Summary

1 annotation on 1 page by Jordan Maddock

x1
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;;
!". ,5 marks,
a, Deine the term mutualism`.
b, Gie an example o mutualism, naming 2
organisms and outlining how each is aected by the
relationship.
!!# ,5 marks,
In nature, allelopathy is a method o beating your
competition`.
Discuss this statement briely, giing deinitions and
examples as appropriate.
!$# ,8 marks,
a, \rite a word equation to summarize the process o
cellular respiration.
b, 1he process makes energy aailable to liing cells.
i, \hat is the original source o this energy
ii, low does the energy get into an
ecosystem
iii, In what orm is the energy passed rom
organism to organism
!%# ,5 marks,
1he ollowing obserations were made about the
eeding relationships in an Australian rural ecosystem.
Use the inormation to construct a ood web diagram.
loney-eater birds eed on the nectar and pollen o
natie shrubs. 1hese shrubs are also eaten by insects
and wallabies. Grass is eaten by insects, rabbits and
wallabies, while mice eed on the grass seeds. lrogs eat
insects, while dingoes prey on rabbits and wallabies.
Kookaburras hunt snakes and rogs. 1he snakes eed
on rogs, mice and take the eggs and babies rom
honey-eater nests.
!&# ,8 marks,
lrom your diagram or Q24 answer the ollowing.
a, Name three 2nd-order consumers.
b, Name an organism which occupies more than one
trophic leel.
c, \rite the longest ood chain within this web.
d, Name 2 organisms who could well be competitors.
e, 1here is a world-wide trend o decline in amphibian
populations. I the rog population in this ood web was
drastically reduced, what might happen to the:
i, insect population
ii, mouse population
, Comment on a human impact apparent rom the ood
web or this ecosystem.
!'# ,4 marks,
In a seaside rockpool, the total biomass o all isible
plants, herbiores and carniores was estimated as
ollows: Plants 10 kg
lebiores 20 kg
Carniores 2 kg
a, On these igures alone, could the rockpool be a iable,
stable ecosystem Lxplain your answer.
b, Oer time, the rockpool community is studied and it is
ound to be ery stable and more-or-less unchanging.
Suggest how this might be possible.
!(# ,4 marks,
a, Lxplain what is meant by an adaptation`.
b, Gie an example o an adaptation or each o the
ollowing situations.
i, A structural adaptation ,in an animal, to a cold climate.
ii, A plant adaptation to low light leels on the rain orest
loor.
iii, An adaptation or water conseration in a desert
animal.
!)# ,3 marks,
Outline a human impact on a named type o ecosystem.




















#1 p.22
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8
Preliminary Biology Topic 1

What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. DISTRIBUTION & ABUNDANCE OF ORGANISMS
2. BIOTIC & ABIOTIC FACTORS
3. ROLES & RELATIONSHIPS
4. THE FLOW OF ENERGY & MATTER
5. ADAPTATIONS TO ENVIRONMENT
6. HUMAN IMPACTS
but first, some definitions...
Ecology
is the study of living things and their environment,
and all the inter-relationships between the life-forms
and the factors of the environment itself.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem comprises all the living things and
the non-living environment of a particular, defined
area. The size of an ecosystem can vary
enormously... you might study the ecology under
one rock, or in a lake. You might consider an entire
mountain range as one ecosystem, or an entire
ocean. Ultimately, the entire Earth can be
considered as a single ecosystem.
390&0 G5 H%1+1
Community
refers to all the living things within an ecosystem...
all the different types and individual organisms.
Population
refers to all the individuals of a particular species
living within the ecosystem. The community within a
complex ecosystem such as a coral reef, or a
tropical rainforest, contains thousands of
populations of different species.
@I @JE,K@AL@I DCBEFE,D-
'2+
,MD EJI 3KBNLHDE
@AA ,MD DIDKOF PBK
,MD DCBEFE,D-
,9" &"(#"41&24"Q 1(02+& 0R )%79&Q &9"
1%4Q .1&"4 1+S &9" '0%) 14" T%&1) +0+>
)%T%+7 R1*&04' 0R "T"45 "*0'5'&"(
,9" #)1+&' 1+S 1+%(1)' %+&"41*&
.%&9 "1*9 0&9"4Q 1+S .%&9 &9"
+0+>)%T%+7 "+T%40+("+&




















34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
U21S41&'
V
C1#&24">
K"*1#&24"
,41+'"*&
E&2S%"'
@G%0&%*
P1*&04'
6%0&%*
P1*&04'
3141'%&"
V
M0'&
34"S1&04
V
34"5
C0(("+'1)%'(
C0(#"&%&%0+
-2&21)%'(
@))")0#1&95
C5*)%+7 0R (1&&"4/
P)0. 0R D+"475
P00S
C91%+'
P00S
W"G'
6%0(1''
3541(%S'
E&42*&241)
395'%0)07%*1)
6"91T%0241)
A0'' 0R M1G%&1&
30))2&%0+
D2&40#9%*1&%0+
@)%"+ E#"*%"'
@ ABC@A
DCBEFE,D-
H%'&4%G2&%0+
V
@G2+S1+*"
P1*&04' 0R
1+ D*0'5'&"(
K0)"'
V
K")1&%0+'9%#'
P)0. 0R
D+"475 V -1&&"4
@S1#&1&%0+'
&0
D+T%40+("+&
M2(1+
L(#1*&'
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC
Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember
the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back
to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
1he irst questions you might ask when beginning to study
any ecosystem are:
which organisms lie here
where do they lie, exactly
how many o them are there
!"#$%&#'(%#)*+ in ecology reers to where
within an ecosysytem the indiiduals o a species are
located.
Some species might be more or less eenly distributed
throughout the area being studied, but oten the population
o a species is clumped` together, or ound only in certain
parts o the enironment.
low a species is distributed gies clues about how it is
interacting with the enironment. lor example:
So, one o the irst things to do when studying an
ecosystem is to study the distribution o the organisms
present. One good way to do this is by carrying out a...
%,-./012 $2456
A 1ransect` is like a cross-section through a study area.
1he idea is to deine a line which cuts right across the area
being studied. 1his could be a string line or a series o
marker sticks hammered into the soil.
1he study is done by moing along the line and noting and
recording which species are located at each point.
Oten plants are the main subjects o a 1ransect Study,
because many animals moe around so ar and so quickly
that they can`t be studied this way.
An animal that is
usually found in
tree tops may be
there to find its
food, or may be
escaping its
enemies.
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
X
78 "#$%&#'(%#)* 9 :'(*":*;< )= )&>:*#$?$
! #$%&' ()*&+ ,%-&$.
%$)&/ '01 2%&34 )(
561134 )6 6-7164 ,%.
0%71 % /61%'16 &11+ ()6
8%'16 ') /6)89 )6 ,-/0'
)&$. 21 %2$1 ')
61#6)+*51 2. 4#61%+-&/
-'4 411+4 -& 8%'16:
"@/2,@A42@B. -2 - &B1C6 $0-/DB,0
In sea-shore studies it is quickly discoered that the
dierent organisms tend to be ound in quite distinct
zones` which are related to the ertical heights aboe and
below the tide leels.
Lxactly where each species is ound is an indication o the
interactions in the ecosystem between each species and
actors such as:
lOOD SUPPLILS they need to be near.
PRLDA1ORS they need to aoid.
\AVL AC1ION
Most o the organisms along the sea-shore are
well adapted to withstand the pounding o waes.
LXPOSURL 1O AIR
Sea-shore animals are all sea creatures which can
withstand being exposed or a while at low tide.
low well they cope with this oten determines their
exact distribution.
EB4 F-6 D-G0 5B.0 - %,-./012 $2456 -/
H-,2 BI 6B4, H,-12@1-J KB,CL B, I@0J5 2,@H8
=B, /1DBBJ/ .0-, 2D0 1B-/2L - 1BFFB. I@0J5
2,@H @/ 2B /2456 2D0 ,B1C6 /0-/DB,0
0.G@,B.F0.28
,K@IEDC, HL@OK@- BP @ KBCYF ED@EMBKD
M%79 ,%S" )"T")
6)2" #"4%.%+!)"'
ZI"#&2+"[' +"*!)1*"\ '"1.""S
A0. ,%S" )"T")
X< ("&4"'
X

(
"
&
4
"
'
I0&"] N"4&%*1) '*1)" "^177"41&"S
C41G'
*0((0+
6)1*! V '&4%#"S #"4%.%+!)"'
*0((0+ 9"4"
640.+ G2GG)" .""S
E"1 J4*9%+' V E&14R%'9
*0((0+ 9"4"
Y")# '"1.""S 0+)5 R02+S
1& )0."4 )"T")'
E"1
J4*9%+
614+1*)"'




















34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
_
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
!:'(*":*;<+ reers to how many indiiduals are
in the population o a species in the ecosystem.
In some cases, especially large organisms in relatiely small
areas o study, it can be easy enough to count the
population directly. lor example, to ind the abundance o
ig trees in a small orest, simply walk back-and-orth in a
grid pattern and count as you go.
loeer, small organisms, large areas and animals that hide
or moe around a lot make direct counting impossible. In
many cases, abundance o a species must be done by
/-FHJ@.M`... studying small samples o the enironment,
then scaling the data up to the whole area.
1wo commonly used sampling techniques are:
N4-5,-2 $-FHJ@.M
A quadrat` is a simple wire,wooden,plastic rame which
is dropped onto the ground at random throughout the
study area.
At each quadrat drop` the number o the species o
interest is counted. Ater a number o drops` ,the more,
the better, the aerage number o organisms per quadrat is
calculated. linally, the estimated population is ound by
scaling-up` rom the area o the quadrat to the total area
being studied.
1he quadrat has been dropped 8 times. 1he numbers o
target` plants in each quadrat drop were 2,1,0,3,1,1,1,1.
1his gies an aerage o ,10,8, ~ 1.25 plants per drop.
Lstimated ~ Aerage count x Study area
Population per quadrat Quadrat area
lor this example: Lstimated ~ 1.25 x 64
Population 1
~ 80 plants in this area.
Remember this is an estimate only, and can be improed by
increasing the number o quadrat drops`.
D`@-3AD BP UJ@HK@, E,JHF
YDF]
3)1+&
'&2S%"S
U21S41&
S40#'
a ("&4"'
a

(
"
&
4
"
'
E&2S5
@4"1
b a^a
b c_ (
;
;-H24,0O&01-H24,0 $-FHJ@.M8
1he obious problem with the Quadrat method is that it
does not work with animals that will run,ly,swim away
rom you.
lor mobile animals, or secretie, hard-to-ind types, the
capture-recapture` technique can be useul.
lor the example shown, 10 o the 2nd capture are
marked. So statistically, the 1st capture sample o 100 must
represent 10 o the total population o the study area.
1hereore population estimate ~ 1,000 indiiduals.
Mathematically,
Lstimated ~ 1st capture x 2nd capture
Population no.marked in 2nd capture
,no. re-captured,
~ 100 x 200
20
~ 1,000 indiiduals
P@F@2-2@B./
1his technique relies on the marked,tagged indiiduals
mixing randomly back into the population and being re-
caught again at random. Sometimes this doesn`t happen.
lor example, intelligent mammals learn to aoid the traps
or nets, or may een enjoy being caught ,or the ood in a
trap, and learn to seek out the traps. Lither way, this can
make the population estimate inaccurate.
8/ C1#&24" 1 +2(G"4
0R &9" '#"*%"' G"%+7
'&2S%"S/
D^1(#)"]
8'& C1#&24" b 8<<
%+S%T%S21)'
;/ -14! 04 &17
&9" 1+%(1)'
X/ K")"1'" 1+%(1)' G1*!
.9"4" &9"5 ."4"
*1#&24"S/
_/ C1445 02& 1 '"*0+S
*1#&24" #40741(/
D^1(#)"]
;+S C1#&24" b ;<<
%+S%T%S21)'
=/ C02+& 90. (1+5 0R &9"
;+S *1#&24" 14" (14!"S
R40( &9" 8'& *1#&24"/
D^1(#)"]
B2& 0R ;<< %+ &9" ;+S *1#&24"Q
;< 14" (14!"S b 8<d (14!"S/
8 (
;
.
1
%
&
/
/
/




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
=
QB,C/D002 7
lill in the blank spaces.
Check your answers in the Answer Section`.
Distribution` in ecology reers to a,.....................
a species is located in an area. 1his gies clues to
how a species is b,............................................ with
the enironment. lor example, an animal ound
predominantly in treetops might be there to ind
c,........................, or it may be
d,....................................... rom its enemies. A
good technique or studying distribution is carry
out a ,..........................................study. 1his is
where you work along a g,.....................................
across the study area, noting h,...................
.......................................... at each point.
i,...................................... reers to how many
indiiduals o a species are in an enironment.
One way to estimate this is by dropping
j,.................................... at random throughout the
area.
N4-5,-2 $2456 R,BAJ0F/
78
Abundance o starish on a rock platorm was
studied by the quadrat method. 1he quadrat was a
plastic rame with an area o 0.25 m
2
.
1he rock platorm was a rectangle approximately
20m x 30m.
1he numbers o starish in 10 quadrat drops`
were: 8, 0, 14, 11, 3, 1, 0, 0, , 2.
Lstimate the starish population on the rock
platorm.
S8
A armer wished to estimate the population
abundance o a noxious weed species in a
paddock measuring 300 x 400 metres. le used a
rectangular wire quadrat rame 1.0 x 0.5 metre.
1he number o target` weeds in 20 quadrat
drops were: 2, 8, 0, 15, 11, 0, 2, 1, 0, 9, 16, 3, , 13,
0, 1, , 0, 8, 2.
\hat is the approximate population o weeds in
the paddock
At each drop` you count how many organisms
are in the quadrat. At the end you calculate the
k,............................... per quadrat.
Knowing the area o each quadrat, and the area
o l,................................................., the total
population can be estimated. 1he accuracy will be
improed by m,...........................................................
.......................................
lor animals that moe around a lot, the
abundance is best estimated by the
n,........................................................ method. 1his
inoles capturing a sample o the population,
then o,....................................... them in some way,
and then p,..................................... them again.
Later, you carry out a second q,...............................,
and count how many o the sample are
r,................................... 1his allows calculation o
an estimate o the s,..................................... One
limitation o this technique is that it relies on the
captured specimens t,.............................................
.............................., but this doesn`t always happen.
;-H24,0O&01-H24,0 R,BAJ0F/
78
A capture-recapture study was carried out on the
lizard population on an island. In the irst capture
exercise, 230 lizards were captured, tagged and
released.
A week later, 156 lizards were captured. O these,
18 had tags rom the 1st capture.
Calculate an estimate o the lizard population on
the island, to the nearest thousand.
S8
1o estimate the possum population in area, 65
possums were captured unharmed, tagged and
released. A week later 48 possums were captured.
O these, 12 had tags.
Lstimate the possum population.
It was later ound that the possums rather
enjoyed being trapped because o the tasty ood
used as bait. Does this mean your population
estimate may be too high or too low
Lxplain your answer.
WMDI CB-3AD,DHQ
WBKYEMDD,E 6DCB-D EDC,LBI EJ--@KLDE




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
c
S8 '#)%#; 9 :'#)%#; =:;%)&$ )= :* <;)$E$%<?
1he distribution and abundance o any species within an
ecosystem depends on a whole host o actors...
0T-FHJ0/888
lood organisms Aailability o water
Predators Aailability o oxygen
Diseases Light intensity
Competitors 1emperature range
Soil characteristics
Salinity
Acidity ,pl,
Lxposure to wind
;BFH-,@/B. BI :A@B2@1 ;D-,-120,@/2@1/U
%0,,0/2,@-J <.G@,B.F0.2 V :W4-2@1 <.G@,B.F0.2
XB. J-.5Y X@. K-20,Y
Z@/1B/@26 is a measure o the stickiness` o a substance,
and how easy or diicult it is to moe through it. On land,
plants and animals are surrounded by air, which has ery
low iscosity and is easy to moe through.
\ater has a much higher iscosity and is more diicult to
moe through. As a result, many aquatic animals are
streamlined, and equipped with powerul tails or propulsion.
'4B6-.16 is a measure o lotation` ability. \ater is ery
buoyant and supports plant and animal bodies against the
pull o graity. Aquatic organisms do not need strong
stems or legs to hold themseles up.
1errestrial plants need strong stems or trunks o wood to
grow upwards against graity. Animals need strong
skeletons.
%0FH0,-24,0 Z-,@-2@B.
On land the temperature can easily ary 20
o
C rom day to
night, and een more rom summer to winter. Liing things
must be able to cope with that while maintaining relatiely
stable internal body temperatures. 1errestrial animals need
ur or eathers or insulation, or hae physiological
responses such as sweating or shiering, or alter their
behaiour ,sunbaking or seeking shade, in response to heat
or cold.
\ater-liing organisms generally do not need such special
adaptations. Aquatic enironments hae ery stable
temperatures and change ery little, een between summer
and winter.
:G-@J-A@J@26 BI >-/0/ XBT6M0. 9 1-,AB. 5@BT@50Y
Since the air is about 20 oxygen, it is readily aailable in
terrestrial enironments. Carbon dioxide ,needed by plants
or photosynthesis, is only 0.035 o air, so land plants are
oten limited by this.
1hese gases do NO1 dissole well in water, so the
concentration o gases in aquatic enironments is ery low,
and gets lower as the water gets warmer. lor this reason,
ish`s gills hae to be highly eicient to extract the necessary
oxygen, and are ar better than our lungs or gas exchange.
:G-@J-A@J@26 BI Q-20,
1errestrial enironments are subject to eaporation, and
plants and animals must hae ways to consere water, by
haing water-proo skin, or aoiding losses during
excretion. 1his problem becomes extreme in some
enironments such as deserts.
In aquatic habitats the organisms are surrounded by water,
but there can still be problems due to osmosis. 1his will be
studied in the next topic, but in summary:
In salt-water enironments animals can lose water by
osmosis and must constantly replace it.
In resh water, osmosis causes water to low into the
organism`s body and must constantly be pumped out`
again.
'@B2@1 =-12B,/
,biotic` ~ liing,
:A@B2@1 =-12B,/
,non-liing,
E,KD@-ALILIO
-0'& 0R G0S5 %' (2'*)"
&0 #0."4 &9" &1%)
E&40+7
&42+! &0
90)S )"1T"'
2# &0 *1&*9
)%79&
60+5 '!")"&0+
'2##04&' G0S5
171%+'& 741T%&5
E@A,W@,DK PKDEM W@,DK
PLEM PLEM
-2'&
S4%+!
*0+'&1+&)5
&0 4"#)1*"
.1&"4 )0''
B'(0'%' Z'2*!'\
.1&"4 R40( G0S5/
-2'&
"^*4"&"
.1&"4
*0+'&1+&)5
@G'04G' .1&"4




















34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
?
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
:G-@J-A@J@26 BI P@MD2
Light is essential or plants to carry out photosynthesis.
1his process makes all the ood, so the aailability o light
is a critical actor in any ecosystem.
Light penetrates through air ery easily, so most terrestrial
enironments get plenty o light or the plants. 1he loor
o a rainorest is an exception... here the dense canopy o
trees means ery little light penetrates to reach the smaller
species or seedlings.
Rainorest plants hae adapted to this in many ways:
Lpiphytes ,e.g. staghorn erns, germinate and grow high
up in other plants and so aoid the darkness below.
Plants liing on the loor hae large, broad leaes, packed
with extra chorophyll, to absorb what little light is aailable.
In contrast to air, water does NO1 allow light through so
easily. Light can penetrate the surace layers easily enough,
but een just 10 metres deep, much o the light has been
absorbed, and by 100 m down it is totally dark.
Also, water does not absorb all the dierent colours
,waelengths, equally. Red and orange are absorbed rapidly,
while green and blue penetrate deeper into the water.
Most seaweeds are not the amiliar green o land plants.
Many are brown or red because they contain special
pigments to absorb the dominant blue waelength o light
they receie.
In deep ocean waters there is no light and consequently no
plants. Deep ecosystems rely on dead organic remains
driting down rom aboe or their ood supply. On the
deep ocean loor, some ecosystems are based on ood
made by chemosynthesis around olcanic ents. 1his will
be explained in a later topic.
6)2" )%79& #"+"&41&"'
&0 74"1&"4 S"#&9
K"S )%79& %'
1G'04G"S +"14
&9" '24R1*"
-1+5 '"1.""S'
91T" '#"*%1)
#%7("+&' &0
"RR%*%"+&)5 1G'04G
&9" 1T1%)1G)"
)%79&/
H%RR"4"+& *0)024'
e.1T")"+7&9'f
0R )%79&
#"+"&41&" .1&"4 &0
S%RR"4"+& S"#&9'/
Z6%4S+"'& R"4+\ "#%#95&"
%+ 1 41%+R04"'& &4""
640.+ Y")# E"1.""S
390&0 *024&"'5 0R
Y1&%1 O4%(("4>A1T"4'1++"
390&0 G5 H%1+1




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
a
QB,C/D002 S
Diide these ecosystem actors` into 2 lists... the
Biotic` and Abiotic` actors.
Light, prey, diseases, oxygen, water, predators,
soil, temperature, ood plants, exposure,
competitors, acidity.
=@JJ @. 2D0 AJ-.C/8
;D01C 6B4, -./K0,/ @. 2D0 !:./K0, $012@B.+
In comparing the a,...............................................
,on land, enironment with the
b,...................................... ,in water, enironment,
a number o Abiotic actors are ery important,
c,.................................. reers to how easy,diicult
it is to moe through the medium. Air has a ery
d,.............. ........................... while water is much
e,.......................................... Because o this,
aquatic animals oten hae a ,..............................
shape.
Buoyancy` is a measure o
g,.................................. ability. \ater is much
h,....................... ,more,less, buoyant than air.
1errestrial animals and plants need strong
i,............................... structures to withstand
graity, while aquatic organisms are supported by
the water.
Comparing temperature ariations, the terrestrial
enironment shows j,.....................................
ariation than water. 1hat`s why many land
animals hae special eatures such as
k,................................ or insulation, or the ability
to l,................................... when too hot.
Important gases like m,.......................... are
abundant in the air Gases do not
n,.............................. ery well in water, so aquatic
animals need ery eicient o,.................................
or other breathing organs.
On land, plants and animals must hae ways to
p,............................................... water and aoid
dehydration. 1his could inole haing
q,....................................... skin, or aoiding
excessie water loss during r,....................................
In aquatic enironments there can be water
problems too, due to the process o
s,......................................................
lor example, salt-water ish constantly
t,....................................... water, while resh-water
ish need to constantly u,.............................. water.
On land, aailability o light is generally not a
problem, except in enironments such
,.......................................... 1o cope with this,
epiphyte plants such as w,................................,
grow up in the tops o trees. Plants on the loor
may hae leaes which are
x,..................................................................................
to absorb any light aailable.
In water, light penetration is poor, and the
dierent y,............................................... o light
penetrate dierently. z,........................ waelengths
are absorbed rapidly, while aa,..................................
penetrates urther. Seaweed plants oten hae
special ab,................................ ,oten red,brown in
colour, to better absorb the aailable light. In the
ery deep ocean there is no light, and no
ac,...................................... can surie there.
Lcosystems must rely on ad,.................................
driting down rom aboe, or ood, or on
ae,.......................................... around olcanic
ents.
WMDI CB-3AD,DHQ
WBKYEMDD,E 6DCB-D EDC,LBI EJ--@KLDE




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
g
[8 &)P<$ 9 &<P:%#)*$\#R$ '<%Q<<* )&>:*#$?$
Lcology is ery much about relationships. 1his section
looks at some o the ways that dierent species within an
ecosystem relate to each other.
R,05-2B, O R,06
Although animals eat liing plants, this is not predation...
the term is resered or situations where one animal eats
another.
0T-FHJ0/888 R,05-2B, R,06
Dingo eats \allaby
Lion eats Zebra
Spider eats Insect
Dolphin eats lish
Both predator and prey hae major impacts on each other`s
distribution and abundance, and each can cause the other`s
population to rise and all in a airly regular pattern.
Notice that
Predator abundance is always lower than prey.
,Reasons or this are explained in the next section,
1he peaks` and troughs` o the predator`s population
always occur ater those o the prey species.
QD-2 D-HH0./U
1. 1he numbers o the prey species increase because o its
breeding cycle, or seasonal increase in aailable ood.
2. 1his proides more ood or predators, who surie in
greater numbers and reproduce more sucessully.
3. As predator numbers increase, more prey get eaten and
so the prey population decreases.
4. As prey numbers decline, less predators can surie, and
breeding is less sucessul... predator numbers decline.
<:;\ )&>:*#$?]$ :'(*":*;< :==<;%$
%\< )%\<&]$ :'(*":*;<8
;BFF0./-J@/F
Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism
beneits while the other is neither harmed nor helped.
A good example is the remora, or sucker ish` which
attaches itsel to a shark with a suction cup` structure and
hitches a ride. It does the shark no harm at all. \hen the
shark eeds, the remora eeds on the debris and scraps
rom the shark`s meal.
A simple example o commensalism is a bird nesting in a
tree. 1he bird amily gain the important beneit o a
relatiely sae and secure nest site, while the tree neither
gains nor loses.
Another example, seen commonly in rural areas is the
cattle egret ,bird, which ollows the cattle through the
pastures, eeding on the insects which are disturbed by the
cows. 1he cow neither gains nor loses rom the
relationship.
In Arica similar birds ollow large grazing wild animals or
the same reason. loweer, the grazers gain the beneit o
an early warning system` when the birds react to
approaching predators. Since both species gain some
adantage rom the association, this is an example o
mutualism` ,next page,.
,L-D e5"14'f
3
0
#
2
)
1
&
%
0
+

E
%
h
"
e
@
6
J
I
H
@
I
C
D
f
3KDF E3DCLDE
3KDH@,BK E3DCLDE
30#2)1&%0+
#"1!'
E914! .%&9 4"(041 9%&*9%+7 1 4%S"/
390&0 G5 31( K0&9
C4"1&%+7B+)%+"/*0(




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8<
?424-J@/F
In a mutualistic relationship, both species beneit.
Mutualism is much more widespread in nature than is
generally realized.
1he classic example is the honey bee and many lowering
plants. 1he bee`s total ood supply is nectar and pollen rom
the lowers. As the bee gathers its ood the plants gain the
essential serice o pollination o their lowers. Both beneit
so prooundly that neither can surie without the other.
Many grazing animals ,e.g. kangaroos, eat a diet rich in
plant cellulose which is nutritious but diicult to digest.
1hese animals hae a population o mutualistic microbes
liing in their gut. 1he microbes are able to break the
cellulose down and make its nutrition aailable to the
animal, while the microbes gain a secure, stable place to lie
and a permanent ood supply... both beneit.
A mother koala will regurgitate pap` rom her gut to eed
her baby. 1he pap contains the mutualistic bacteria that the
baby must hae to digest the tough gum leaes.
Another example is coral. 1he coral animal is a polyp... a
sot, hollow animal related to jellyish. Inside the polyp`s
lesh lies another organism, an alga ,microscopic plant,.
1he polyp proides a secure home or the alga, which pays its
way by sharing the ood it makes by photosynthesis. Both
organisms gain tremendous beneits rom the relationship.
R-,-/@20 O \B/2
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism eeds on another without
killing it, or een necessarily harming it signiicantly.
Some parasites, such as tapeworms, lie inside their host and
absorb digested ood without doing much harm. 1his way the
host stays healthy and the parasite has a secure home
and guaranteed ood supply.
Other parasites, such as leeches and ticks, are casual` parasites
who attach to a host, take a eed o blood, and then drop o
and lie independently until it is time to eed again.
More serious are the many micro-organisms which can cause
inectious diseases. 1hese parasites include bacteria, iruses and a
ew protozoans and ungi. 1hey inade the host`s body, eeding
and reproducing so that the host becomes sick and may een die.
:JJ0JBH-2D6
is a relationship ound particularly among plants and
ungi, in which one organism directly inhibits the
growth and deelopment o others by releasing
toxins. 1he amous antibiotic penicillin` was
discoered in the ungus Penicillium because o its
inhibiting eect on the growth o bacteria.
Some trees and shrubs ,including the pest weed
lantana, release inhibiting chemicals rom their
roots. 1hese inhibitors` slow down or preent
the germination and growth o the seeds and
seedlings o other plants.
390&0 G5 I04G"4& -1*9("!
390&0 G5 H%1+1




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
88
;BFH02@2@B.
occurs wheneer two dierent species need to use exactly
the same resource, in the same way. 1he resource in
question may be a ood source, or nesting sites or simply
liing space, such as when plants like lantana or bitou bush
coer areas at the expense o other plants.
Competition usually results in a winner and a loser. One
species will be slightly more successul than the other, and
its population will grow, while the less sucessul competitor
will decline in numbers and may eentually become extinct
in the ecosystem.
Sometimes what seems like competition turns out not to be.
lor example, the lion and the leopard are both large Arican
predators, oten liing in the same areas and both eeding
on the herds o grazing animals.
loweer, careul study reeals that their hunting techniques
are so dierent that they tend to prey on dierent species
and dierent categories ,e.g. young rather than adults, so
they are in act NO1 competing and can both surie in the
same habitat.
It is known rom ossils that the 1hylacine ,1asmanian
tiger`, was once widespread as one o the main predators
on mainland Australia. loweer, its numbers rapidly
declined ater the introduction o the dingo rom Asia
about 10,000 years ago.
It seems the dingo was a more sucessul predator and out-
competed the 1hylacine on the mainland. 1he dingo was
neer introduced to 1asmania, so there the tigers suried
until drien into total extinction by the impacts o
Luropean settlement.
,L-D e5"14'f
@ ,F3LC@A CB-3D,L,LBI OK@3M
3
0
#
2
)
1
&
%
0
+

E
%
h
"

e
@
6
J
I
H
@
I
C
D
f
,95)1*%+"
B4%7%+1) #0#2)1&%0+
4"1'0+1G)5 '&1G)"
H%+70
,95)1*%+"
D^&%+*&
H%+70
%+&40S2*"S
QB,C/D002 [
lill in the blanks. Check your answers in the Answer Section`
An animal which kills and eats another animal is called a
a,......................................... 1he animal it eats is its
b,............................ Lach one`s population abundance aects
the other. lor example, i the predator population
increases, the prey population will c,......................................
because d,........................................................................ On a
graph, the peaks & troughs will match each other, but the
predator`s graph will always be e,.........................................
and ,................................................. than the prey`s graph.
A parasite is an organism which g,.......................................
on its host without h,.................................... A good example
is the i,............................................. which lies in the gut o
its host, eating the digested ood. Other parasites such as
j,...................................... and ................................................
eed on the host`s blood.
A relationship in which one organism gains an adantage,
while the other neither gains nor loses, is called
k,.............................................................An example is the
shark and the l,..........................................................
Mutualism` is when 2 organisms
m,..................................................................................................
A good example is the n,..................................... and
................................................... Many grazing animals get
help to digest the tough ibres o plant ood rom
mutualistic relationship with o,....................................... liing
in their gut.
Some plants and ungi produce chemical toxins which
p,............................................ the growth o other organisms.
1his relationship is called q,......................................................
Competition` is when 2 organisms both need to use
r,................................................................... in an enironment.
Usually, the result o competition is
s,.....................................................................................................
WMDI CB-3AD,DHQ
WBKYEMDD,E 6DCB-D EDC,LBI EJ--@KLDE
H%+70
390&0 G5 312 ,1)1+
390&0 G5 @)"^ -19"4
390&0 G5 -14! Y14'&1S




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8;
^8 %\< =P)Q )= <*<&>E 9 ?:%%<& #* :* <;)$E$%<?
;61J@.M BI ?-220,
\ithin any ecosystem the important chemicals o lie tend
to be re-cycled.
1he water cycle` o nature is well known, and you should
be amiliar with the Oxygen-Carbon` cycle.
Other chemicals that are recycled within ecosystems
include Nitrogen, Calcium and Phosphorus... in act ALL
the chemicals get used oer and oer again.
<.0,M6 #.H42/ 9 )42H42/
Unlike the chemicals, energy cannot be recycled. As it is
used it must be replaced rom outside the ecosystem.
1he ultimate source o ALL the energy in an ecosystem is
the $(*. 1he Sun proides the heat to keep each
ecosystem at a liable temperature, but more importantly it
is the P#>\% o the Sun which powers all lie.
\BK ),M-.@/F/ (/0 <.0,M6
Lerything that an organism does requires energy.
Organisms:-
?BG0
>,BK -.5 &0H-@, AB56 2@//40
&0H,B5410
$00CL <-2 -.5 ://@F@J-20 2D0@, IBB5
&0/HB.5 2B 2D@.M/ D-HH0.@.M -,B4.5 2D0F
_00H 2D0@, AB5@0/ K-,F
;0JJ4J-, &0/H@,-2@B.
is the process which releases the energy stored in ood. It
takes place in eery liing cell on the planet and ater
photosynthesis ,next topic, has got to be the next most
important biological process on
Larth.
Although the process can be witten as a simple chemical
reaction, this is ery deceptie. Cellular respiration actually
takes place as a sequence o about 50 chemical steps... the
equation aboe is merely a summary o the oerall process.
Don`t orget that the essential product o respiration is the
energy-carrier A1P`. 1he CO
2
and l
2
O are merely waste
products to be recycled in the ecosystem like all chemicals.
: 1BFFB. F@/1B.10H2@B. @/ 2D-2 HJ-.2/ 5B
R\)%)$E*%\<$#$ -.5 F-C0 IBB5L KD@J0 -.@F-J/
5B &<$R#&:%#)* 2B 4/0 2D0 IBB58
It`s true that plants do photosynthesis and make all the
ood on Larth, but respiration is carried out by all liing
things... animals AND plants.
Luckily or us animals, the plants carry out enough
photosynthesis to eed themseles, AND produce a surplus
to eed us as well.
EJI
A
%7
9
&
3A@I,E
*1#&24" )%79& "+"475
S24%+7
390&0'5+&9"'%'
D+"475 %' '&04"S %+ &9" PBBH
#40S2*"S G5 #)1+&'
@)) 0471+%'(' 2'" &9" "+"475
%+ R00S &0 #0."4 &9"%4 )%R"
R2+*&%0+'/
,9" #40*"'' 0R K"'#%41&%0+
4")"1'"' &9" "+"475 %+ R00S/
LI3J,
BJ,3J,
.1'&"
9"1&
"+"475
>J41B/0 ` )T6M0. ;-,AB. ` Q-20,
X/4M-,Y "@BT@50
\aste
products
Major energy
compound in
oods
%+ 1%4
:%R
D+"475>*1445%+7
*9"(%*1) 2'"S %+
1)) *"))' &0 #0."4
)%R" #40*"''"'/
,9" #40*"'' &41+'R"4' "+"475 &0
;
a
\
7S
)
a
` a)
S
a;)
S
` a\
S
)
"+"475 &41+'R"4
:%R
K"'#%41&%0+
@IL-@AE
3A@I,E
CB
;
B
;
390&0'5+&9"'%'




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8X
=BB5 ;D-@./
Plants are ood PRODUCLRS.
1hey capture light energy by the process o photosynthesis, and store it as the chemical energy in ood.
All other organisms are CONSUMLRS o ood. 1hey rely on eating the plants or other animals.
So, in any ecosystem there is a chain o eeding, based on the plants... a ood chain`.
>&:$$ _:*>:&)) "#*>)
Plant lerbiore Carniore
Producer 1st order 2nd order
Consumer Consumer
1st 1rophic 2nd 1rophic 3rd 1rophic
leel leel leel
,trophic` reers to eeding`,
*)%<$U
1. 1he arrows in a ood chain show the direction that the energy lows. 1he arrows must neer be reersed.
2. Note the dierent ways to describe each organism`s role in the chain. Be careul not to conuse the dierent methods...
e.g. a 1st Order Consumer is at the 2nd 1rophic Leel... etc.
%D0 &BJ0 BI 2D0 "01BFHB/0,/
All along the ood chain organic wastes are produced. Dead
leaes rom plants, body wastes and shed skin and ur rom the
animals are just a ew examples.
1his let-oer waste material is ood or a ery important group
o organisms... the decomposers. 1he main decomposer
organisms are the microscopic bacteria and the soil ungi. 1hese
organisms eed on the scraps and wastes and in doing so, cause
wastes to decay and be broken down into ery simple chemicals
such as CO
2
and nitrate and phosphate ions.
%\#$ #$ <$$<*%#:P %) %\< &<;E;P#*> )= %\<
;\<?#;:P$ #* :* <;)$E$%<?8
Not only do the decomposers get rid o all the yucky stu `
and clean up the enironment, but they ensure that the ital
chemicals are recycled into the air or soil or re-use by the
plants...
...and so the ood chains continue....
-2'9400(' 1+S Z&01S'&00)'\ 14" &9"
4"#40S2*&%T" '&42*&24"' 0R '0%)>)%T%+7 R2+7%
390&0 G5 H%1+1
390&0 G5 @)"^ -19"4
390&0 G5 H%1+1




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8_
=BB5 Q0A/
Although we can best understand the low o energy by a ood chain,
in act simple ood chains neer exist by themseles in nature.
Kangaroos don`t just eat grass, and dingoes don`t just eat wallabies.
1he real eeding relationships in an ecosystem can only be described by a ood web...
many inter-connected ood chains.
A ood web diagram allows us to analyse the low o energy
,stored in ood, through the ecosystem and to make certain
predictions...
<T-FHJ0 N40/2@B./ -.5 :./K0,/U
Question:
\hich organism is at the highest 1rophic Leel aboe
AnswerU
%D0 J-,M0 I@/DL KD@1D @/ -2 2D0 b2D 2,BHD@1 J0G0J8
large ish
,5th,
octopus ,4th,
mussels ,3rd,
zooplankton ,2nd,
phytoplankton ,1st 1rophic Leel,
Question:
List all organisms which are 1st order consumers.
Answer:
P@FH02/L H0,@K@.CJ0/L 1D@2B./L F4//0J/ 9 cBBHJ-.C2B.8
<T-FHJ0U =))" Q<' #* : &);_ R))P
J-,M0 I@/D
/2-,I@/D B12BH4/ /F-JJ I@/D
F4//0J/
J@FH02/ H0,@K@.CJ0/ 1D@2B./ cBBHJ-.C2B.
,microscopic animals,
M,00. -JM-0 HD62BHJ-.C2B.
,microscopic plants,
\@.2/ B. ;B./2,412@.M - =BB5 Q0A
1o keep it simple and read-able ,K.I.S.S., when constructing a ood web:
always start with the producers ,plants, at the bottom and work upwards
try to keep the members o the same trophic leel in-line in the diagram.
,not always possible, because some organisms may be eeding at more than one trophic leel...
look at the mussels in the diagram aboe.,
Question:
\hat might be the eect on the mussel population i there
was a large increase in the octopus population
Answer:
#I 2D0,0 K0,0 FB,0 B12BH4/ 2D06 K@JJ 0-2 FB,0
F4//0J/L /B 2D0 F4//0J HBH4J-2@B. KB4J5 501,0-/08
Question:
I a disease wiped out all the mussels in a particular area,
what eect might this hae on the chiton population
Answer:
,Chitons are not directly connected to mussels, so you
might think there`d be no eect, but there might be...,
#I 2D0,0 -,0 .B F4//0J/ 2B 0-2L 2D0 B12BH4/ F@MD2 0-2
FB,0 1D@2B./8 %D0,0IB,0 2D0 1D@2B. HBH4J-2@B. 1B4J5
501,0-/08
)&
Q@2DB42 F4//0J/ 2B 0-2L 2D0 B12BH4/ F@MD2 0-2 FB,0
/2-,I@/D8 %D@/ 1B4J5 F0-. J0// 1D@2B./ A0@.M 0-20. A6
/2-,I@/D /B 2D0 1D@2B. HBH4J-2@B. 1B4J5 @.1,0-/08
1lIS DLMONS1AR1LS 1lL DIllICUL1\ Ol MAKING
PRLDIC1IONS ABOU1 NA1URAL lOOD \LBS... CONSLQULNCLS
Ol ClANGLS CAN BL QUI1L UNPRLDIC1ABLL!




















34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8=
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
\ou are what you eat` goes the old saying, and it is literally
true that eery molecule o your body is built rom the
chemicals that you hae eaten as ood oer your lietime.
\our body weight is your Biomass`... the mass ,weight, o
liing lesh in you.
An aerage person eats at least 250 kg o ood per year and
drinks at least 500 litres o liquids. So why aren`t we all as
big as an elephant Simply because we all produce roughly
the same mass o wastes and excrete them so that our
biomass stays more or less the same. ,Unless still growing,
o course,.
In ecology, we deal with the total biomass o an entire
population, or o the whole community. lor example, i
there are 200 starish liing in a particular rockpool, and
each has a mass ,on aerage, o 50 grams, then the biomass
o starish in the rockpool is 200 x 50 ~ 10,000 g ~ 10 kg.
It is always ound that the biomass o plants is more than
the biomass o herbiores, which is more than the biomass
o carniores, and so on. \hy
Lerything you do requires energy, which you get rom
cellular respiration...
;
a
\
7S
)
a
` a)
S
a;)
S
` a\
S
) ` :%R
...and as you breathe out you excrete the waste CO
2
,plus
some water apour, and so lose a little o the mass o the
ood you preiously ate.
...and as you use the energy o the :%R molecules, the
energy is conerted to low-grade` heat and dissipates into
your surroundings. 1his energy is lost, and cannot be re-
used by liing things.
In any ecosystem it turns out that about def o the
ood,energy taken in at any trophic leel, is lost as wastes
and low-grade heat. ,1hank goodness or the
"01BFHB/0,/ to get rid o all that waste!,
1his means that in a ood chain, only about 10 o the
biomass and energy at any trophic leel is aailable to be
eaten by the next trophic leel organisms. 1he result is a
BIOMASS P\RAMID8
'@BF-//
;+S
,40#9%*
A"T")
X4S
,40#9%*
A"T")
_&9
,40#9%*
A"T")
8'&
,40#9%*
A"T")
RE&:?#" )=
'#)?:$$ 9
<*<&>E
E0Q R04 &9" R00S *91%+
OK@EE Y@IO@KBB HLIOB
%R &9"4" .1' e'15f 8<<Q<<< !7 0R 741'' %+ 1+ "*0'5'&"(Q
&9"+ &9%' *02)S +0& '2##04& (04" &91+ 1G02& 8<Q<<< !7 0R
!1+71400'Q 1+S 0+)5 1G02& 8Q<<<!7 0R S%+70 G%0(1''/
,9" 1##40^%(1&" #0#2)1&%0+ +2(G"4' .02)S G"]
= (%))%0+ 741'' #)1+&' R""S%+7 1G02& _<< !1+71400'Q
R""S%+7 i2'& =< S%+70"'/// 1 Z#541(%S\ 0R +2(G"4' &00/
%D@/ @/ KD6 G0,6 I0K IBB5 1D-@./ @. .-24,0 D-G0 FB,0 2D-. b B, a 2,BHD@1 J0G0J/888 2D0 -G-@J-AJ0 IBB5 9 0.0,M6 A01BF0/ 2BB J@22J0
3
5
4
1
(
%
S

'
9
1
#
"
6%0(1'' 0R 340S2*"4'
e3)1+&'f
8<d
1T1%)1G)"
6%0(1''
0R
M"4G%T04"'
8<d
8<d
g<d 0R 6%0(1''
1+S D+"475 )0'&
g<d 0R 6%0(1''
1+S D+"475 )0'&
g<d 0R 6%0(1''
1+S D+"475 )0'&




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8c
:5-H2-2@B./ are special` characteristics that help an
organism surie in its enironment.
lor example, the black bear o North America has a thick
coat o ur. 1his is a structural adaptation to its
enironment. 1he ur helps insulate the body to keep it
warm in the cold climate in which this species lies.
Other structural adaptations that hae already been
mentioned in preious sections include:
streamlining o many aquatic animals to deal with the
high iscosity o water
large, broad, chlorophyll-packed leaes o plants liing on
the rainorest loor, to cope with the low light leels
the bony skeleton o most terrestrial animals needed to
support the animal against graity.
Another category o adaptation is physiological`
adaptation. ,Physiological` reers to the way the body
works or unctions, Preiously mentioned examples
include:
animals shiering when cold, and sweating when too hot
reshwater ish excreting water constantly to remoe
excess water rom their bodies. 1his is controlled by the
unctioning o their kidneys.
One o the classic physiological adaptations is the kidney
unction o many desert animals. In an enironment where
water is scarce, these animals consere body water by
producing only small amounts o ery concentrated urine.
In some cases, such as desert mice, their kidneys are so
eicient at retaining water that they do not need to drink,
but can surie on the metabolic water` produced by
cellular respiration.
A third category is behaioural` adaptation, which is
where an animal`s instinctie behaiour helps it surie and
thrie in its enironment
"-.M0,/ BI #.I0,,@.M :5-H2-2@B./
\ou need to be careul when examining any organism or
its adaptations because it may require careul study to be
sure o the real reason or some characteristics.
lor example, it is possible that the adaptation you obsere
could be inherited rom ancestors who lied in a dierent
enironment, and it is not a help to surial in the current
habitat.
Also, it`s not always easy to decide what surial adantage
a particular characteristic may gie.
;)6 1<%,#$1:
is the magpie`s colour scheme an adaptation which helps it
surie because it gies:
camoulage
or temperature control
or sexual attraction or mating
or identiication, to keep a group together
)*PE ;:&<=(P $%("E Q#PP &<Z<:P %\< %&(%\
b8 :":R%:%#)*$ )= )&>:*#$?$ %) %\<#& <*Z#&)*?<*%
D^1(#)"] (0'& 4"#&%)"'////
'2+G1!" .9"+
&00 *00)
'""! '9")&"4
.9"+ &00 90&
390&0 G5 H%1+1




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8?
QB,C/D002 ^
lill in the blanks. Check answers at the back.
In any ecosystem, the chemical resources tend
to be a,..............................................., but the
energy is used up and must be constantly
b,............................................. 1he source o all
the energy is the c,.......................... 1he energy
is captured` by the d,......................................in
the process o e,...................................................
1his conerts light energy into the energy
stored in the ,............................................
molecules.
Organisms need energy or all the lie
processes such as moing around,
g,.............................................................. and
.................................................................................
1he energy o ood is released by the process
o h,............................. ......................................
1his requires the gas i,..................................
1he products are the chemical wastes
j,...........................................................and
................................................. and the energy
chemical` known as k,......................................
Lnergy is passed rom one organism to
another as ood, and the low o energy
through an ecosystem is a l,.................................
.......................... In any ood chain, the plants
are the m,................................, and animals are
n,...........................................................
1he Decomposers` are ital to get rid o
wastes and dead scraps and to
o,....................................... ital chemicals. Single
ood chains rarely exist in nature. Instead, a
number o ood chains which
p,.................................... with each other, orm a
q,..................................... ...............................
1he total body weight o all the indiiduals o
a species in an ecosystem is known as the
r,................................ 1here is always about 10
times more r,............................... o plants than
o s,.............................................. because about
90 is always lost as wastes. Because the
biomass decreases rapidly up through any
ood chain it is reerred to a biomass
t,................................`
QB,C/D002 b
Special characteristics which help an organism
surie in its enironment are called
a,.........................................................................
Some o these are structural`: they inole
special structures, such as the ur o a bear
which b,..................................................................
in a cold climate. Another example is how
many aquatic animals are
c,...................................... to allow them to moe
more easily through water, which has a high
d,................................................................
1he second category o adaptations are those
that are e,.............................................., or related
to the unctioning o the body. lor example, an
animal might ,.................................... when too
hot, or g,................................................ i too
cold. Many desert animals hae highly eicient
kidneys so they produce h,.............................
amounts o highly i,.......................................
urine, in order to j,...........................................
water.
1he third category o adaptations is
k,.................................................. lor example,
reptiles cannot regulate their body temperature
physiologically, so they use behaiours instead.
1hey will l,......................................................
when too cool, and seek m,...................................
when too hot.
WMDI CB-3AD,DHQ
WBKYEMDD,E 6DCB-D EDC,LBI EJ--@KLDE




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8a
luman culture` is the learned behaiours we hae
accumulated oer the millenia since our ancestors inented
tools, controlled ire and began to rise aboe nature. Our
culture includes language, art, music, customs and
1LClNOLOG\.
It is our oer-population, and our complex, industrial
technology that impacts on natural ecosytems...
PB// BI \-A@2-2
Very simply, humans clear orests, ill wetlands and diert
streams to make room or our towns and cities and or our
agriculture. lor example, only about 3 o Australian
rainorests remain, rom those present 200 hundred years ago.
Clearing o natural enironments is disaster or many
species. 1hey are specially adapted to their habitat and
cannot surie elsewhere.
RBJJ42@B.
Many human actiities produce chemicals which can harm
the enironment i released.
:1@5 ,-@.` results rom gases such as sulur dioxide ,SO
2
,
released rom burning o ossil uels, especially coal. 1he
gas dissoles in rainwater orming an acid solution that can
seriously aect orests, lakes and wetlands by killing some
organisms so that ood chains are disrupted.
R0/2@1@50/ and industrial poisons, een in ery small
amounts can build up in liing communities by biological
magniication`...
1<%,#$1: the leel o toxic chemical in a shrimp might be
quite low, but a ish which eats many shrimp in a year ends
up with a concentration o toxins 100 times higher... and so
on up through the ood chain.
Scientists are currently alarmed by a world-wide decline in
populations o amphibians ,rogs & toads,. It is suspected
that arious human-made chemicals are disrupting the
reproduction and deelopment o 100`s o species which
are ital links in the ood webs in many ecosystems.
<42,BHD@1-2@B.
occurs when riers and streams are oer-ertilized by
human sewerage and agricultural run-o.
Although our sewerage may be thoroughly treated to make
it sae to the enironment, the eluent still contains many
minerals which act as a ertilizer. 1ypically, the treated
eluent rom our sewer systems is discharged into
waterways. Similarly, when armers use ertilizer on their
crops and ields, some will eentually be washed into creeks
and riers during rainy weather.
1he result is that algae liing in the waterways are
stimulated to grow in oer-abundance, oten choking
waterways and blocking light rom other water plants.
Later, great masses o algae die o and their decay uses up
all the oxygen in the water, so that many ish and other
organisms suocate.
#.2,B5412@B. BI :J@0. $H01@0/
1he Luropean settlers to Australia brought many species
rom other places and released them into the new
enironment. 1he list includes plants such as prickly pear,
lantana and bitou bush, and animals such as rabbits, oxes,
pigs, camels, and cane toads.
All o these species, and many others, hae become major
problems in the ecosystems, because:
the aliens` ind themseles in an enironment in which
the normal predators and diseases are not present to keep
their population in check
they are oten more ruthlessly eicient in using resources,
and so they out-compete` the natie species.
Many ecosystems around the world are being disrupted by
alien` species introduced by humans.
a8 \(?:* #?R:;%$ )* <;)$E$%<?$
,0^%+ *0+*"+&41&%0+ b 8 2+%&
,0^%+ *0+*"+&41&%0+ b 8< 2+%&'
,0^%+ *0+*"+&41&%0+
b 8<<< 2+%&'
6%0)07%*1) -17+%R%*1&%0+




















34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
8g
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
@ ABC@A
DCBEFE,D-
;)*;<R% "#:>&:? X!?@.5 ?-H+Y )= %)R#;
$BF0 /2450.2/ I@.5 2D-2 F0FB,@c@.M 2D0 )(%P#*< BI - 2BH@1
D0JH/ 2D0F J0-,. -.5 ,0F0FA0, 2D0 1B.10H2/ -.5 @FHB,2-.2 I-12/8
R,-12@/0 B. 2D@/ AJ-.C G0,/@B.8




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;<
R,-12@10 N40/2@B./
1hese are not intended to be "lSC style" questions,
but to challenge your basic knowledge and
understanding o the topic, and remind you o what
you NLLD to know at the K.I.S.S. principle leel.
\hen you hae conidently mastered this leel, it is
strongly recommended you work on questions rom
past exam papers.
R-,2 : ?4J2@HJ0 ;DB@10
78 \hen studying an ecosystem, a transect study could
be useul or recording the:
A. abundance o species within the study area.
B. distribution o species within the area.
C. special adaptations o species to the habitat.
D. ood chains in the area.
S8 Reer to the 1ransect Diagram o a rocky seashore
habitat on page 3.
It would be reasonable to iner rom this transect study
that:
A. starish eat kelp plants.
B. blue periwinkles can withstand drying eects at low
tide better than starish can.
C. Crabs can surie the eects o wae action better
than bubble weed.
D. Kelp has special adaptations to resist drying out.
[8 1he best way to improe the accuracy and reliability
o a quadrat study` is to:
A. use a bigger quadrat rame.
B. deliberately drop quadrats where the target
species` is ound in larger numbers.
C. measure the size o the study area more careully.
D. hae more quadrat drops`.
^8 \hen using the capture-recapture` technique,
which o the ollowing would be most likely to result
in an INACCURA1L estimate o population size.
A. 1he marking technique used reduces surial
chances o the animals.
B. Increasing the number captured in the 2nd capture
operation.
C. Ater release rom the irst cature, the animals mix
randomly back into the population.
D. Increasing the number captured in the irst capture
operation.
b8 \hich o the ollowing is a biotic` actor in an
ecosystem
A. Light intensity.
B. Soil type
C. Diseases
D. 1emperature range.
a8 1he streamlined shape o a dolphin is an adaptation to:
A. the high buoyancy o water.
B. low aailablity o gases in the sea.
C. the large temperature ariations o aquatic habitats.
D. the high iscosity o water.
g8 Many seaweeds hae brown or red pigments because:
A. these absorb the predominately blue light that
penetrates underwater.
B. it camoulages them among the rocks o the sea loor.
C. red and brown light penetrates water more than other
colours.
D. this helps them control their temperature by absorbing
more heat.
h8 1he ollowing graph shows the changes in population
numbers or a prey species and 4 other species. \hich
one ,A, B, C or D, is most likely to be the predator
d8 1he cleaner wrasse` is a small ish o the coral ree
which eeds on the parasites clinging to other ish. Many
larger ish will queue up to wait or a cleaner wrasse to
pick o their parasites.
1he relationship between the cleaner wrasse and the
larger ish is an example o:
A. Mutualism
B. Commensalism
C. Allelopathy
D. Competition
7e8 \hich o the ollowing statements about ecosystems
is generally true
A. Lnergy is re-cycled, while chemicals hae to be
constantly supplied.
B. Both matter and energy are re-cycled.
C. Matter is re-cycled, while energy has to be constantly
supplied.
D. Both matter and energy hae to be constantly supplied
778 1he essential product o cellular respiration is:
A. Glucose
B. Oxygen
C. Carbon Dioxide
D. A1P
34"5
'#"*%"'
@
6
C
H
,%("
@
6
J
I
H
@
I
C
D




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;8
7S8 In the ollowing ood chain:
-JM-0 J@FH02 B12BH4/ I@/D /D-,C
the herbiore` and the organism at the 4th 1rophic
leel are respectiely:
A. limpet and shark
B. limpet and ish
C. algae and ish
D. algae and shark
7[8 Soil bacteria usually hae the role in ecosystems o:
A. Decomposers
B. Disease causing parasites
C. Producer organisms
D. Lpiphytes
7^8 In a certain area, the biomass o seeral species is:
$H01@0/ '@BF-// XCMY
P 10,000
Q 5,000,000
R 100,000
S 500
I these 4 organisms are inoled in the same ood
chain, then the order in the ood chain is most likely:
A. S R P Q
B. P Q R S
C. Q S P R
D. Q R P S
7b8 One o the adaptations` isible in the North
American beaer is a large, broad, lat tail.
1his adaptation probably helps the beaer surie by:
A. giing it more stability and balance as it moes on
land.
B. helping it to carry the twigs and branches it eeds
on.
C. used as a shield it protects against predator attack.
D. helping it to swim and steer in water.
7a. Lutrophication` is when:
A. polluting chemicals in the enironment become
more concentrated as they moe up a ood chain.
B. aquatic habitats suer rom algal blooms` due to
oer-ertilization.
C. gases rom burning o ossil uels cause waterways
to become ery acidic.
D. an introduced species oer-populates an ecosystem.
R-,2 ' PB.M0, &0/HB./0 N40/2@B./
Mark alues gien are suggestions only, and are to gie
you an idea o how detailed an answer is appropriate.
7g8 ,4 marks,
1he ollowing is a diagram o a transect done to study
the distribution o 4 plant species J, K, L and M in a
certain area.
Describe the distribution o species K and L.
7h8 ,3 marks,
Using a capture-recapture` method to estimate the
population o trout ish in a lake, the ollowing results
were obtained:
1st capture: 53 trout tagged & released.
2nd capture: 832 captured. O these 45 were tagged.
1o the nearest 1 000, how many trout are in the lake
Show your working or reasoning.
7d8 ,6 marks,
1o estimate the population size or a small plant species
liing in a ield, a quadrat study was carried out. 1he ield
was rectangular, measuring 120m x 85m.
1he quadrat used was a square wired rame
0.50m x 0.50m ~ 0.25 m
2
area.
It was dropped at random 10 times in the ield. 1he
count o the target species` in each o the drops`
was:- 8, 14, 2, 5, 9, 22, 3, 0, 12 and .
a, Calculate
i, the area o the ield.
ii, the aerage number o plants per quadrat.
b, lind an estimate o the size o the plant population in
the ield. Show working.
c, Suggest one way to improe this study to gie a more
accurate estimate.
Se8 ,4 marks,
Construct a simple table and ill it in to compare the
terrestrial and aquatic enironments with respect to
iscosity
buoyancy
temperature ariation
and aailability o light
30+S
C4""!
Y"5
j Y A -
N"4&%*1)
'*1)"
"^177"41&"S
390&0 G5 H%1+1




















!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;;
S7. ,5 marks,
a, Deine the term mutualism`.
b, Gie an example o mutualism, naming 2
organisms and outlining how each is aected by the
relationship.
SS8 ,5 marks,
In nature, allelopathy is a method o beating your
competition`.
Discuss this statement briely, giing deinitions and
examples as appropriate.
S[8 ,8 marks,
a, \rite a word equation to summarize the process o
cellular respiration.
b, 1he process makes energy aailable to liing cells.
i, \hat is the original source o this energy
ii, low does the energy get into an
ecosystem
iii, In what orm is the energy passed rom
organism to organism
S^8 ,5 marks,
1he ollowing obserations were made about the
eeding relationships in an Australian rural ecosystem.
Use the inormation to construct a ood web diagram.
loney-eater birds eed on the nectar and pollen o
natie shrubs. 1hese shrubs are also eaten by insects
and wallabies. Grass is eaten by insects, rabbits and
wallabies, while mice eed on the grass seeds. lrogs eat
insects, while dingoes prey on rabbits and wallabies.
Kookaburras hunt snakes and rogs. 1he snakes eed
on rogs, mice and take the eggs and babies rom
honey-eater nests.
Sb8 ,8 marks,
lrom your diagram or Q24 answer the ollowing.
a, Name three 2nd-order consumers.
b, Name an organism which occupies more than one
trophic leel.
c, \rite the longest ood chain within this web.
d, Name 2 organisms who could well be competitors.
e, 1here is a world-wide trend o decline in amphibian
populations. I the rog population in this ood web was
drastically reduced, what might happen to the:
i, insect population
ii, mouse population
, Comment on a human impact apparent rom the ood
web or this ecosystem.
Sa8 ,4 marks,
In a seaside rockpool, the total biomass o all isible
plants, herbiores and carniores was estimated as
ollows: Plants 10 kg
lebiores 20 kg
Carniores 2 kg
a, On these igures alone, could the rockpool be a iable,
stable ecosystem Lxplain your answer.
b, Oer time, the rockpool community is studied and it is
ound to be ery stable and more-or-less unchanging.
Suggest how this might be possible.
Sg8 ,4 marks,
a, Lxplain what is meant by an adaptation`.
b, Gie an example o an adaptation or each o the
ollowing situations.
i, A structural adaptation ,in an animal, to a cold climate.
ii, A plant adaptation to low light leels on the rain orest
loor.
iii, An adaptation or water conseration in a desert
animal.
Sh8 ,3 marks,
Outline a human impact on a named type o ecosystem.




















34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;X
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
:./K0, $012@B.
QB,C/D002 7
a, where b, interacting
c, ood d, hiding , escaping
, transect
g, straight line h, which species are present
i, Abundance j, quadrats
k, aerage number , quadrat l, the enironment , study area
m, doing more quadrat drops n, Capture - Recapture
o, marking,tagging p, release
q, capture r, marked,tagged
s, total population
t, mixing randomly back into the population
N4-5,-2 $2456 R,BAJ0F/
78 Aerage per quadrat ~ 46 , 10 ~ 4.6
Study area ~ 20 x 30 ~ 600 m
2
Lstimated ~ Aerage count x Study area
Population per quadrat Quadrat area
~ 4.6 x 600 , 0.25
~ 11,040
Population estimate ~ 11,000 starish approx.
S8 Aerage per quadrat ~ 105 , 20 ~ 5.25
Paddock area ~ 300 x 400 ~ 120,000 m
2
Lstimated ~ Aerage count x Study area
Population per quadrat Quadrat area
~ 5.25 x 120,000 , 0.5
~ 1,260,000 weeds approx.
;-H24,0 O &01-H24,0 R,BAJ0F/
78 Lstimated ~ 1st capture x 2nd capture
Population no.marked in 2nd capture
~ 230 x 156
18
~ 1,993
Lstimated population 2,000 lizards
S8 Lstimated ~ 1st capture x 2nd capture
Population no.marked in 2nd capture
~ 65 x 48
12
~ 260 possums
I the possums enjoy` being trapped then the recapture sample
contains a disproportionately lIGl number o tagged animals,
who hae come back to the traps deliberately. Mathematically, i
the number 12` is too high, then the answer ,260, is too low, so
the real population is higher than the estimate.
QB,C/D002 S
Biotic lactors Abiotic lactors
prey light
diseases oxygen
predators water
ood plants soil
competitors temperature
exposure
acidity
a, terrestrial b, aquatic
c, Viscosity d, low iscosity
e, higher iscosity , streamlined
g, lotation h, more
i, support j, much less
k, ur,at,eathers l, sweat
m, oxygen n, dissole
o, gills
p, consere q, waterproo
r, excretion s, osmosis
t, lose u, excrete
, rainorests w, staghorns,orchids etc
x, large,broad,packed with chlorophyll
y, colours , waelengths z, Red,orange
aa, blue ab, pigments
ac, plants ad, dead material
ae, chemosynthesis
QB,C/D002 [
a, predator b, prey
c, decrease d, more prey will be eaten
e, lower , later , ater
g, eeds h, killing it
i, tapeworm j, ticks, mosquitoes, leeches
k, commensalism l, remora ,sucker ish`,
m, both gain a beneit n, bee & lowering plants
o, bacteria , protozoa p, inhibit , slow
q, allelopathy r, the same resource,s,
s, one suries and thries, the other declines.
,one wins, one loses,
QB,C/D002 ^
a, re-cycled b, replaced , input
c, Sun d, plants
e, photosynthesis , ood ,glucose,
g, growing, reproducing, responding etc
h, cellular respiration i, oxygen
j, water & carbon dioxide k, A1P
l, ood chain m, producers
n, consumers o, re-cycle
p, inter-connect q, ood web
r, biomass s, herbiores
t, pyramid
QB,C/D002 b
a, adaptations b, insulates it
c, streamlined d, iscosity
e, physiological , sweat
g, shier h, small
i, concentrated j, consere
k, behaioural l, sunbake
m, shade , shelter




















R,-12@10 N40/2@B./O :./K0,/
R-,2 :
78 B b8 C d8 A 7[8 A
S8 B a8 D 7e8 C 7^8 D
[8 D g. A 778 D 7b8 D
^8 A h8 C 7S8 B 7a8 B
R-,2 ' In some cases there may be more than one correct
answer. 1he ollowing model` answers are correct
but not necessarily perect.
7g8 Species K is not widely distributed, but seems conined to the
hilltop ,higher eleation,.
Species L seems to occur only near water, on the banks o ponds
and creeks.
7h8 Lstimated ~ 1st capture x 2nd capture
Population no.marked in 2nd capture
~ 53 x 832
45
~ 9,929
1o nearest 1000, Lstimate ~ 10,000 trout.
7d8 a, i, Area ~ length x width ~ 120 x 85 ~ 10,200 m
2
.
ii, Aerage ~ ,8-14-2-5-9-22-3-0-12-, , 10
~ 82 , 10
~ 8.2 plants , quadrat
b, Lstimated ~ Aerage count x Study area
Population per quadrat Quadrat area
~ 8.2 x 10,200,0.25
~ 334,560
Lstimate ~ 335,000 plants approximately
,Note: it is NO1 appropriate to gie an answer o 334,560
since this suggests that the process will calculate the exact
number o plants. It is a statistical estimate only, and
answers should be rounded o,
c, Make more drops` o the quadrat.
Se8 1errestrial Aquatic
Lnironment Lnironment
Viscosity low high
Buoyancy low high
1emp. ariation high low
Light aail. good gets less with depth
S78 a, Mutualism is a relationship between 2 dierent
species in which both gain a beneit.
b, loney bee and lowering plant.
Bee gains ood supply. Plant achiees pollination o its
lowers.
34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;_
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
SS8 Competition` is when 2 species both use the same
enironmental resource, such as plants competing or the
same soil minerals in an area.
Allelopathy` is when one species produces a chemical or
toxin to inhibit the growth and deelopment o other
species.
Allelopathy is a method o dealing with competitors, such
as the lantana plant producing toxins in its roots, which
inhibits other plant species. 1his allows lantana to out-
compete other plants and gain more soil minerals and light.
,Note: this is why lantana is such a noxious weed... it`s a
great competitor when introduced to a new enironment
without its natural diseases and enemies.,
S[8
a, Glucose - Oxygen Carbon - \ater - A1P
Dioxide
b, i, 1he Sun
ii, Lnergy is captured by plants in photosynthesis.
iii, As ood ,containing chemical potential energy,
S^8 kookaburras
snakes
rogs dingoes
honey
eaters insects mice wallabies rabbits
natie shrubs grass
Sb a, snakes, rogs, dingoes
b, snake or kookaburra
c, nat.shrubs insects rogs snakes kookaburras
d, wallabies and rabbits ,best answer,
,Note: other possible answers are not as good.
e.g. snakes & kookaburras both eat rogs, but kooks also eat
the snake, so they are not just competing or rogs.
loney-eaters and insects both eat shrubs, but dierent
parts o the plant, so not competing. Same with mice
rabbits... not eating the same parts o plants.,
e, i, without predators, the insect population should
increase.
ii, I less rogs, then snakes might eat more mice.
1hereore mouse population may decrease.
, 1he rabbit is an alien species introduced to Australia
rom Lurope. In the absence o its natural enemies and
diseases, it has oer-populated at the expense o natie
species.




















34")%(%+145 6%0)075 ,0#%* 8
*0#54%79& : ;<<=>;<<? !""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
St Josephs Catholic College SL#804465
;=
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
Sa
a, No. Stable ecosystems always hae about 10 times more
biomass o plants than herbiores. 1he rockpool has less
plant biomass than herbiores. 1his is not sustainable.
b, 1he biomass igures include only isible plants. 1here
may be a large biomass o microscopic algae and plankton
not accounted or in the igures.
or,
Perhaps the herbiores in the rockpool are not just eeding
on the plants present, but leae the pool at high tide to eed
elsewhere.
or,
1he community might be sustained by extra biomass which
washes into the pool with waes and tides and eeds the
herbiores.
Sg8 a, An adaptation is a special eature o an organism,
which helps it to surie in its enironment.
b, i, A thick ur coat, or eathers, or layers o blubber ,at,
all act as heat insulators.
ii, Large, broad leaes capture what light is present.
iii, Kidneys that produce small amounts o concentrated
urine, so less water is lost by excretion.
Sh8 ,many dierent answers possible,
lumans clear orests, ill and drain wetlands etc or
agriculture and to build towns, roads etc. 1his results in
loss o habitat or many orest species which are adapted
to particular enironments and cannot lie elsewhere.
*)%#;< :*E <&&)&$i
)4, F-20,@-J @/ 1-,0I4JJ6 H,BBIO,0-5
A42 K0],0 B.J6 D4F-.
#I 6B4 .B2@10 -.6 0,,B,/L HJ0-/0 J02 4/ C.BK
@6I =_ _<c gg_ ==?
3B 60^ ;=?=
3BK, -@CUJ@KLD IEW ;___
e<;f c=aX _XXX P@` e<;f c=aX g_c?
.../!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
(1%)k!""#%&'%(#)"'*%"+*"/*0(/12
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-
Need to contact us?




















RDB2B1BH6 ?-/20,/
%BH@1/ :G-@J-AJ0
$@20 P@10.10 ;B.5@2@B./
QD0. EB4 R4,1D-/0 @.
\-,5 ;BH6 =B,F-2
6B4 F-6 F-C0 4.J@F@205 HDB2B1BH@0/U
j -2 B.0 /1DBBJ -.5 1-FH4/ B.J6L
j IB, 4/0 A6 /2450.2/ 0.,BJJ05
-2 2D-2 /1DBBJ -.5 1-FH4/ B.J6L
j IB, .B.OH,BI@2L 0541-2@B.-J
4/0 B.J68
QD0. EB4 R4,1D-/0 B. ;"
j EB4 F-6 H,@.2 D-,5 1BH@0/ BI 2D0 ;" I@J0/8
:JJ /41D 1BH@0/ -,0 2D0. /4Ak012 2B 2D0 J@10.10
X/DBK. -2 J0I2Y IB, \-,5 ;BH6 =B,F-28
j EB4 F-6 1BH6 2D0 ;" IB, A-1CO4H B.J68
EB4 F-6 /2B,0 2D0 ;" 1B.20.2/ @. - 5-2-
,02,@0G-J /6/20F 2B I-1@J@2-20 H,@.2@.M BI D-,5
1BH@0/ -2 B.0 /1DBBJ -.5 1-FH4/ B.J68
j EB4 ?:E *)% /4HHJ6 1BH@0/ BI 2D0 ;" 2B
/2450.2/ .B, F-C0 @2/ 1B.20.2/ -G-@J-AJ0 2B
/2450.2/ @. -.6 0J012,B.@1 IB,F @.1J45@.M -110//
G@- 1BFH420, .02KB,C/ B, A6 0F-@J8
X@808 $2450.2/ F-6 B.J6 ,010@G0 2D0 H,B5412 @.
\-,5 ;BH6 =B,F-28Y
RJ0-/0 &0/H012 )4, &@MD2/ (.50, ;BH6,@MD2 P-K
'@BJBM6
R,0J@F@.-,6 Local Lcosystem
Patterns in Nature
Lie on Larth
Lolution Aust. Biota
\$; ;B,0 Maintaining a Balance
Blueprint o Lie
Search or Better lealth
)H2@B./ Communication
Genetics: Code Broken
RD6/@1/
R,0J@F@.-,6 \orld Communicates
Llect. Lnergy in the lome
Moing About
Cosmic Lngine
\$; ;B,0 Space
Motors & Generators
Ideas to Implementation
)H2@B./ lrom Quanta to Quarks
Astrophysics
;D0F@/2,6
R,0J@F@.-,6 Chemical Larth
Metals
\ater
Lnergy
\$; ;B,0 Production o Materials
Acidic Lnironment
Chem. Monit.& Mngment
)H2@B./ Shipwrecks, Corrosion, etc
Industrial Chemistry
<-,2D 9 <.G@,B.F0.2-J
$1@0.10
R,0J@F@.-,6 Planet Larth & Its Lniron.
1he Local Lnironment
\ater Issues
Dynamic Larth
\$; ;B,0 1ectonic Impacts
Lnironments 1hru 1ime
Caring or the Country
)H2@B. Introduced Species
!""# %& '%(#)" '*%"+*"
,-