point, the energy is all kinetic.
We know what the potential energy is at
the turning points:
12
14-3 Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
The total energy is, therefore
And we can write:
This can be solved for the velocity as a function of position:
where
13
The Period and Sinusoidal
Nature of SHM
If we look at the projection onto the x axis of
an object moving in a circle of radius A at a
constant speed v
max
, we find that the x
component of its velocity varies as:
This is identical to SHM.
14
Therefore, we can use the period and frequency of a particle moving in a
circle to find the period and frequency:
15
We can similarly find the position as a function of time:
16
The top curve is a graph of the
previous equation.
The bottom curve is the same,
but shifted period so that it is
a sine function rather than a
cosine.
17
The Period and Sinusoidal
Nature of SHM
The velocity and acceleration can
be calculated as functions of time;
the results are below, and are
plotted at left.
18
14-5 The Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a
mass at the end of a lightweight
cord. We assume that the cord
does not stretch, and that its
mass is negligible.
19
In order to be in SHM, the restoring force must
be proportional to the negative of the
displacement. Here we have:
which is proportional to sin and not to
itself.
However, if the angle is small,
sin .
20
Therefore, for small angles, we have:
where
The period and frequency are:
21
So, as long as the cord can be
considered massless and the amplitude
is small, the period does not depend on
the mass.
22
14-7 Damped Harmonic Motion
Damped harmonic motion is harmonic motion with a frictional or
drag force. If the damping is small, we can treat it as an
envelope that modifies the undamped oscillation.
23
However, if the damping is large, it no
longer resembles SHM at all.
A: underdamping: there are a few small
oscillations before the oscillator comes to
rest.
B: critical damping: this is the fastest way to get to equilibrium.
C: overdamping: the system is slowed so much that it takes a long time to
get to equilibrium.
24
There are systems where damping is unwanted, such as clocks and
watches.
Then there are systems in which it is wanted, and often needs to be as
close to critical damping as possible, such as automobile shock absorbers
and earthquake protection for buildings.
25
14-8 Forced Vibrations; Resonance
Forced vibrations occur when there is a periodic driving force. This
force may or may not have the same period as the natural frequency of
the system.
If the frequency is the same as the natural frequency, the amplitude
becomes quite large. This is called resonance.
26
14-8 Forced Vibrations; Resonance
The sharpness of the resonant
peak depends on the damping. If
the damping is small (A), it can be
quite sharp; if the damping is larger
(B), it is less sharp.
Like damping, resonance can be wanted or unwanted. Musical instruments
and TV/radio receivers depend on it.
27
HOMEWORK
Giancoli, Chapter 14
4, 6, 11, 13, 17, 22, 24, 25, 28, 32
References
o Physics For Scientists &Engineers with Modern Physics Giancoli 4
th
edition,
Pearson International Edition
28
Units of Chapter 15
Wave Motion
Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal
Energy Transported by Waves
Intensity Related to Amplitude and Frequency
Reflection and Transmission of Waves
Interference; Principle of Superposition
Standing Waves; Resonance
Refraction
Diffraction
Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave
29
15-1 Wave Motion
A wave travels along its
medium, but the individual
particles just move up and
down.
30
15-1 Wave Motion
All types of traveling waves transport energy.
Study of a single wave pulse shows
that it is begun with a vibration and
transmitted through internal forces in
the medium.
Continuous waves start with vibrations
too. If the vibration is SHM, then the
wave will be sinusoidal.
31
15-1 Wave Motion
Wave characteristics:
Amplitude, A
Wavelength,
Frequency f and period T
Wave velocity
32
15-2 Types of Waves: Transverse and
Longitudinal
The motion of particles in a wave can either be perpendicular to the wave
direction (transverse) or parallel to it (longitudinal).
33
Longitudinal
Sound waves are longitudinal waves:
34
Longitudinal
Earthquakes produce both longitudinal and transverse waves. Both types
can travel through solid material, but only longitudinal waves can
propagate through a fluid in the transverse direction, a fluid has no
restoring force.
Surface waves are waves that travel along the boundary between two
media.
35
15-3 Energy Transported by Waves
Just as with the oscillation that starts it, the energy transported by a
wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
Definition of intensity:
The intensity is also proportional to the square of the amplitude:
36
15-3 Energy Transported by Waves
If a wave is able to spread out three-dimensionally from its source, and the
medium is uniform, the wave is spherical.
Just from geometrical considerations, as
long as the power output is constant, we
see:
37
Intensity Related to Amplitude and Frequency
By looking at the energy of a
particle of matter in the medium of
the wave, we find:
Then, assuming the entire medium has the same density, we find:
Therefore, the intensity is proportional to the square of the frequency and
to the square of the amplitude.
(11-17)
38
15-4 Mathematical Representation of a
Traveling Wave
To the left, we have a snapshot of
a traveling wave at a single point
in time. Below left, the same wave
is shown traveling.
39
15-4 Mathematical Representation of a
Traveling Wave
A full mathematical description of the wave describes the displacement
of any point as a function of both distance and time:
40
15-7 Reflection and Transmission of Waves
A wave reaching the end
of its medium, but where
the medium is still free to
move, will be reflected (b),
and its reflection will be
upright.
A wave hitting an obstacle will be reflected
(a), and its reflection will be inverted.
41
15- 7 Reflection and Transmission of Waves
A wave encountering a denser medium will be partly reflected and partly
transmitted; if the wave speed is less in the denser medium, the wavelength will
be shorter.
42
Two- or three-dimensional waves can be represented by wave fronts,
which are curves of surfaces where all the waves have the same
phase.
Lines perpendicular to the wave
fronts are called rays; they point in
the direction of propagation of the
wave.
43
The law of reflection: the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
44
15-8 Interference; Principle of Superposition
The superposition principle says that when two waves pass
through the same point, the displacement is the arithmetic
sum of the individual displacements.
In the figure below, (a) exhibits destructive interference and
(b) exhibits constructive interference.
45
15-8 Interference; Principle of Superposition
These figures show the sum of two waves. In (a) they add constructively;
in (b) they add destructively; and in (c) they add partially destructively.
46
15-9 Standing Waves; Resonance
Standing waves occur when both
ends of a string are fixed. In that case,
only waves which are motionless at
the ends of the string can persist.
There are nodes, where the amplitude
is always zero, and antinodes, where
the amplitude varies from zero to the
maximum value.
47
The frequencies of the standing waves
on a particular string are called resonant
frequencies.
They are also referred to as the
fundamental and harmonics.
48
The wavelengths and frequencies of standing waves are:
49
15-10 Refraction
If the wave enters a medium where the wave speed is different, it will be
refracted its wave fronts and rays will change direction.
We can calculate the angle of refraction, which
depends on both wave speeds:
50
15-10 Refraction
The law of refraction works both ways a wave going from a slower
medium to a faster one would follow the red line in the other direction.
51
15-11 Diffraction
When waves encounter an obstacle,
they bend around it, leaving a shadow
region. This is called diffraction.
52
15-11 Diffraction
The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the obstacle compared
to the wavelength. If the obstacle is much smaller than the wavelength,
the wave is barely affected (a). If the object is comparable to, or larger
than, the wavelength, diffraction is much more significant (b, c, d).
53
Chapter 16
Sound
54
Units of Chapter 16
Characteristics of Sound
Intensity of Sound: Decibels
The Ear and Its Response; Loudness
Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air Columns
Quality of Sound, and Noise; Superposition
Interference of Sound Waves; Beats
Doppler Effect
Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom
Applications: Sonar, Ultrasound, and Medical Imaging
55
16-1 Characteristics of Sound
Sound can travel through any kind of matter, but not through a vacuum.
The speed of sound is different in different
materials; in general, it is slowest in gases,
faster in liquids, and fastest in solids.
The speed depends somewhat on
temperature, especially for gases.
56
16-1 Characteristics of Sound
Loudness: related to intensity of the sound wave
Pitch: related to frequency.
Audible range: about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz; upper limit decreases with age
Ultrasound: above 20,000 Hz; see ultrasonic camera focusing below
Infrasound: below 20 Hz
57
16-2 Intensity of Sound: Decibels
The intensity of a wave is the energy
transported per unit time across a unit
area.
The human ear can detect sounds with an
intensity as low as 10
-12
W/m
2
and as high
as 1 W/m
2
.
Perceived loudness, however, is not
proportional to the intensity.
58
The loudness of a sound is much more closely related to the logarithm of
the intensity.
Sound level is measured in decibels (dB) and is defined:
I
0
is taken to be the threshold of hearing:
59
An increase in sound level of 3 dB,
which is a doubling in intensity, is a
very small change in loudness.
In open areas, the intensity of
sound diminishes with distance:
However, in enclosed spaces this is complicated by reflections, and if sound
travels through air the higher frequencies get preferentially absorbed.
60
12-3 The Ear and Its Response; Loudness
61
12-3 The Ear and Its Response; Loudness
Outer ear: sound waves travel down the ear canal to the
eardrum, which vibrates in response
Middle ear: hammer, anvil, and stirrup transfer vibrations to
inner ear
Inner ear: cochlea transforms vibrational energy to electrical
energy and sends signals to the brain
62
16-3 The Ear and its Response; Loudness
The ears sensitivity varies with frequency. These curves translate the
intensity into sound level at different frequencies.
63
16-4 Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings
and Air Columns
Musical instruments produce sounds in various ways vibrating strings,
vibrating membranes, vibrating metal or wood shapes, vibrating air
columns.
The vibration may be started by plucking, striking, bowing, or blowing.
The vibrations are transmitted to the air and then to our ears.
64
and Air Columns
The strings on a guitar can be
effectively shortened by fingering,
raising the fundamental pitch.
The pitch of a string of a given length
can also be altered by using a string
of different density.
65
and Air Columns
A piano uses both methods to cover its more than seven-octave range
the lower strings (at bottom) are both much longer and much thicker than
the higher ones.
66
and Air Columns
Wind instruments create sound through standing waves in a column of
air.
67
and Air Columns
A tube open at both ends (most wind instruments) has pressure nodes, and
therefore displacement antinodes, at the ends.
68
and Air Columns
A tube closed at one end (some organ pipes) has a displacement node
(and pressure antinode) at the closed end.
69
16-5 Quality of Sound, and Noise;
Superposition
So why does a trumpet sound different from a flute? The answer lies in
overtones which ones are present, and how strong they are, makes a big
difference.
The plot below shows frequency spectra for a clarinet, a piano, and a
violin. The differences in overtone strength are apparent.
70
16-6 Interference of Sound Waves; Beats
Sound waves interfere in the same way that other
waves do in space.
71
16-6 Interference of Sound Waves; Beats
Waves can also interfere in time, causing a phenomenon called beats.
Beats are the slow envelope around two waves that are relatively close in
frequency.
72
16-7 Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect occurs when a source of sound is moving with respect
to an observer.
73
16-7 Doppler Effect
As can be seen in the previous image, a source
moving toward an observer has a higher frequency
and shorter wavelength; the opposite is true when a
source is moving away from an observer.
74
16-7 Doppler Effect
If we can figure out what
the change in the
wavelength is, we also
know the change in the
frequency.
75
16-7 Doppler Effect
The change in the wavelength is given by:
76
16-7 Doppler Effect
And the change in the frequency:
If the source is moving away from the observer:
77
16-7 Doppler Effect
If the observer is moving with respect to the source, things are a bit
different. The wavelength remains the same, but the wave speed is
different for the observer.
78
16-7 Doppler Effect
We find, for an observer moving towards a stationary source:
And if it is moving away:
79
16-8 Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom
If a source is moving faster than the wave speed in a medium, waves
cannot keep up and a shock wave is formed.
The angle of the cone is:
80
Shock waves are analogous to the bow waves produced by a boat going
faster than the wave speed in water.
81
Aircraft exceeding the speed of sound in air will produce two sonic booms,
one from the front and one from the tail.
82
16-9 Applications: Sonar, Ultrasound, and
Medical Imaging
Sonar is used to locate objects underwater by measuring the time it
takes a sound pulse to reflect back to the receiver.
Similar techniques can be used to learn about the internal structure of
the Earth.
Sonar usually uses ultrasound waves, as the shorter wavelengths are
less likely to be diffracted by obstacles.
83
Medical Imaging
Ultrasound is also used for
medical imaging. Repeated
traces are made as the
transducer is moved, and a
complete picture is built.
84
Medical Imaging
Ordinary ultrasound gives a good picture; high-resolution ultrasound is
excellent.
85
Summary of Chapter 16
Sound is a longitudinal wave in a medium.
The pitch of the sound depends on the frequency.
The loudness of the sound depends on the intensity and also on the
sensitivity of the ear.
The strings on stringed instruments produce a fundamental tone whose
wavelength is twice the length of the string; there are also various
harmonics present.
Wind instruments have a vibrating column of air when played. If the tube
is open, the fundamental is twice its length; if it is closed the fundamental
is four times the tube length.
Sound waves exhibit interference; if two sounds are at slightly different
frequencies they produce beats.
The Doppler effect is the shift in frequency of a sound due to motion of
the source or the observer.
86
HOMEWORK
Giancoli, Chapter 16
3, 6, 10, 16, 18, 69
References
o Physics For Scientists &Engineers with Modern Physics Giancoli 4
th
edition,
Pearson International Edition

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