earth made up of inner core, outer core, lower mantle, upper mantle, crust (ocea

nic and continental)

inner core is solid, outer core is molten liquid
earth's core is still hot from formation of the planet and radioactive decay of
elements in core and mantle.
this heat is transferred through earth's interior largely by convection. convect
ion makes planets magnetic field, rearrange oceans and continents, produce mount
ains and volcanoes, and generation earthquakes.
lithosphere = crust + uppermost mantle = tectonic plate
asthenosphere = layer in uppermost mantle, hot and weak; mostly solid
earthquakes are associated with trenches, mid-ocean ridges, mountain belts, and
island arcs ASSOCIATED WITH DIVERGENT & CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
active volcanoes are associated with linear chains of oceanic islands, mountain
belts next to trenches, mid-ocean ridges, red sea and east africa, and island ar
cs next to trenches FOUND ALONG CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
tectonic activity = earthquakes, volcanism, or mountain building
tectonic plates = rigid lithosphere divided into plates, belts of tectonic activ
ity divide the lithosphere (8 major plates and several more small plates)
trenches and/or oceanic ridges = boundaries between plates
active continental margin - volcanoes, earthquakes
passive continental margin - no volcanoes, earthquakes
plates of lithosphere:
divergent boundary: move apart - oceanic ridges, initially form by breaking apar
t continental lithosphere
convergent boundary: move toward - oceanic trenches, found near active volcanoes
transform boundary: move horizontally - earthquakes common
youngest oceanic crest located at oceanic ridges
oldest oceanic crest located farthest from oceanic ridges (adjacent to ocean bas
ins)
to form an ocean, a continent must break apart(east africa): initial uplift of c
ontinental crust from rising mantle, stretching and faulting form steep-sided ri
ft valley; melting of asthenosphere forms magma, continued stretching leads to s
eafloor spreading and the formation of a new ocean basin, ocean widens with cont
inues seafloor spreading; oldest oceanic rocks are farthest from the oceanic rid
ge
north carolina is moving away from a divergent boundary in the Atlantic Ocean
ocean-ocean convergent boundary - volcanoes
ocean-continent convergent boundary - volcanoes
continent-continent convergent boundary - no volcanoes or magma
trenches present at ocean-ocean and ocean-continent plate boundaries
island arcs are present at ocean-ocean convergent boundaries
volcanoes are present on the descending plate associated with neither convergent
boundary type
The Pacific plate is descending toward the north below the North American plate.
plate tectonics due to convenction in Earth's mantle
ridge push - almost all plates
slab pull - faster plate motions w/ subduction zones
280 myrs ago: Pangaea formed, earlier versions of NA and africa collide near equ
ator
600 myrs ago: Rodinia formed, centered over South Pole; breaks up by rifting con
tinental lithosphere
Rifting makes continents smaller, accretation bigger
Terranes(island arcs, island chains, oceanic plateau, continental fragments) add
ed to continental margins by accrection
Must be added (accreted) to continental margin by subduction, collision, or stri
ke-slip faulting
Rocks get generally older as we move from west to east in North Carolina
Blue Ridge - part of ancient NA; Inner Piedmont - first terrane accreted; Caroli
na Slate Belt - volcanic island arc;
Charlotte Belt - plutonic igneous rocks form from magma along convergent boundar
y; Triassic basins - rift basins formed during opening of Atlantic Ocean; Coasta
l Plain - young sedimentary rocks over passive margin
SILICATES, TETRAHEDRA AND EARTH'S ELEMENTS
Minerals are combinations of elements
Earth's crust composed of mostly (97%) 8 elements, mostly oxygen and silicon
7 major classes of minerals
-Silicates (silicon and oxygen bond with metal elements)
-Caronbates, oxides, halides, sulfates, sulfides, native elements
Continental crust rocks
-Igneous rocks from light-colored silicate minerals form by cooling magma (cryst
alline)
-Products of erosion of other rocks (clastic sedimentary rocks)
-Limestone common (chemical or biochemical sedimentary rocks)
Oceanic crust rocks
-Igneous rocks from dark-colored silicate minerals by cooling magma
-Marine limestone (biochemical sedimentary rocks)
-Sulfide minerals at volcanic vents along oceanic ridges
Widest range of minerals in crust due to most varied environments, chemical cons
tituents
Olivine(Mg2SiO4) 4 oxygens per silicon atom, minerals with low silica content no
or few oxygens and have simple structures (Olivine, Amphibole)
Minerals with high silica content share more oxygen atoms and have more complex
structures (Quartz, Feldspar)
Iron (and nickel) abundant in core
Core
-No solid rocks in outer core, molten iron and nickel mixture
-Inner core dominated by solid, metallic iron, nickel
Mantle
-Rocks stable under high temperatures, pressures
-Olivine-rich near top of mantle
-Fe, Mg silicates
PARTIAL MELTING AND MAGMA FORMATION
FELSIC (silica-rich) igneous rocks
-composed mostly of light-colored (white, clear, tan, light gray minerals
-quartz, feldspar
-forms from rhyolitic magma
-lowest melting temperatures, will melt first
MAFIC (silica-poor) rocks
-composed of dark-colored (black, dark green, brown) minerals
-olivine, pyroxene, biotite
-forms from basaltic magma
-melt last
INTERMEDIATE Silica rocks
-composed of similar amounts of light- and dark- colored minerals
-feldspar, pyroxene
formed from andesitic magma
Volcanic - fine grained
Plutonic - coarse grained
Partial melting occurs when some minerals in a rock melt while others remain sol
id
Partial melting generates a more felsic magma than the source rock
Higher pressures require higher temps for magma to form
Adding water lowers the melting temperature of rocks
-> = partial melting creates
Ultramafic -> Mafic -> Intermediate -> Felsic
MAGMA FORMATION AT PLATE BOUNDARIES
MELTING IN A DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
-Solid asthenosphere rises to fill gap (decompression melting)
-Magma from a partial melting of asthenosphere forms new lithosphere of volcanic
and plutonic igneous rocks at oceanic ridge
-Fractures form as plates split apart
-Sheeted dikes of basalt fill fractures
MELTING IN A CONTINENTAL RIFT
-Partial melting mantle forms mafic magma (decompression melting)
-Continental crust heated by rising mafic magma causes partial melting of crust
-> felsic magma ( melting by heating)
-Complete melting yeilds magma with intermediate composition
WATER INTO SUBDUCTION ZONES
-Hot water circulate in oceanic ridge; added in pores, fractures and in minerals
-Water in minerals realeased at depth into over-riding plate
MELTING IN A OCEAN-CONTINENT CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
-Adding water partially melts ultramafic mantle (to create mafic magma)
-Heating by mafic magma partially melts crust
-Mostly felsic and intermediate magma from partial or complete melting of contin
ental crust
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
C/C - Little or no igneous rock formation
O/C & O/O
Partial melting of ultramafic rocks (mantle lithosphere) by
Addition of water from subduction zone generates
Mafic magma that heats continental crust to product
Intermediate magma & Felsic magma
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
Partial melting of ultramafic rocks (asthenosphere) by
Decompression melting generates
Mafic magma that produces Basalt & Gabbro
MINERALS
Rhyolite - Felsic, Volcanic
Andesite - Intermediate, Volcanic
Basalt - Mafic, Volcanic (makes up ocean floor)
Granite - Felsic, Plutonic (unmetamorphosed, non foliated original rock)
Diorite - Intermediate, Plutonic
Gabbro - Mafic, Plutonic (forms below the ocean floor)
Peridotite - Ultramafic, Plutonic
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Three types of sedimentary rocks
-Clastic (sandstone, shale)
-Chemical (rock salt, gypsum)
-Biochemical (limestone, coal, chalk)
Identified by:
-materials that make up the rock
-the process by which they formed
Clastic sedimentary rocks formed in 3 steps:
-Breakdown, physical and/or chemical weathering breaks down any rock to form sed
iment from fragments
-Transportation, erosion by streams, winds, or glaciers removes sediment from it
s place of origin
-Lithification, sediment deposited, compacted, cemented to form new rock (steepe
r slopes = poorly sorted, angular sediment, strong currents = larger sediment, w
ind = small sediment, glaciers = largest particles), farther from source means r
ounder, smaller, more quartz-rich sediment Mountains -> coastal plain
Sedimental classified on the basis of 3 factors
-grain size (boulders, cobbles, pebbles) (coarse, medium, fine) (clay and silt)
-sorting (poorly, moderately, well) based on different sizes so really just size
again.
-shape (angular, partially rounded, rounded)
How Clastic Sediment Becomes Rock
Compaction of sand - pore spaces left between grains
Compaction of clay - realigns sheet-like clay minerals, reducing pore spaces
Cementation - minerals deposited from water flowing through rocks, binds grains
together
kinds of sediment
sand, angular gravel, partially rounded gravel, silt, clay
CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
-form when minerals are precipitated from a solution as a result of changing con
ditions
-due to changing temperature, pressure, water chemistry
-chemical sedimentary rocks form as sea water evaporates with increasing tempera
ture
Precipitation of dissolved minerals when (sea) water evaporates -> Rock salt, gy
psum
Precipitation of minerals from chemical-rich waters -> Travertine (limestone)
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
-form when living organisms cause minerals to be precipitated from solution
-from the remains of dead organisms (chalk)
-limestone forms when living marine organisms cause precipitation to build skele
tons (shallow marine conditions)
-coals forms from the compacted remains of dead plants (tropical wetland condtio
ns)
Indicators of Sedimentary Environments
Sedimentary rocks form as horizontal layers (beds)
-Beds identified by compoistion, thickness, features
-Thick beds = stable environments
-Changing rocks, thicknesses = changing environments
Color of Rocks
-red (formed on land, oxidizing environment)
-gray (under water, low oxygen conditions)
Size, shape, sorting of clastic sediment reflects
-strength of current
-transport distance
-erosion agent (wind, glacier)
Fossils
-interpreted to distinguish land or marine environment, climate characteristics
Rock Features
-mudcracks indicate wet to dry conditions (tidal flats)
METAMORPHIC ROCKS AND THE ROCK CYCLE
Metamorphism
-changes in mineral composition and texture that can occur in an solid rock
-changes due to increasing temperature and/or pressure and/or the presence of fl
uids
-temperatures high enough for chemical reactions but not hot enough for melting
Causes of metamorphism
-tectonic stress, pressure, temperature, fluids
Response of Rock
-deformation, grow larger crystals, rotation of minerals to form a foliation, gr
ow crystals of new minerals, formation of veins
-increased pressures and temperatures causes tabular minerals to take on a prefe
rred orientation, foilation, perpendicular to direction of pressure (gneiss - me
tamorphic rock with foliation)
Metamorphism of Sedimentary/Igneous Rocks
Increasing Grain Size & Increasing metamorphism of shale --->
Slate, Schist, Gneiss
Contact Metamorphism
-occurs due to increasing temperature (near magma)
-may surround plutonic igneous rocks
Regional Metamorphism
-occurs due to increasing temperature and pressure along plate boundaries
-slate is an example
-may underlie several adjacent states
-may contain a foliation
BOTH
-Formed at temperatures above 200 C
-May originally have been an igneous rock
-Found in mountain belts
-may originally have been a sedimentary rock
-marble is a possible example
NEITHER
-Form as a result of melting
-Limestone is an example
CLASSIFYING FAULTS
Small amounts of stress: rocks unchanged
More stress causes rocks to break (brittle deformation)
Rocks displaced along breaks or fractures known as faults
Dip - inclination or slope of surface (measured from horizontal)
Dip-slip fault - fault movement parallel to dip
Footwall is below fault
Hanging wall is above fault
Normal fault - hanging wall moves down (tension)
Reverse fault - hanging wall moves up (compression)
Strike - horizontal line on an inclined surface
Strike-slip fault - movement on fault parallel to strike (move horizontally) (tr
ansform)
right or left lateral fault
ROCK DEFORMATION AND EARTHQUAKES
Fault movements are driven by stresses produced by plate tectonics
1. Friction along the fault surface is enough to cause most faults to "stick"
2. All rocks are slightly elastic. The build up of stress causes the rock to def
orm
3. After decades or centuries, enough stress has built up to overcome friction a
nd cause fault movement (slip)
Recurrence interval - time for build up of stress to cause fault movement and ea
rthquake
Seismic gap - segment of active fault without recent slip
biggest earthquakes associated with convergent zones
MEASUREMENTS OF EARTHQUAKES
P waves - compress material parallel to travel direction (Slinky analogy) First
arrival, particles move in direction of wave, body wave, 4-6 km/s in crust
S waves - vibrate perpendicular to travel direction (rope analogy) Second arriva
l, used to calculate magnitude, body wave, 4-6 km/s in crust
Surface wave - most damaging, last arrival, on earth's surface
Earthquake size can be determined by measuring the amplitude of the seismic wave
s
Magnitude - a standard of measure of the shaking and/or energy released from an
earthquake claculated using seismic waves on a seismogram
Intensity - a measure of the effects of an earthquake on people and buildings (d
amage)
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
-ground shaking, weaker materials may affect degree of shaking
-liquefaction occurs when water is released from saturated earth materials that
are violently shaken and collapse, associated with all fault movements
-closer buildings do not always undergo the greatest damage, sometimes true
VOLCANOES
Composite - big, pointyish
Shield - big, smoother
Volcanic dome - small, crater center/lava in center
Cinder cone - small, flat top
VOLCANIC HAZARDS
-most active volcanoes located along convergent plate boundaries
Main eruption products of composite volcanoes - associated with subduction zones
1. Tephra (volcanic ash, lava bombs, debris)
2. Lahars (volcanic mudflows)
3. Pyroclastic flows
Less common eruption products
4. Lateral blast
5. Lava (volcanic dome)
Main eruption products of shield volcanoes
5. Lava (lava flows, cinder cones)
Shield Volcanoes
-Main eruption product is fluid magma
-Forms the largest volcanoes
Bad Lava
-Extensive fresh lava on Hawaii - magma has low viscosity, flows easily
-Covers subdivision
How to monitor volcanic activity
-Earthquakes:
1. Small to moderate sized earthquakes increase in frequency prior to eruptions
2. Active volcanoes often have multiple seismograms on slopes
-Volcanic gases:
1. Magma moving up through volcano release gases into atmosphere
2. Gases can be captured by flights or instruments on slopes
-Changes in shape
1. Lasers, GPS can be used to measure distances between fixed points
-Increases in temperature
1. Magma moving closer to surface will give characteristic temperature data
VISCOSITY AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
1. Dissolved gas held in magma by pressure
2. Under less pressure, gas forms bubbles
3. Propels eruption and forms ash
Viscosity - resistance to flow, depends on temp. of magma and magma composition
Mafic magmas lower viscosities than intermediate and felsic magmas
High viscosity = more violent eruptions, lower temp and high silica temp., gases
trapped
Basalt - low visc. - shield
Andesite - Intermediate visc. - composite
Rhyolite - high visc.
Mid-ocean ridge - Low viscosity, mafic magma
Oceanic hot spot - low viscosity, mafic magma
Subduction beneath continent - medium visc, intermediate magma
Continental rift/hot spot - low/high visc, mafic/felsic magma
UNCONFORMITIES
Unconformity - an erose surface representing a gap in time between the formation
of two sections of rock
- look for contrasts in orientation or type of rocks between adjacent rock units
3 types - angular unconformity, disconformity, nonconformity
Angular Unconformity - one layer of rock at an angle, other horizontal
Disconformity - parallel
Nonconformity - nonlayered rock (formed deep below surface, later uplifted to sh
allow depths) and another layer of rock on top of different type
NUMERICAL TIME
Atomic number - number of protons in element's nucleus
Radioactive decay occurs when an isotope loses or gains protons
After 10 half lives, there are so few parent isotopes left, that they cannot be
accurately counted
Age of rock = # of half lives radioactive isotope x length of one half life
After one half life parent:daughter ratio is 1:1, two half lives 1:3, 4 half liv
es 1:15
CORRELATION OF ROCK UNITS
Correlation matches rock units to determine the relative ages of rocks between r
egions or continents
Correlation of distinctive rock type, same fossils, common sequence of similar r
ocks, igneous or metamorphic units that yield similar isotopic ages, sedimentary
units overlying the same unconformity surface
The geologic time scale can be divided into:
Three eons - Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic
-Fossils became abundant in the Phanerozoic
-Phanerozoic can be divided into three eras, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Ce
nozoic
-Eras can be further divided into periods on the basis of their
fossil record
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
Earth's moon formed from an early collision of planetary bodies
Water in Earth's oceans was supplied by out-gassing of volcanoes and collisions
with comets
Earth's atmoshpere was modfied by the addition of oxygen during the Proterozoic
Eon
Ancient Earth experience periods of "snowball" and "hot-house" conditions D E
F A G B C H
The Palezoic featured the appearance of abundant fossils, land plants, fish, ins
ects and reptiles
The Mesozoic had the dinosaurs, early birds, grasses and flowering plants
Mammals dominated in the Cenozoic with bears, horses, mammoth and humans
Palezoic 570 - 245 million years ago
Mesozoic 245 - 66.4 million years ago
Cenozoic 66.4 - now millions years ago
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS, CLIMATE, AND EARTH'S CHARACTER
Volcanic eruptions add gases and tephra to atmosphere and may affect climate pat
terns
Eruptions can produce dense clouds of debris that block sunlight and produce a s
hort term decrease in temperature
Large volumes of volcanic gases trap heat in atmosphere to produce a long term i
ncrease in temperature
Large volcanic eruptions in geologic past produced huge volumes of basaltic lava
= flood basalts
Flood basalts formed by magma plumes rising through the mantle from the core/man
tle boundary
Phanerozoic era - carbon dioxide decrease, rise of forests
Higher CO2 = higher temps, Lower CO2 = lower temps
Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide from flood basalts produced global "hothous
e" conditions
Earth's atmosphere made mostly of nitrogen and oxygen, average temp is 15C(59F)
Earth has liquid water, thich atmosphere of gases, life-sustaining gases, magnet
ic field
CLIMATE PATTERNS
Temperatures decrease with increasing latitude north and south from equator
Temperature range is much greater for the continents than for the oceans
Clouds are concentrated in irregular bands parallel to the equators and latitude
s 60N and S
-These cloud bands feature rising air, high precipitation(rain forests) and low
atmospheric pressure
Clear skies are concentrated in irregular bands at Poles and latitudes 30N and S
-These bands feature dry climates, descending air and cold or hot deserts on con
tinents
Seasonal temperature contrasts are due to the tilt of Earth's axis and angle of
Sun's rays
Sun is directly overhead at different places during different seasons
During summer in northern hemisphere, sun overhead at Tropic of Cancer
During winter in northern hemisphere, sun overhead at Tropic of Capricorn in the
southern hemisphere
Eccentricity - shape of orbit changes distance to sun
Tilt of axis - changes determine where solar radiation received
Precession - direction of tilt of axis changes
GLACIERS, GLACIATION AND GLACIAL LANDSCAPES
Glacier - a long lasting mass of ice that moves downslope under its own weight
Alpine glaciers - move 5-50m/year present in high US mountains(Alaska, Colorado,
Washington)
Icesheets - move hundreds of meters/year present in cold environments(greenland,
antarctica)
Glaciers cause erosion and deposition, create characteristics
Features formed from unsorted glacial till form shaped mounds(drumlins) or ridge
s that mark where the glacier paused(moraines)
Features with sorted sediment indicate an origin involving running water such as
featured deposited by streams under the glacier (eskers) or streams formed as t
he glacier melted(glacial outwash)
Bigger glaciers = fall in sea level
Smaller glaciers = rise in sea level
Slower seafloor spreading, colder ocean floor = drop in sea level
Faster spreading, warmer, elevated ocean floor = rise in sea level
Ocean cools, water contracts = drop in sea level
Warming oceans = rise in sea level
SOLAR RADIATION AND EARTH'S CLIMATE SYSTEM
~30% of incoming solar energy will be reflected and scattered
~19% of incoming solar energy absorbed by clouds
~51% absorbed by earth's surface
cirrus clouds - incoming sunlight passes through them, block heat radiating from
the surface
cumulus clouds - reflect most incoming sunlight, block heat radiating from the s
urface
A climate forcing is a change in Earth's energy balance, positive - warmer, nega
tive - cooler
Albedo is the measure of the reflectivity of a surface
More reflecting = less energy absorbed and less infrared radiation
Light surfaces -> high albedo
Dark surfaces -> low albedo
EARTH'S CLIMATE PAST
Medieval Warm Period(900-1400), Little Ice Age(1400-1800)
Short-term Proxy Climate Records - 100-1000s of years (tree rings)
Scientists collect sediment cores, split the core, microfossils in core can be a
nalyzed
18O/16O ratios in shells record changes to seawater chemistry that relate to glo
bal temp changes
Colder climates - 16O is trapped in ice, increased proportion of 18O in ocean, f
ossils (ratio>0.002)
Hotter climates - ice caps melt, ratio is less (ratio < 0.002)
HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM
96.5% -salt water, 3.5% freshwater
Ice - 69% of freshwater, groundwater - 30%, surface water - .3%
Lakes - 87% of freshwater, wetlands - 11% freshwater, rivers - 2% freshwater
Stream gauges measure stream velocity and discharge
Communities benefit from knowing about stream flow:
1) National Weather Service flood forecasts
2) Availability of drinking water
3) Water levels in freshwater ecosystems
4) Design of construction projects
5) Recreational use of stream systems
STREAM DISCHARGE AND HYDROGRAPHS
Stream Stage - depth of water in channel
Stream discharge - volume of water that passes a point in a given time
Discharge = width x depth x velocity cubic meters per second
Plot of stream stage or discharge versus time is a hydrograph
Stream flow rapidly increases during and immediately after a storm
Flow gradually decreases for several days after storm ends
STREAM FLOW AND WORK OF STREAMS
Gradient - change in elevation for a horizontal distance
Braided channels: Steep gradients, abundant coarse sediment, near mountains +/or
glaciers, generally no floodplain
Meandering channels: low gradients, fine grained sediment, low elevations, flood
plain
The work of streams: they erode, transport, an deposit
All streams erode particles from channel beds and banks and carry them downstrea
m
bed load(gravel, sand - roll, bound, slide), suspended load(silt, clay - float),
dissolved load(dissolved minerals)
STREAM FLOODING
Flood - temporary overflow of a river onto adjacent lands not normally covered b
y water
Principal causes of floods: east U.S. - hurricanes and storms, west u.s. - snowm
elt and storms
Flooding is caused/influence by: 1. Magnitude, timing and type of precipitation
(storm-term excess precipitation, long-term excess precipitation saturates groun
d, fills reservoirs)
2. Human modifications of the physical landscape (paving covers natural surfaces
that might absorb water, storm sewers divert excess water into natural streams,
past agricultural development replaced wetlands, collapse of constructed dams,
levees)
FOSSIL FUEL RESOURCES: OIL AND GAS
Fossil fuels = 81% total energy
Oil and gas are examples of hydrocarbons
Principle source -> microscopic organisms
Oil and gas form microscropic marine organisms -> form organic-rich source rocks
(shale)
Source rocks are buried and organmic material is converted to kerogen
Folded rocks - oil, gas migrate upward, trapped in folded rocks (anticline) belo
w impermeable layer (cap rock)
Permeability, structures, rock types, temperature
COAL
coal formation needs - plentiful supply of vegetation, rapid bural of plant mate
rial, warm,wet environment
plant matter gets buried and heated into better coal - less ash, more carbon - t
hat generates more heat per unit volume
peat -> lignite -> bituminous coal -> anthracite
greatest coal production - rocky mountains, appalachians, interior
almost all us coal is burned to generate electricty
ALT ENERGY SOURCES AND SHALE GAS
Biomass + hydropower = 83% of US renewable energy consumption or 7.47% of all US
energy consumption
Geothermal power - shallow magma heats water, rises to surface by faults, fractu
res -> steam etc
Hydroelectric dams - falling water turns a turbine