Dytran Documentation Theory

Introduction
Piezoelectric sensors (Transducers) measure dynamic phenomena such as

force, pressure and acceleration (including shock and vibration). Inside the
sensor, piezoelectric materials such as quartz and man-made ceramics are
stressed in a controlled fashion by the input measurand i.e., the specific phe-
nomena to be measured. This stress squeezes a quantity of electrical charge
from the piezoelectric material in direct proportion to the input, creating analo-
gous electrical output signals. (Piezo is from the Greek word meaning to
squeeze.)
Because of the high stiffness of piezoelectric materials, it is possible to produce
sensors with very high resonant frequencies making them well-suited for mea-
surement of rapidly changing dynamic phenomena such as shock tube pressure
wavefronts, high frequency hydraulic and pneumatic perturbations, impulse
(impact) forces, vibrations in machinery and equipment, pyrotechnic shocks,
etc.
The task faced by the measurement system is to couple information, contained
within the small amount of electrical charge generated by the crystals, to the
outside world without dissipating it or otherwise changing it. (The quantity of
charge generated by the piezo element is measured in units of picocoulombs,
(pC) which is 1 x 10
-12
Coulombs.)
Throughout the evolutionary process of piezoelectric sensor development, two
types of systems have emerged as the main choices for dynamic metrology.
1. The Charge Mode System
2. The Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) System.
This section is intended to help make your choice between these systems a little
easier by pointing out the advantage and limitation of each type.
The Charge Mode System
Dytran Charge Mode sensors are manufactured with both ceramic and crys-
talline quartz piezoelectric elements. Charge mode accelerometers used for
vibration measurements utilize piezo-ceramic materials from the Lead
Zirconium Titanate (PZT) family. These materials are characterized by high
charge output, high internal capacitance, relatively low insulation resistance
and good stability. Most charge mode pressure and force sensors use pure Alpha
quartz in the sensing elements.
These sensors are normally used with a Charge Amplifier, a special type of
amplifier designed specifically to measure electrical charge. The charge mode
system is thus composed of the charge mode sensor, the charge amplifier and
the interconnecting cable. (see Figure 1).
Figure 1 is a symbolic and graphic representation of a typical charge mode
vibration measurement system. The input stage of the charge amplifier utilizes
a capacitive feedback circuit to balance or null the effect of the applied input
charge signal. (This action is explained in more detail in the section
Introduction to Charge Mode Accelerometers.) The feedback signal is then a
measure of input charge. This amplifier presents essentially infinite input
impedance to the sensor and thus measures its output without changing it - the
goal of all measurement processes.
The gain (transfer function) of the basic charge amplifier is dependent only
upon the value of the feedback capacitor C
f
(See Figure 1) and is independent
of input capacitance, an important feature of the charge amplifier. Following
stages may add voltage gain and attenuation, filtering, and other functions to
further process and refine the data before coupling it to the readout instrument.
A Word About Cables
Because of the very high intput impedance of the charge amplifier, the sensor
must be connected to the amplifier input with low-noise coaxial cable such as
Dytran series 6013A. This cable is specially treated to minimize triboelectric
noise, e.g., noise generated within the cable due to physical movement of the
cable. Coaxial cable is necessary to effect an electrostatic shield around the high
impedance input lead, precluding extraneous noise pickup.
Charge Mode System Advantages
Since there are no electronic components contained within the sensor hous-
ing, the upper temperature limit of charge mode sensors is much higher than
the +250F (121C) limit imposed by the internal electronics of LIVM sensors.
Rather, the high temperature limit is set by the Curie temperature of the piezo-
electric material or by the properties of insulating materials employed in the
specific design. Check the individual product data information for the operat-
ing temperature limits of Dytran charge mode sensors.
Laboratory type charge amplifiers currently available offer a wide range of
signal augmentation choices such as filtering, ranging, standardization, inte-
grating for velocity and displacement, peak hold and more - all conveniently
contained in one package.
Charge amplifier gain is independent of input capacitance, therefore system
sensitivity is unaffected by changes in input cable length or type, an important
point when interchanging cables.
A special type of charge amplifier, the very long time constant Electrostatic
type, used in conjunction with certain quartz element charge mode force and
pressure sensors can, with certain precautions, be used to make near static
(quasi-static) measurements of events lasting up to several minutes duration.
The LIVM System
Figure 2 contains a symbolic and a graphic representation of a typical LIVM
system. We have a chosen to illustrate an accelerometer system in Figure 2 so
that direct comparisons can be made with the charge mode system illustrated
in Figure 1. LIVM systems are available for pressure and force measurements as
well.
Piezoelectric Measurement System Comparison:
Charge Mode vs. Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM)
Figure 1: A Charge Mode Accelerometer System
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Figure 2: The LIVM System
Referring to Figure 2, the LIVM accelerometer, although of similar basic con-
struction as the charge mode unit, uses crystalline quartz as the signal generat-
ing element instead of piezoceramic. Unlike the charge mode accelerometer,
the LIVM accelerometer utilizes the voltage signal generated by the quartz ele-
ment rather than the charge signal. The voltage signal is related to the charge
signal by the following relationship:
V=Q/C (Eq. 1)
Where: Q = charge (pC)
V = voltage (Volts)
C = crystal capacitance, including any shunt
capacitance added (pF)
Although the charge sensitivity of quartz is very low when compared to ceram-
ics, the self capacitance is also very low resulting in a high sensitivity voltage
signal, higher in fact than that from an equivalently proportioned ceramic ele-
ment.
A miniature IC metal oxide silicon field effect transistor (MOSFET) amplifier
built into the housing of the sensor, converts the high impedance voltage signal
from the quartz element to a much lower output impedance level, so the read-
out instrument and long cable have little effect on the signal quality. Because
the high impedance input to the IC amplifier is totally enclosed and thus
shielded by the metal housing, the LIVM sensor is relatively impervious to
external electrostatic interference and other disturbances. The sensor amplifier
is a common drain, unity gain source follower circuit with the source termi-
nal brought out through a coaxial connector on the sensor body.
The sensitivity of the LIVM sensor is fixed at time of manufacture by varying
the total capacitance across the quartz crystal element (refer to Equation 1).
The highest possible voltage sensitivity is obtained with no added capacitance
across the element. To decrease sensitivity (increase range), capacitance is
added to attenuate the voltage signal. Once the sensitivity is set in this manner,
it cannot be changed by external means. External amplification performed in
power units, or by other means can amplify or attenuate the signal but cannot
change the fixed sensitivity (mV/g, psi or LbF) of the sensor.
The LIVM Power Unit
The LIVM sensor, unlike the charge mode sensor does not require a charge
amplifier, but rather a much simpler Current Source Power Unit. The power
unit contains a DC power source (batteries or a regulated DC power supply), a
current source element (constant current diode or constant current circuit),
and a means of blocking or otherwise eliminating the DC bias voltage that
exists at the center terminal of the sensor connector, so the signal may be con-
veniently coupled to the readout instrument (oscilloscope, meter, recorder, ana-
lyzer, etc.)
Since the source load for the sensor IC (the constant current diode or circuit) is
located in the power unit and not within the sensor housing, a single
two-conductor cable is used to connect the sensor to the power unit. The low
output impedance of the sensor makes it unnecessary to connect sensor to
power unit with the more expensive low noise coaxial cable as with the charge
mode system. Rather, we recommend the standard series 6010A coaxial cable.
Twin lead cable with the 6115 solder connector adapter may also be used, a real
cost-saving advantage for LIVM systems.
As with the charge amplifier, some dedicated signal augmentation can be
accomplished within the LIVM power units such as gain, attenuation, filtering,
etc., within the constraints of the fixed sensor sensitivity. With rare exceptions,
full scale sensor output voltage is 5 Volts.
LIVM System Advantages
Low output impedance (less than 100 ohms) makes the sensitivity of the
LIVM sensor independent of cable length within the frequency response limits
outlined in the chart (Figure 6) in the section Introduction to Current Source
Power Units. Basic system sensitivity does not change when cables are
replaced or changed.
The low output impedance precludes the use of expensive low noise cable
allowing the use of inexpensive coaxial cable (or twin-lead ribbon cable) to
connect sensor to power unit.
Sensitivity and discharge time constant are fixed at time of assembly, setting
full scale range and low frequency response. This makes LIVM sensors ideal for
dedicated applications such as modal analysis and health monitoring.
Sealed rugged construction, with high impedance connections contained
within the sensor housing, makes LIVM sensors ideal for field use in dirty or
moist environments.
With proper considerations, very long cables (up to thousands of feet long)
can be driven by LIVM sensors.
LIVM power units are relatively simple and fractions of the cost of laboratory
charge amplifiers. Multi-channel units with 3, 4, 6, 12 and 16 channels are
available to greatly lower the per-channel cost of the system. Even the single-
channel cost is a fraction of that of the typical charge mode system.
The tiny IC amplifier chip built into LIVM sensors is very rugged, able to
withstand shocks over 100,000 gs. This makes LIVM accelerometers, such as
the Dytran 3200B series, excellent choices for measurement of very high shocks
(e.g., those encountered in pyrotechnic testing). Dytran can supply ruggedized
coaxial cable (series 6034A) or 2-pin solder connector adapters (model 6115
for use with very light 2-wire cable) to withstand the punishment of such severe
applications.
Conclusion
We have attempted to help with your decision as to which type of system best
suits your needs by pointing out the advantages and limitations of two types of
dynamic measurement systems. We realize this decision is often determined or
influenced by factors outside the control of the test engineer or technician.
This may include having instruments already on hand which must be utilized
for economic reasons, limited operating budgets, and personal preferences
based upon years of familiarity with one type of instrumentation. All of these
factors must be weighed.
Whatever your choice, we hope we have improved your ability to make an intel-
ligent decision. We stand ready to offer technical assistance and to provide the
best possible instrumentation at reasonable cost.
R
X
C
Z
Low Frequency Phase Shift In LIVM Sensors As A Function
Of Discharge Time Constant And Frequency
Abstract
Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) sensors are piezoelectric devices with
integral FET impedance converting amplifiers. To bias the amplifier, a high
value resistor is placed in parallel with the gate of the FET and the crystal ele-
ment. The discharge time constant (TC) of the sensor is the product of this
resistor and the total shunt capacitance of the crystal element. (See Figure 1).
It is the discharge time constant which sets the low frequency amplitude and
phase response of the sensor. This article presents a mathematical relationship
for phase response as a function of frequency with discharge time constant as a
parameter.
The LIVM Sensor
Figure 1 shows schematically, the LIVM sensor.
Figure 1
It can be shown that the sensor is actually a first order high pass filter with
phase and amplitude parameters established by the discharge TC. The TC is the
product of crystal capacitance C (includes stray C and the input capacitance of
the FET) times the gate resistor R. The units of TC are seconds. The filter may
be represented as shown in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2
The transfer function of the filter shown in Figure 1 is:
The vector diagram for this circuit is:
Figure 3
Regarding the phase angle :
From the diagram, Figure 3,
we may write the relationship: = tan
-1
In equation 2, X
c
is the capacitive reactance.
Capacitive reactance is: X
c
where: f = frequency (Hz),
C = capacitance (Farads)
Substituting this relationship in Eq. 2,
= tan
-1
Since RC = TC by definition:
= tan
-1
reducing further,
= tan
-1
Eq. 3
Using the last equation, knowing the discharge TC of the sensor,
this phase shift at any frequency may be calculated easily.
Example:
What is the phase shift of a sensor with a 2 second TC at 2 Hz?
Phase shift = tan
-1
= tan
-1
0.04 = 2.29 degrees
X
c
Eq. 2
R
1
2fC
1
2fRC
1
2fTC
0.16
fTC
0.16
2 x 2
TOTAL SHUNT
CAPACITANCE
MOSFET AMPLIFIER
BIAS RESISTOR
QUARTZ
ELEMENT
C
R
G
D
S
C
R e
IN
e
OUT
e
out
= R Eq. 1
e
in
R + jX
c
First, lets define the terms Low Frequency Response, Quasi-static Behavior
and Discharge Time Constant as they apply to the context of this article.
Low Frequency Response - The ability of a sensor to measure very low
frquency sinusoidal or periodic inputs (pressure, force and acceleration) with
accuracy. This ability is best characterized by a graph of sensitivity vs. frequecy
with input amplitude held constant.
Quasi-Static Behavior - The response of a piezoelectric sensor to static
(steady state) events, characterized by a graph of sensor output vs. time. This is
a measure of the length of time meaningful information is retained after the
initial application of a steady state measurand. (Quasi means nearly or
almost. Its use here is appropriate since piezoelectric sensors do not have true
static response, but can only approximate static behavior.)
Discharge Time Constant - The time (in seconds) required for a sensor
output voltage signal to discharge 63% of its initial value immediately follow-
ing the application of a long term, steady state input change.
As we describe sensor discharge TC, its effect on quasi-static behavior will be
quite apparent so we will relate these two topics first, then examine how TC
relates to low frequency response.
Sensor Discharge Time Constant
The discharge time constant (TC) of the Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM)
sensor and the coupling time constant of AC coupled power units are very
important factors when considering the low frequency and the quasi-static
response capabilities of an LIVM system. For the time being we will consider
only the sensor discharge TC and not the power unit coupling TC. As you will
see, direct-coupled power units are available which remove the limiting effect
of AC coupled power units on system behavior.
The term Discharge Time Constant or simply TC, is referred to often on
data sheets and specifications for piezoelectric sensors. It is important to under-
stand the meaning of this term to understand how this influential design para-
meter controls both quasi-static behavior and low frequency response.
Discharge TC and Quasi-Static Response
In the following explanation, we will refer to the term step function input.
This type of input is obtained, for example, by using static means such as a
dead weight tester to calibrate a pressure sensor and a proving ring to calibrate
a force sensor.
For purposes of TC analysis, the sensor piezo element and internal IC amplifier
may be represented schematically by the RC circuit, battery and switch shown
in Figure 1a. Gate voltage (v) responds as shown in Figure 1b when voltage
step (V
0
) is impressed across the input terminals at time t
0
. Such a step func-
tion voltage input would be generated by a sensor element in response to a sud-
den change in pressure or force input. At t
0
, voltage (v) instantly assumes value
V
0
, then immediately begins to discharge (or decay) exponentially with time.
The decay function is described by the following equation:
v = V
0
e
-t/RC
(Eq. 1)
Where: v = instantaneous gate voltage (Volts)
V
0
= initial voltage at time t
0
(Volts)
e = base of natural logarithm
R = gate resistance (Ohms)
C = total shunt capacitance (Farads)
It is important to note here that the resistance (R) is the value of the resistor
placed across the piezoelectric element to bias the MOSFET sensor IC.
The capacitance (C) is comprised of the self-capacitance of the piezo crystal,
the input capacitance of the amplifier, stray capacitance and any ranging
capacitance placed across the crystal to reduce sensitivity (if used).
The product RC is the sensor discharge TC, in seconds.
RC = TC (Ohms) x (Farads) = (Seconds) (Eq. 2)
Referring again to Figure 1b, we should point out a few important features of
the exponential decay curve. First, if we let time (t) equal TC, then Equation 1
reduces to:
v = V
0
e
-1
= V
0
/e = .37V
0
(Eq. 3)
This result states that at time t=TC (one time constant) the signal has dis-
charged to .37V
0
, or put in another way, has lost .63 (63%) if its initial value
V
0
. In 5 x TC seconds (five time constants), the output will have decayed essen-
tially to zero.
Another important point is that the curve shown in Figure 1b is relatively linear
to about 10% TC, e.g., in 1% of the TC, the sensor will discharge 1% and so on
up to 10% T.C. In fact, we may draw the conclusion that to have at least 1%
accuracy in quasi-static force or pressure measurement, we must take the read-
ing of the output within a time window of 1% of the sensor TC.
Static response is most closely approximated when the event time is a very
small percentage of the sensor (or system) discharge TC. This situation is best
illustrated by example:
Figure 2 illustrates a hypothetical situation where the static event lasts 1% of
the sensor TC. (Assume a force sensor with a 1000 sec. TC and a 10 sec. event
time.) Figure 2a is the force-time history showing input force F applied to the
sensor, starting at time t
0
, and holding steady for ten seconds. At time t
0
+ 10
seconds, the force is removed.
Figure 2b shows the corresponding gate voltage v. At time t
0
, this voltage
instantly assumes value V
0
(sensor sensitivity X force F). After time t
0
+ 10 sec.,
Low Frequency Response and
Quasi-Static Behavior of LIVM Sensors
Figure 2: Approaching Static Response
Figure 1: Discharge Time Constant (TC) Output vs. Time
voltage v has decayed in accordance with Equation 1, losing 1% of its initial
value. At time t
0
+ 10, the input force F is abruptly removed. Voltage V instantly
drops to a point 1% below the original baseline (again responding with voltage
change V
0
), then begins to charge toward the baseline in accordance with
Equation 1.
Figure 2c shows the corresponding output voltage measured at the output of
the sensor (at the source terminal of the IC). Notice that the voltage waveform
is similar in form, but elevated upward by the sensor bias voltage (approxi-
mately +10 Volts DC).
If we were attempting to calibrate this sensor by static means we would have
.01 x 1000 or 10 seconds to take the reading of the output voltage after the
application of the input step for a reading with 1% accuracy. A means of tran-
sient signal capture such as a digital storage oscilloscope facilitates such cali-
brations.
Low Frequency Response
Figure 3: Low Frequency Response Characteristics
The RC circuit shown in Figure 1a is also a first order high-pass filter illustrat-
ed in Figure 3a above. We now switch to the frequency domain to describe the
effect of TC on low frequency response.
Figure 3b is a Bode plot or graph of the low frequency response of an LIVM sen-
sor. A very significant point on the graph is the corner frequency f
c
. At this fre-
quency the output from the sensor has decreased by 3db or approximately 30%
from its reference sensitivity (the sensitivity that would be obtained at about 1
decade (10X) above the corner frequency). The slope or rolloff rate of the sen-
sor is always -6dB/octave, standard for a first order high pass filter. In the Bode
plot, this slope line crosses the reference axis at f
c
. The phase shift at f
c
is 45.
Corner frequency f
c
is set by the TC. To find f
c
for your sensor, first consult the
calibration certificate or data sheet supplied to obtain the TC, then solve for the
corner frequency as follows.
Corner Freq. = f
c
=
.16
= Hz (Eq. 4)
TC (sec)
Another important frequency is where the output is down by 5% from the refer-
ence sensitivity. This point is approximately 3x the corner frequency or:
-5% Freq. = f
-5%
= 3 X f
c
(Hz) (Eq. 5)
Figure 4 is a chart of attenuation and phase shift vs. frequency for a high pass,
1st order filter. The values for these two parameters can be determined at multi-
ples of the corner frequency with this chart.
Multiple of Corner Attenuation Attenuation Phase Shift
Frequency f
c
Factor (dB) (degrees)
.1f
c
.10 -20 -84.3
.5f
c
.45 -6.9 -63.3
1.0f
c
.707 -3.0 -45.0
2.0f
c
.89 -1.0 -26.4
3.0f
c
.95 -.5 -18.3
4.0f
c
.97 -.3 -14.0
5.0f
c
.98 -.2 -11.3
10.0f
c
.99 -.04 -5.7
Figure 4: Attenuation & Phase Shift vs. Multiples of Corner Frequency
High Frequency Response
The relationship between TC and high frequency response and/or rise time is
often misunderstood so some clarification may be in order. Sensor and power
unit coupling TCs have absolutely no effect on these two characteristics.
High frequency response and rise time for any sensor are controlled by
mechanical design characteristics and may also be affected by system factors
such as drive current, cable length, mounting techniques, passage resonances,
mass loading, etc. These topics are covered in other sections of this catalog.
The LIVM Power Unit as it Effects
Low Frequency Response and Quasi-Static Capability
At the beginning of this section you were told to ignore the effect of power unit
on low frequency response for the time being. You cannot ignore it completely
however, because the AC coupled power unit is often the limiting factor in low
frequency and quasi-static system capability rather than the sensor itself. All AC
(capacitively) coupled power units are high pass filters which can impair the
low frequency response and quasi-static behavior of your system. (Refer to the
section System Low Frequency Response in the article Introduction to LIVM
Accelerometers for a more complete treatment of the effect of power unit on LF
& Q-S response.)
The DC Coupled Power Unit
One way to take full advantage of the long TC built into your sensor is to use
the Model 4115B DC coupled power unit. This unit uses a summing op-amp
circuit rather than a capacitor to direct couple the sensor to the readout.
A user-variable negative DC voltage is applied to the summing junction of the
amplifier to exactly null the DC bias voltage from the sensor allowing precise
zeroing of the output signal. This versatile power unit is especially useful for
calibration of pressure and force sensors by static means. The 4115B also has
an AC coupling mode for use with sensors in thermally unstable environ-
ments or for strictly dynamic use. Consult the summary product data sheet on
Model 4115B for specifications and features.
Figure 5: Functional Schematic, Model 4115B
Transient Thermal Effects
When using LIVM sensors with very long time constants (greater than several
minutes) with DC coupled power units such as the 4115B, varying temperatures
can affect crystal preload structure, generating slowly changing output volt-
ages, which may appear as annoying baseline shift in the output signal. In sit-
uations like this, it is important to insulate the sensor against transient (sud-
den) ther-mal inputs. Dytran can provide insulating jackets (or boots) for
many sensors to minimize this problem. Consult the factory for details.
LIVM FORCE SENSORS
Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) force sensors contain thin piezoelectric
crystals which generate analog voltage signals in response to applied dynamic
forces. A built in IC chip amplifier converts the high impedance signal generated
by the crystals to a low impedance voltage suitable for convenient coupling to
readout instruments. (Refer to the articles Introduction to LIVM Accelerometers
and Introduction to Current Source Power Units in this handbook for in-depth
discussions of the LIVM principle.)
Construction and Operating Principles
Figure 1a is a typical cross-section of a Dytran LIVM force sensor with radial
connector. Figure 1b is an axial connector sensor.
Figure 1: LIVM Force Sensors
Two quartz discs are preloaded together between a lower base and an upper
platen by means of an elastic preload screw (or stud) as seen in Figure 1a and
1b. Preloading is necessary to ensure that the crystals are held in intimate con-
tact for best linearity and to allow a tension range for the instruments. In the
radial connector style (Figure 1a), both platen and base are tapped to receive
threaded members such as mounting studs, impact caps or machine elements.
Platen and base are welded to an outer housing which encloses and protects the
crystals from the outside environment. A thin steel web connects the platen to
the outer housing allowing the quartz element structure to flex unimpeded by
the housing structure. The integral IC amplifier is located in the radially
mounted connector housing.
Construction of the axial connector style (Figure 1b) is similar to the radial
connector style except that the lower base contains a threaded integral mount-
ing stud, which also serves as the amplifier housing and supports the electrical
connector. This design allows the electrical connection to exit axially and is
especially useful where radial space is limited. A typical application for the
axial sensor is shown in Figure 4c (drop tube).
When the crystals are stressed by an external compressive force, an analogous
positive polarity voltage is generated. This voltage is collected by the electrode
and connected to the input of a metal oxide silicon field effect transistor (MOS-
FET) unity gain source follower amplifier located within the amplifier housing.
The amplifier serves to lower the output impedance of the signal by 10 orders of
magnitude so it can be displayed on readout instruments such as oscilloscopes,
meters and recorders. When the sensor is put under tensile loads (pulled), some
of the preload is released causing the crystals to generate a negative-going out-
put signal. Maximum tensile loading is limited by the ultimate strength of the
internal preload screw and is usually much less than the compression range.
Calibration
Before proceeding with this section, we suggest you read the article Low
Frequency Response and Quasi-Static Behavior of LIVM Sensors in this series
as it provides excellent background material for the following discussion.
Although Dytran LIVM force sensors are designed to measure dynamic forces,
the discharge time constants of most units are long enough to allow static cali-
bration. By static calibration we refer to the use of calibrated weights or ring
dynamometers. An important rule of thumb for this type of calibration is that
the first 10% of the discharge time constant (TC) curve is relatively linear vs.
time. What this means is that the output signal will decay 1% in 1% of the dis-
charge TC, and so on up to about 10 seconds. This tells us that in order to
make a reading that is accurate to 1% (other measurement errors not consid-
ered) we must take our reading within 1% of the discharge TC (in seconds)
after application of the calibration force.
The most convenient way to do this is by use of a digital storage oscilloscope
and a DC coupled current source power unit such as the Dytran Model 4115B.
The DC coupled unit is essential because the AC coupling of conventional
power units would make the overall system coupling TC too short to perform
an accurate calibration in most cases.
Natural Frequency Considerations
The natural frequency of force sensors is always specified as unloaded and
for a good reason. Placing a load on a force sensor creates in effect, an
accelerometer. The load can be considered a seismic mass (M) and the force
sensor represents stiffness (K). The natural frequency of this new combination
is now:
f
n
= 1/2 K/M (Hz) (Eq. 1)
Where:
K = Force sensor stiffness, (LbF/in.)
M = Mass of load, (slugs)
It is easy to see by Equation 1 that the larger the mass, the lower the loaded
natural frequency. Many people are misled by the natural frequency specifica-
tions of force sensors and consideration of this topic will enhance your under-
standing of force sensor behavior. Note: Equation 1 will yield a close approxi-
mation of the loaded natural frequency and should not be considered an exact
relationship.
To perform the calculation described in Equation 1, obtain the stiffness of the
force sensor from the specification sheet and convert the weight of the added
Introduction to Piezoelectric Force Sensors
(a)
(b)
ELECTRODE
BASE
QUARTZ PLATES
PRELOAD SCREW
10-32 CONNECTOR
IC AMPLIFIER
TAPPED MOUNTING HOLE
PLATEN
MOUNTING THREADS
IC AMPLIFIER
10-32 CONNECTOR
ELECTRODE
TAPPED MOUNTING HOLE
(TYP TOP AND BOTTOM)
BASE
QUARTZ PLATES
PRELOAD STUD
PLATEN
load to slugs by dividing LbF by 32.3. Metric units may be used as long as all
values are converted.
Sensor Range vs. Sensitivity and Discharge TC
For a basic LIVM force sensor configuration the maximum force range is dic-
tated by mechanical limitations such as the maximum allowable stress the
designer wishes to place on the crystals and other members in the design. Each
variation of a particular model will produce a convenient 5 Volt signal for full
scale. The following is an explanation of how this is done. Refer to the electro-
static equation below:
V=
Q
(Eq. 2)
C
Where: V = Voltage across piezoelectric crystals, Volts
Q = Electrostatic charge generated by crystals, Coulombs
C = Total capacitance across crystal element, Farads
Equation 2 defines the voltage sensitivity of the sensor in terms of generated
electrostatic charge and shunt capacitance. The equation states that the voltage
(V) produced by the crystal element equals the electrostatic charge (Q) generat-
ed by the stress due to the input force, divided by the total shunt capacitance
(C) of the crystal element plus any other capacitance across the element. (refer
to Figure 2).
Figure 2: Schematic of LIVM Force Sensor
In accordance with Equation 2, to obtain 5 Volts full scale we must select a
capacitor with the proper value and place it across the crystal element so that
when full scale charge is distributed over the total shunt capacity the output
voltage will be 5 Volts. For lesser ranges we can (by reducing this capacitance
value accordingly) obtain 5 Volts for various lower force levels, the limit being
the sensitivity obtained with no capacitor across the crystal element. In this
manner we can create a family of force sensors with fixed full scale ranges
from a maximum of 5,000 LbF (1mV/LbF) to a minimum of 10 LbF (500
mV/LbF) using the same basic mechanical configuration.
It is also necessary to place a resistor across the crystal to bias the MOSFET
amplifier at its proper operating point (refer again to Figure 2). State of the art
and leakage considerations limit this resistor value to approximately 1
Terraohm (1 x 10
-12
Ohm). This means that the lower range sensors which have
smaller value ranging capacitors will also have shorter discharge time con-
stants because of the lower RC product. This makes the lower range units
slightly more difficult to calibrate and raises the lower corner frequency accord-
ingly. The article Low Frequency Response and Quasi-Static Behavior of LIVM
Sensors will further define this topic.
CHARGE MODE FORCE SENSORS
Dytran charge mode force sensors generate electrostatic charge signals analo-
gous to dynamic force inputs. Unlike LIVM sensors, charge mode sensors con-
tain no internal electronics. The output from the piezoelectric crystals is routed
directly to the coaxial connector. A coaxial cable is then used to connect the
sensor to an external charge amplifier which converts the electrostatic charge
generated by the crystals to a low impedance voltage signal.
Why Charge Mode?
1. Containing no internal electronics, charge mode force sensors can be used
well above the +250F limit for most LIVM sensors. In-line LIVM charge ampli-
fier (Models 4751 and 4705) convert charge mode sensors to LIVM operation.
2. When used with electrostatic charge amplifiers such as the Dytran Model
4165, the system discharge time constant can be very long. Static calibration
methods can be used and system low frequency response approaches DC.
3. The range switching capabilities of the Model 4165 amplifier make sensitivi-
ty adjustment very simple in contrast to the fixed sensitivity of LIVM sensors.
4. Reset buttons on laboratory charge amplifiers allow instant resetting (or dis-
charging) of charge mode sensors, returning the system output to zero (ground
reference) level at any time. This is an advantage in many applications, since
waiting 5 time constants for LIVM sensors to fully discharge to ground level can
be time consuming for the longer TC units.
5. Standardizing system sensitivity to precise round numbers in mV/LbF is easy
to accomplish by dialing the sensor sensitivity in to the front panel adjustment
pot on the 4165. The fixed sensitivity of most LIVM systems precludes such
standardization.
Construction and Operating Principles
Construction of charge mode force sensors is similar to the LIVM types except
that the charge mode sensors do not contain a built-in IC amplifier (refer to
Figure 1). Charge mode sensors utilize the same thin piezoelectric crystals as
LIVM sensors with one major difference: the crystals in charge mode sensors are
oriented to produce a negative-going charge output in response to compressive
forces on the sensor. This is because most electrostatic charge amplifiers are
signal-inverting instruments. In such a system, output voltage from the charge
amplifier will be in phase (positive-going) with applied compressive forces.
Tension on the force sensor will produce negative-going output voltages from
the measurement system.
The charge amplifier is essentially an infinite gain inverting amplifier with
capacitive feedback (see Figure 3). The electrostatic charge generated by stress
on the crystals (due to input force) is effectively nulled out at the input
(summing junction) of the charge amplifier by a charge fed back across the
feedback capacitor.
Figure 3: Charge Amplifier, Simplified Schematic
-
+
A
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT (-v)
CHARGE
INPUT, (q)
f
C
R
C
IC AMPLIFIER,
FET INPUT
BIASING
RESISTOR
PIEZO ELEMENT
TOTAL SHUNT
CAPACITANCE (C)
The voltage necessary to generate the nulling charge is then a measure of the
input charge and thus the input force. This voltage will vary with the choice of
feedback capacitor (selected by the front panel range switch on the Model
4165) in accordance with the electrostatic equation V=Q/C. The system sensi-
tivity is set by simply selecting various values of feedback capacitor.
Many charge amplifiers also contain standardization features to allow the set-
ting of system sensitivities to exact round numbers such as 100 mV/LbF, 1.00
mV/LbF, etc., making it very convenient to set up measurement criteria.
Applications
Because of their high stiffness and strength (they are almost as rigid as a com-
parably proportioned piece of solid steel), piezoelectric force sensors may be
inserted directly into machines as part of the structure by removing a section
and installing the sensor. By virtue of this high rigidity, these sensors have very
high natural frequencies with fast rise time capabilities making them ideal for
measuring very quick transient forces such as those generated by metal-to-
metal impacts and high frequency vibrations.
Figure 4: Impact Measurement
Figure 4 illustrates two typical LIVM force sensors configured to measure
impact forces. In Figure 4a, a radial connector force sensor (series 1051V or
1061V) is fastened to a rigid mounting surface and a test object is impacted
against the cap of the sensor. The output waveform from the sensor is illustrat-
ed by Figure 4b. Figure 4c illustrates the use of an axial connector force sensor
(series 1050V or 1060V). This type of sensor is recommended where radial space
is limited, as in the drop tube application shown in Figure 4c. The output sig-
nal would again look like Figure 4b.
Figure 5: Dynamic Force Measurement
The force sensor in Figure 5 has been mounted in series with a pushrod in a
machine to measure the dynamic forces axial to the rod, i.e., in the direction of
the main axis of the rod. Any static forces in the rod due to a preload (tension
or compression), or the weight of the rod itself, will initially result in an output
signal from the sensor. This signal will disappear within 5 TCs and only the
dynamic component will remain. Refer to the article Low Frequency Response
and Quasi-Static Behavior of LIVM Sensors in this series for more information
on this topic. Figure 6a is the output signal from the sensor in response to a
vibratory force within the rod and Figure 6b illustrates the output signal result-
ing from only compression forces moving through the rod.
Figure 6: Dynamic Output Waveforms
The uses of piezoelectric force sensors are limited only by the imagination of
the user. The examples given here illustrate only a few of the potential applica-
tions of these sensors.
v
Fig 5
F
F
m
Force sensor article figs 4a,
4b and 4c. Fig 5
(b)
t
m
(a)
Fig 5
F
F
(b)
t
-V
0
+V
t 0
(b)
+V
m
v
t
(c)
(a)
(b)
(b) (a)
Introduction to Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
LIVM PRESSURE SENSORS
Dynamic pressure sensors are designed to measure pressure changes in liquids
and gasses such as in shock tube studies, in-cylinder pressure measurements,
field blast tests, pressure pump perturbations, and in other pneumatic and
hydraulic processes. Their high rigidity and small size give them excellent high
frequency response with accompanying rapid rise time capability. Acceleration
compensation makes them virtually unresponsive to mechanical motion, i.e.,
shock and vibration.
Figures 1a and 1b are representative cross sections of Dytran Model Series
2300V LIVM (Low Impedance Voltage Mode) acceleration compensated pressure
transducers. This series is characterized by very high frequency response and
fast rise time. These instruments contain integral impedance converting IC
amplifiers which reduce the output impedance by many orders of magnitude
allowing the driving of long cables with negligible attenuation.
Series 2300V utilizes thin synthetic quartz crystals stacked together to produce
an analogous voltage signal when stressed in compression by pressure acting
on the diaphragm. This pressure, by virtue of diaphragm area, is converted to
compressive force which strains the crystals linearly with applied pressure pro-
ducing an analog voltage signal.
Figure 1: Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) pressure sensor.
As with all LIVM instruments, the voltage generated by the crystals is fed to the
gate terminal of the FET input stage of an impedance converting IC amplifier
which drops the impedance level 10 orders of magnitude. This allows these
instruments to drive long cables with little effect on frequency response.
Referring to figure 1a and 1b, series 2300V contains an integral accelerometer
built into the crystal stack. This accelerometer, consisting of one quartz crystal
and a seismic mass, produces a signal of opposite polarity (to that produced by
pressure on the diaphragm) when acted upon by vibration or shock. This sig-
nal cancels the signal produced by vibration or shock acting upon the
diaphragm and end piece, negating the effects of mechanical motion on the
output signal.
Figure 2: Model 2200V1 higher sensitivity pressure sensor.
Model 2200V1 (refer to figure 2) is constructed similar to series 2300V with the
difference that model 2200V1 has several more quartz crystals in the stack to
produce more voltage sensitivity for the lower pressure range sensor. The maxi-
mum sensitivity of series 2300V is 20 mV/psi whereas the sensitivity of model
2200V1 is 50 mV/psi. The resonant frequency is lower than that of Model series
2300V.
System Interconnection
Figure 3: Schematic, typical system interconnect
Figure 3 is a schematic diagram of a typical LIVM system consisting of pressure
sensor, cable and power unit. To complete the LIVM measurement system,
choose the current source power unit needed to power the internal sensor
amplifier and select the input and output cables.
LEAD WIRE
QUARTZ
CRYSTALS
DIAPHRAGM
END PIECE
PRELOAD SCREW
SEISMIC MASS
5/16-24 THD.
5/16 HEX
LIVM IC AMPLIFIER
ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR
SHRINK TUBING GROOVES
SEAL SURFACE
1a
1b
QUARTZ
CRYSTALS
DIAPHRAGM
END PIECE
PRELOAD SCREW
SEISMIC MASS
COMPENSATION
CRYSTAL
END PIECE
DIAPHRAGM
QUARTZ CRYSTAL
STACK
COMPENSATION
SEISMIC MASS
SEAL SURFACE
READOUT
LOAD
+
COUPLING
CAP
CABLE MOSFET
AMPLIFIER
QUARTZ ELEMENT
SENSOR
BIAS MONITOR
METER
DC POWER
SOURCE
S
D
G
POWER UNIT
CURRENT REG
DIODE
PULLDOWN
RESISTOR
BIAS RESISTOR
BIPOLAR
Figure 4: The complete measurement system
Figure 4 illustrates the components of a typical LIVM pressure measurement
system. Pressure sensors may be used with a variety of current source power
units depending upon the specific application. Consult the section
Introduction to Current Source Power Units and the specification charts in
that section for help in selecting the best power unit for your needs.
Low Frequency Response
Refer to the section Low Frequency Response and Quasi-Static Behavior of
LIVM Sensors in this series for an explanation of these two parameters and
how they relate to sensor discharge time constant (TC).
CHARGE MODE PRESSURE SENSORS
Dytran charge mode pressure sensors utilize pure synthetic quartz crystals to
produce electrostatic charge signals analogous to pressure changes at the
diaphragm. The very rigid structures of the charge mode quartz elements are
similar to those of the LIVM sensors, however, there are no amplifiers built into
the charge mode sensors.
Advantages of Charge Mode
The absence of internal electronics allows the charge mode sensor to be used at
temperatures well above the 250F upper limit of most LIVM sensors. Charge
mode sensors must be used with charge amplifiers, special high input imped-
ance amplifiers which have the ability to measure the very small charges
(expressed in pC or 10
-12
Coulombs) without modifying them.
Two distinctly different types of charge amplifiers for use with charge mode
pressure sensors are available from Dytran:
1. The versatile laboratory type direct coupled electrostatic charge amplifier,
Model 4165 which provides for easy standardization of system sensitivity and
convenient range selection. Because of its long discharge time constant capa-
bility, Model 4165 is especially useful for calibration of sensors by quasi-static
means (dead weight testers) and for very low frequency measurements. Model
4165 also features a reset (ground) button for returning the output to zero as
well as interchangeable plug-in filters and variable discharge time constant set-
tings for control of system drift in thermally active environments.
2. Series 4750A, 4750B and 4705A are miniature fixed range in-line type charge
amplifiers designed for use in Hybrid systems. These amplifiers adapt charge
mode sensors to LIVM power units and allow you to use these sensors in dirty
and damp field environments, just like LIVM sensors, but at higher tempera-
tures. These charge amplifiers are powered by standard LIVM current source
power units and present a low cost field useable alternative to the expensive
laboratory charge amplifier while providing the convenience of 2-wire LIVM
operation.
When to Select Charge Mode
You will normally use charge mode pressure sensors in the following situations:
1. When making routine dynamic measurements above the +250F limit of
LIVM sensors.
2. When range switching capability and wide dynamic range of the laboratory
charge amplifier are desired.
3. When calibrating charge mode pressure sensors by quasi-static methods such
as a dead weight tester. The extremely long discharge TC obtainable with elec-
trostatic charge amplifiers such as the Model 4165, make them ideal; for this
purpose.
You would not choose charge mode pressure sensors in the following situations:
1. When operating in dirty or damp field environments driving very long cables
from sensor to power unit or from power unit to readout with un-buffered
power unit. (Buffered units are not affected by cable length from power unit to
readout).
2. When you are making multi-channel measurements and cost is a factor.
3. When the fixed range simplicity of LIVM sensors is a positive factor such as
when making multiple dedicated range measurements.
The Conventional Charge Mode System
In the charge mode system shown in Figure 5 below, the sensor is connected to
the input of the electrostatic laboratory type charge amplifier using low-noise
treated coaxial cable.
It is important to use coaxial cable for this purpose because the input to a
charge amplifier is at a very high impedance level and as such, is susceptible to
noise pickup if not continuously shielded.
The low noise treatment is also important because physical motion of untreat-
ed coaxial cable will generate electrostatic charges which will show up on the
signal as spurious noise. This type of cable-generated noise is called triboelec-
tric noise. Low noise cable is treated with a special coating within the layers of
the cable which minimize the generation of this type of noise.
TO READOUT
NORMAL SHORT
0 24 12
OPEN
SENSOR BIAS VDC
4110C
CURRENT SOURCE
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
USA
ON PWR
SERIES 6020A BNC
CABLE
CURRENT SOURCE
POWER UNIT
SERIES 6010A
GENERAL PURPOSE
CABLE
LIVM PRESSURE
SENSOR
Figure 5: Conventional charge mode system.
In moist and dirty environments, it may be necessary to protect the high
impedance cable connections at the sensor with shrink tubing over the cable
connector. To facilitate this, most Dytran pressure sensors are designed with
shrink tubing grooves just below the connector. It is recommended that you use
about an inch of sealing type shrink tubing across the connection after the
cable nut has been tightened securely by hand. This will seal the connection
against moisture and other contaminants which can cause loss of insulation
resistance at the input to the charge amplifier and which may cause annoying
drifting of the charge amplifier output.
The Hybrid System
Figure 6: A hybrid pressure measurement system
The hybrid system combines charge mode and LIVM systems as shown in
Figure 6. A charge mode sensor is connected to a miniature in-line charge
amplifier which is driven by a conventional LIVM constant current power unit.
The in-line charge amplifier (so called because it is inserted in the line between
the sensor and the power unit) is powered by constant current power from the
LIVM power unit. These charge amplifiers, operating over two wires like LIVM
sensors, convert the charge signal from the charge mode sensor to a voltage
signal which appears at the output jack of the power unit.
The high frequency behavior of piezoelectric pressure sensors approximates
that of a second order spring-mass system with close to zero damping. (See
Figure 7 below)
Figure 7: Frequency response of a piezoelectric pressure sensor.
Figure 7 is a graph of Magnification Factor vs. Log Frequency for a typical
piezoelectric sensor. As shown by the graph, the sensitivity of the sensor will rise
about .5db (5%) at 20% of the natural frequency fn and will rise about 1db
(10%) at 30% of fn. The corresponding phase lag for these two points are one
and two degrees respectively. These parameters will define the useable frequency
range of the sensor based upon its natural frequency. The natural frequency of
each sensor is recorded on the calibration sheet supplied with each instrument.
Installation
Installation instructions, including port preparation details, are supplied with
every Dytran pressure sensor. Follow these instructions carefully. These sensors
are precision measuring instruments and it is important for optimum accuracy,
that they be properly installed. Prepare mounting ports carefully, paying partic-
ular attention to the seal seat. It is important that the sealing surface be
smooth and free from chatter marks and other machining imperfections.
Figure 8: Typical flush diaphragm installation.
Use a torque wrench to monitor the mounting torque. All piezoelectric sensors
are sensitive to mounting torque value to some degree so for highest accuracy,
duplicate the torque value specified on the Outline/Installation drawing provid-
ed with the sensor. This is the torque value with which the sensor was calibrated
0
CURRENT SOURCE
24 12
4110C
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
OPEN NORMAL SHORT
USA
GENERAL PURPOSE
CABLE
PWR ON
CURRENT SOURCE
POWER UNIT
IN-LINE CHARGE
AMPLIFIER
SENSOR BIAS VDC 4751BXX
USA INSTRUMENTS, INC.
S/N XXXX
CHARGE MODE
PRESSURE SENSOR
LOW NOISE CABLE
M
A
G
N
I
T
U
D
E
n n .2 f
(+5%)
.3 f
(+10%)
n
f
LOG f
DC
AC
CHG
1K
-10 0
LIVM
LOW NOISE CABLE
CHARGE MODE
PRESSURE SENSOR
ELECTROSTATIC
CHARGE AMPLIFIER
+10
DC VOLTS
3 0
80
0
10
20
90
5 4 3
AC VOLTS-RMS
2 1 0
O/L
10
7 0
RANGE
UNITS/VOLT
S
L
M
2K
20K
10
100
500
OUT
IN
ZERO
1
FILTER
1K
100
200
20
PWR
10
50
50K
TC
1.0 to 11.0
SENSOR
SENSITIVITY
pC or mV/UNIT
.1 to 1.1
5 0
6 0 4 0
CHARGE AMPLIFIER 4165
METER
5K
10K
RESET
USA
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
10-32 COAXIAL CONNECTOR
5/16-24 THD UNF-2A
1.32
SHRINK TUBING GROOVES
.45
5/16 HEX

.249
.247
.82
.235
PORT PREPARATION INSTRUCTIONS, 2300V
1. DRILL AND REAM .221 +.001/-.000 THRU
2. C'BORE (OR END CUTTING REAM) 1/4 (.250)
X .560 DEEP
3. C'DRILL .272 +.003/-.001 X .500 DEEP
4. BOTTOM TAP 5/16-24 UNF-2B X .440 MIN DEPTH
TORQUE TO 30 LB-INCHES AT INSTALLATION.

.217
.215
MOD 6600 SEAL, BRASS
.220 FOR FLUSH DIAPHRAGM
at the factory. Always use the seal provided with the sensor to avoid damage to
the mounting port or mounting adaptor from the hardened steel housing of the
sensor.
Recessed Diaphragm Installation
A pressure sensor mounted with a passage in front of the diaphragm as shown
in Figure 9 (recessed diaphragm mount) will exhibit impaired high frequency
response and rise time characteristics when compared to the flush mount sen-
sor characteristics. These limitations are due to the passage. The column of gas
or liquid in the passage cavity ahead of the diaphragm is in itself a second
order system with its own resonant frequency characteristic. Since we are using
this column to couple the pressure event to the sensor diaphragm, its frequency
characteristics are most important.
Figure 9: The recessed diaphragm installation.
The following chart (Figure 10) displays the theoretical effect of various length
passages formed by the diaphragm recess. The formula used to calculate the
chart value is the well-known pipe organ formula. The approximate fastest rise
time that will pass through the passage is also related to the passage resonance.
v
f
n
= where: (Eq. 1)
4L
f
n
= passage resonant frequency (Hz)
v = velocity of sound in air (in./Sec)
L = cavity length (in.)
Note: The value for sound in air at sea level, 20C is 13,512 in./Sec.
As a general rule, the frequency response of a recessed diaphragm system will
be useable to about 1/3 of the passage natural frequency. The fastest rise time
that can be expected to be transmitted by the passage is roughly 1/3 of the peri-
od of this frequency. These are general guide rules only and are not hard and
fast rules. Remember that the chart values, (Figure 10), must be corrected for
variations in media and temperature.
Recess (Inches) Passage Natural Approximate
Frequency Fastest Rise Time
.001 3.3 mHz .1 Sec
.002 1.6 mHz .2 Sec
.003 1.1 mHz .3 Sec
.005 660 kHz .5 Sec
.010 330 kHz 1 Sec
.050 66 kHz 5 Sec
.100 33 kHz 10 Sec
.200 16.6 kHz 20 Sec
.500 6.6 kHz 50 Sec
1.00 3.3 kHz .1 mSec
2.00 1.66 kHz .2 mSec
Figure 10: Cavity length vs. resonant frequency and rise time
Mounting Adapters
Figure 11: Various mounting adapters
Several mounting adapters are available which can simplify sensor installation.
The critical internal seal seats in these adapters are precision machined to pre-
clude leakage and the larger external threads provided by some of these
adapters require less precision machining and skill in mounting. Mounting
adapters can be used to adapt the installation to pipe threads or larger machine
threads, to isolate the sensor diaphragm from high flash temperature (Model
6522) or from ground loop interference (Model 6520). Custom mounting
adapters can be designed and fabricated to suit most applications. Contact the
factory for help in solving your special installation problem.
L
6522
THERMAL
ISOLATION
6501
PIPE THREAD
6502
3/8-24 THD
Introduction to LIVM Accelerometers
Construction
Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) accelerometers are designed to measure
shock and vibration phenomena over a wide frequency range. They contain
integral IC electronics that converts the high impedance signal generated by
the piezo crystals to a low impedance voltage that can drive long cables with
excellent noise immunity. These accelerometers utilize quartz and piezoceram-
ic crystals in compression and shear mode.
Figure 1 is a representative cross section of a typical LIVM compression design
accelerometer with central preload, strain isolation base and integral imped-
ance converting IC amplifier. The amplifier utilizes a metal oxide silicon field
effect transistor (MOSFET) in its input stage, coupled to a bipolar output tran-
sistor for improved line driving capability.
The LIVM concept eliminates the need for expensive charge amplifiers and low
noise cable, allows the driving of long cables for field use and lowers the per-
channel cost of the measurement system.
Figure 1: Compression design LIVM accelerometer.
Powering
All Dytran LIVM accelerometers may be powered by any constant current type
power unit capable of providing 2 to 20 mA of constant current at a DC voltage
(compliance) level of +18 to + 30 Volts. NEVER connect a power supply that
has no current limiting to an LIVM accelerometer. This will immediately
destroy the integral IC amplifier.
Figure 2: Typical LIVM system
The quiescent DC bias level (turn-on voltage), at the power input to the
accelerometer, may fall within the range of +8 to +12 Volts DC, depending
upon the specifications of the particular model. The actual measured value is
reported on the calibration certificate supplied with each instrument. The
dynamic signal from the accelerometer is superimposed on the DC bias level
and is extracted in the power unit.
Each LIVM accelerometer is ranged to produce 5 Volts output for full scale
(g level) input. The magnitude of the DC voltage source (compliance voltage)
in the power unit determines the overrange capability, i.e., the point where clip-
ping will occur on the positive waveform.
System Low Frequency Response
Piezoelectric accelerometers are effectively AC coupled devices (see Figure 2)
and as such, do not posses true DC response. However, with certain considera-
tions and precautions, these devices may be used to measure events at frequen-
cies as low as fractions of one Hertz.
The low frequency response of LIVM systems may be limited by the accelerome-
ter or by the power unit but more likely by the combination of both. Referring
again to Figure 2, it will be seen that an LIVM system contains two high pass
first order RC filters in cascade as described here:
1. Inside the accelerometer, the shunt capacitor and bias resistor located at the
gate of the amplifier and,
2. In the power unit, the coupling capacitor and the pulldown resistor/readout
load in parallel.
These low pass filters may be represented by the following equivalent circuit
(see Figure 3).
While exact analysis of this circuit is well known, certain helpful observations
can be quickly made. The time constant of each filter is the product of the
appropriate R and C as follows:
Figure 3: Equivalent LIVM system schematic.
10-32 TAPPED HOLE
10-32 ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR
MOUNTING STUD
MODEL 6200
IC AMPLIFIER
STRAIN ISOLATION
BASE
QUARTZ CRYSTALS
PROTECTIVE CAP
SEISMIC MASS
PRELOAD SCREW
COUPLING
CAP
+
BIPOLAR
BIAS RESISTOR
READOUT
LOAD
G
D
S
DC POWER
SOURCE
BIAS MONITOR
METER
SENSOR
QUARTZ ELEMENT
MOSFET
AMPLIFIER
CABLE
PULLDOWN
RESISTOR
CURRENT REG
DIODE
POWER UNIT
Vout
RL
READOUT
LOAD
in
C1
R1
R2
C2
-
+
V
1
= R1 x C1 (Seconds) and
2
= R2 x C2 (Seconds)
Consider 3 possible relationships between
1
and
2
:
1.
1
<<
2
In this case, the lower cutoff (-3db) frequency for the system is:
.16
0
= -------- (Hz) (Eq. 1)
1
The lower -5% frequency is:
-5%
= 3 x
0
(Hz) (Eq. 2)
The sensor is controlling the low frequency entirely in this case.
2.
1
>>
2
In this case, the output load and coupling capacitor determine the
low frequency response as follows:
The lower cutoff frequency (-3db) is:
.16
0
= -------- (Hz) (Eq. 3)
2
The lower -5% frequency is:
-5%
= 3 x
0
(Hz) (Eq. 4)
3.
1
=
2
In this case, where
1
and
2
are equal or close in value, the
combined time constant,
3
= (
1
+
2
) / 2
The -6db frequency is:
.16
-6db
= ------ (Hz) (Eq. 5)
3
The -3db frequency is:
0
= 1.6 x
-6db
(Hz) (Eq. 6)
The -5% frequency is:
-5%
= 1.6 x
-6db
(Hz) (Eq. 7)
These values are approximate and are to be used as a guide only.
Getting the Most From the Low Frequency Response
of the
Accelerometer
To measure ultra low frequencies with a very long TC LIVM accelerometer
where the AC coupling TC of the power unit is the limiting factor, a DC coupled
LIVM power unit (Model 4115B) is available. This unit utilizes a direct-coupled
summing amplifier to null the DC bias of the accelerometer by summing an
equal absolute value negative DC voltage at the input stage. The result is a zero
DC voltage level at the output, achieved with no coupling capacitor.
Using this power unit, the accelerometer discharge time constant alone deter-
mines the low frequency response of the system in accordance with previously
mentioned equations 1 and 2.
Another important consideration in selecting an accelerometer may be its high
frequency response.
Figure 4: High Frequency Response Comparison
Figure 4 shows the typical high frequency characteristics of four Dytran
accelerometers. These curves illustrate the undamped 2nd order system
response characteristic of the accelerometers and the bar graphs illustrate the
comparative useful frequency range of each model, the comparison criterion
being the +5% deviation from the 100 Hz reference sensitivity.
The high frequency response of any accelerometer is sensitive to mounting
techniques and may be modified by any anomaly that reduces the mechanical
coupling between accelerometer and mounting surface such as the use of an
adhesive, magnetic or ground isolation base, dirty or non-flat mounting sur-
face and too thick glue lines in adhesive mount installations. Follow the
mounting instructions outlined in the manual supplied with each accelerome-
ter for best results.
Sensitivity Standardization
The reference sensitivity (mV/g) of all Dytran vibration accelerometers is mea-
sured at 100 Hz at an input amplitude of 1g, RMS unless otherwise specified.
This is measured by the back-to-back comparison method. The sensitivity of
shock accelerometers (such as series 3200B) is determined by a drop-shock
technique developed by Dytran. All calibrations are NIST traceable.
Standardized models are considered to be those models whose sensitivities
3200B
LOG f
3
2
0
0
B
3
0
3
0
B
3
0
1
0
B
3030B
3
1
0
0
B
M
A
G
N
I
T
U
D
E
3010B
3100B
are specified to be within 2% of the nominal sensitivity value at 100 Hz.
Shock accelerometers, because of their nature, are not standardized. Consult
the product data sheet to determine which units have standardized sensitivity.
Piezodyne
tm
Technology
Dytran has perfected an advanced patented concept in LIVM technology that
increases the voltage output from piezo crystals using a feedback technique
with the standard unity gain IC LIVM amplifier. This concept, called
Piezodyne
tm
, (Patent no. 4,816,713) spawned a line of miniature, high sensitivi-
ty, high resolution accelerometers.
Because there is no gain amplifier used in Piezodyne, output noise does not
increase in proportion to the increase in output signal amplitude. The result is
a 6db improvement in signal-to-noise ratio and up to 8 times increase in sensi-
tivity.
RMS to Peak Conversion
The output voltage generated by an LIVM accelerometer has a direct correlation
with input acceleration. A 1g RMS sinusoidal input will produce a 1g RMS out-
put signal as illustrated in Figure 5. A 100 mV/g accelerometer (Model 3100B)
is used here as an example. Refer to figure 5.
Figure 5: Input/Output Waveforms
For sinusoidal vibration input, it is convenient to read the output with a true
RMS reading AC voltmeter. To convert this value to peak gs, simply multiply by
1.414. Example:
gs peak + 1.414 x gs RMS. and,
gs peak-to-peak = 2.828 x gs RMS
Shock Accelerometers
Shock accelerometers are designed to measure very rapidly changing high level
unidirectional transient acceleration inputs as might be generated by pyrotech-
nic devices, crash tests, impact tests, etc. They are characterized by small size,
high stiffness (for high natural frequency) and ruggedness. Model 3200B is one
such accelerometer.
The resonant frequency of series 3200B shock accelerometers is greater than
100 kHz resulting in excellent rise time and minimal ringing. These rugged 6
gram instruments feature integral 10-32 or 1/4-28 threaded integral mounting
studs (6 mm is also available) and hardened 17-4 steel housings. The sensing
element utilizes an exclusive 2-piece element base for stain isolation and high
natural frequency.
+g
0
1g RMS
t
t
Corresponding output voltage
signal from 3100B @ 100 mV/g
Input acceleration to 3100B
1g Peak
141.4 mV Peak
282.8 mV pk-pk
2.828 mV, pk-pk
-g
-v
0
+v
100 mV RMS
Input Acceleration to 3100B
Corresponding Output voltage
Signal from 3100B @ 100 mV/g
Introduction to Charge Mode Accelerometers
Dytran charge mode accelerometers are designed to measure shock and vibra-
tion phenomena over a broad temperature range. These accelerometers, unlike
the Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) types, contain no built-in amplifiers.
Dytrans charge mode accelerometers utilize high sensitivity piezoceramic crys-
tals, of the lead zirconate titinate (PZT) family, to produce a relatively high
charge output in response to stress created by input vibration or shock acting
upon the seismic system.
Because of the high impedance level of the charge mode signal generated by
the crystals, a special type of amplifier, called a charge amplifier, is used to
extract the very high impedance electrostatic charge signal from the crystals.
The charge amplifier has the ability to convert the charge signal to a low
impedance voltage mode signal without modifying it.
Figure 1: Typical compression design, charge mode accelerometer
Figure 1 is a cross-section of a typical charge mode compression design
accelerometer, model 3100C6. The sensitivity is 100 pC/g (pC = pico coulomb
= 1 x 10
-12
Coulomb) and the useful frequency range is up to 5 kHz. The
3100C6 operates at temperatures up to +500F.
A heavy metal seismic mass is preloaded against the piezoceramic crystals with
an elastic preload screw. The mass converts the input acceleration into analo-
gous stress on the crystals producing an output charge signal in direct propor-
tion to instantaneous acceleration.
When to Use Charge Mode Accelerometers
The question may be asked, When should I consider using charge mode
accelerometers vs. LIVM types with built-in electronics?
Charge mode accelerometers should be considered:
1. when making measurements at temperatures above +250F, the maximum
temperature for most LIVM instruments,
2. when the versatility of the laboratory charge amplifier is desired for system
standardization, ranging, filtering, integrating for velocity and displacement,
etc. and,
3. when adding or replacing accelerometers where existing charge amplifiers
must be used for economic or other reasons.
Two System Concepts
Charge mode accelerometers may be combined with a variety of electronic
components to create two basic measurement system classifications:
1. The conventional charge mode system, and
2. The Hybrid system.
The conventional charge mode system utilizes a sophisticated laboratory
charge amplifier while the hybrid system features simple dedicated range
miniature in-line charge and voltage amplifiers operating in conjunction with
LIVM current source power units.
The Conventional Charge Mode System
The versatile laboratory charge amplifier is the main feature of the convention-
al charge mode system. This section will familiarize you with the theory, oper-
ating characteristics and features of the basic laboratory charge amplifier.
Figure 2: Elements of the conventional charge mode system
Figure 2 illustrates a laboratory charge amplifier, model 4165 in use with a
model 3100C6 charge mode accelerometer. Series 6019A low-noise coaxial
cable is used to minimize triboelectric noise generated by cable motion. This is
a very versatile system whose signal conditioning options include:
1. Standardization of system sensitivity
2. Full Scale range selection
3. Discharge time constant choices
4. Filter options
5. 0-10 VDC out for sinusoidal input
6. Overload indication
7. Instant system zeroing (or reset)
8. External calibrate signal insertion
9. Front panel meter for observation of DC level of output signal
PIEZO CRYSTALS
ELECTRODE
PROTECTIVE CAP
SEISMIC MASS
PRELOAD SCREW
10-32 ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR
MOUNTING STUD
MODEL 6200
10-32 TAPPED HOLE
STRAIN ISOLATION
BASE
AC
DC
LIVM
CHG
1K
+10
DC VOLTS
-10 0
20
90
ELECTROSTATIC
CHARGE AMPLIFIER
AC VOLTS-RMS
2 1 0
O/L
3 0
80
0
10
RANGE
UNITS/VOLT
S
L
M
5 4 3
10
100
500
OUT
IN
10
7 0
1
FILTER
1K
100
200
20
2K
20K
ZERO
TC
PWR
6 0 4 0
10
50
50K
1.0 to 11.0
SENSOR
SENSITIVITY
pC or mV/UNIT
.1 to 1.1 5 0
CHARGE MODE
ACCELEROMETER
CHARGE AMPLIFIER 4165
METER
5K
10K
RESET
LOWNOISE CABLE
Charge Amplifier, Basic Theory
A charge amplifier is a special high gain, high input impedance inverting volt-
age amplifier with capacitive feedback. The amplifier is usually an operational
amplifier (op-amp) with near infinite voltage gain.
Figure 3: The charge amplifier
Referring to Figure 3, the input charge q
in
is applied to the summing junction
(inverting input) of the charge amplifier and is distributed to the input capaci-
tance of the amplifier C
A
and the feedback capacitor C
f
. We may write the equa-
tion:
q
in
= q
A
+ q
f
Eq 1
Using the electrostatic equation q = Cv and substituting in equation 1:
q
in
= v
A
C
A
+ v
f
C
f
Eq 2
Using equation 2 and making the appropriate substitutions and solving for the
output voltage of the amplifier in terms of input charge, amplifier loop gain,
and input and feedback capacitance we have:
-q
in
-q
in
1
V
out
= = x Eq 3
C
A
/ A + C
f
(A + 1) C
f
(1 + 1 / A) 1 + C
A
/ C
f
(A + 1)
where A is the open loop gain of the op-amp.
Now, letting gain A approach infinity, we have:
-q
in
V
out
= Eq 4
C
f
This result (Eq 4) shows clearly that the transfer function (gain) of a charge
amplifier is a function only of the value of the feedback capacitor C
f
. Notice
that input capacitance C
A
has no effect on the sensitivity of the charge amplifi-
er. This means that cable capacitance, for example, has no effect on the sensi-
tivity, a significant find when switching cable lengths and types.
Adding Versatility to The Charge Amplifier
Standardization of system sensitivity, say to exactly 10.00 or 100.00 mV/g is
accomplished by adjusting the amount of feedback with a potentiometer as
shown. Standardization is often necessary because accelerometers are rarely
ever made to exact sensitivities. The use of a precision multi-turn potentiometer
with turns counting dial allows the standardization of the system sensitivity by
dialing in the accelerometer sensitivity.
Referring to Figure 3b, changing the range of the charge amplifier is accom-
plished by switching various values of feedback capacitor into the feedback
path. This is accomplished with a rotary switch which has maybe 10 values of
precision capacitor arrayed around it.
Again referring to Figure 3b, feedback resistor R
f
gives DC stability to the circuit
and establishes the discharge time constant (TC) of the amplifier thereby set-
ting the low frequency response of the amplifier. A momentary reset switch (S1)
discharges the residual charge in the feedback capacitor returning the system
output to zero.
The circuit shown in Figure 3b represents only the first stage of a rudimentary
charge amplifier. One or more stages of filtering, integration and other features
can be added all in one compact package.
The Hybrid System
A Dytran hybrid system combines charge mode accelerometers with miniature
in-line fixed sensitivity charge amplifiers. These charge amplifiers are powered
by standard 2-wire LIVM power units.
Figure 4: A hybrid system with in-line charge amplifier
The hybrid system, (refer to Figure 4) is ideal for field use because of its small
size and rugged construction of the miniature charge amplifiers, for example,
Models 4751B and 4505A. These amplifiers are powered by conventional LIVM
constant current power units and transmit the output signal over the same two
wires as do conventional LIVM systems. The power unit separates the signal
information from the DC bias of the amplifier and couples it to the readout
instrument. As with conventional charge mode systems, low noise coaxial cable
is used to couple the accelerometer to the charge amplifier to minimize tribo-
electric noise.
S1
Cf
+
(a)
-v
out
Standardization
Potentiometer
A
C
-A
-
f R
0
10
C
A
f
S1
+
(a)
-v
out
q
in
C
-A
q
in
Rf
-
OPEN SHORT
24
NORMAL
0 12
USA
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
4 1
2 3
PWR ON
INPUT
S/N XXXX
MOD 4705AXX
SENSOR BIAS VDC
4114B
CURRENT SOURCE
CHANNEL
MONITOR
CHARGE MODE ACCELEROMETER
SIG/PWR
LIVM POWER UNIT
GENERAL PURPOSE COAXIAL
CABLE
SERIES 4705A
IN-LINE CHARGE
AMPLIFIER
LOW NOISE COAXIAL CABLE
(a) (b)
When to Use The Hybrid System
The hybrid system should be considered when:
1. The accelerometer is used to measure events at a temperature which is above
that recommended for LIVM instruments, i.e., instruments that have built-in
amplifiers and the environment is not favorable to laboratory charge ampli-
fiers.
2. System cost is an important factor. Per channel cost of the hybrid system is a
fraction of that for the conventional charge amplifier system.
3. LIVM current source power units are in-hand and must be utilized.
4. Ruggedness and small size of the measurement system is imperative.
5. A dedicated system without the versatility of a laboratory charge is sufficient
for the measurement task.
An accelerometer is an instrument that senses the motion of a surface to which
it is attached, producing an electrical output signal precisely analogous to that
motion. The ability to couple motion, (in the form of vibration or shock), to
the accelerometer with high fidelity, is highly dependent upon the method of
mounting the instrument to the test surface. For best accuracy, it is important
that the mounting surface of the accelerometer be tightly coupled to the test
surface to ensure the duplication of motion, especially at higher frequencies.
Since various mounting methods may adversely affect accuracy, it is important
to understand the mechanics of mounting the accelerometer for best results.
Calibration
Throughout the article we will refer to back-to-back calibration at times. It
will be informative to explain what is meant by this and to show how this type
of calibration is performed at Dytran.
Figure 1: Back-to-back calibration set-up
Figure 1 illustrates the components of a simple accelerometer calibration sys-
tem utilizing the Dytran Model 3120BK back-to-back accelerometer calibration
system, a small electrodynamic shaker, a signal generator, a power amplifier
and the readout instruments.
To perform a calibration, the test instrument is attached to the top surface of
the back-to-back standard accelerometer, (model 3120B) using the method to
be used in the actual application, i.e., adhesive or stud mount. At each frequen-
cy of interest, the input amplitude (in gs RMS) is set precisely by the back-to-
back standard system and the corresponding output from the test system is
recorded. To learn more about this topic, refer to the article Back-to-Back
Accelerometer Calibration in this series.
For purpose of analysis, a piezoelectric accelerometer may be considered to be a
second order spring-mass system with essentially zero damping. (Refer to
Figure 2).
The spring (K) is the crystal stack and the mass (M) is the seismic mass that
stresses the crystals to produce an electrical output proportional to acceleration.
The dynamic characteristics of this system determine the frequency response of
the accelerometer.
Figure 2: The accelerometer as a spring-mass system.
Figure 2a illustrates the accelerometer. Its spring-mass analogy is Figure 2b
and Figure 2c is a typical frequency response plot for such a system. The plot is
obtained by graphing accelerometer output vs. frequency with input vibration
level held constant at each frequency setting. Every such system has a mounted
resonant (or natural) frequency, f
n
characterized by a very high peak of output
at resonance. The solution for the differential equation of motion yields the
definitive expression for the resonant frequency as follows:
(Eq 1)
where: f
n
= system natural frequency (Hz)
K = spring constant of the crystal stack (lbs/in)
M = mass of the seismic system (Slugs)
Examination of the response graph (Fig 2b) shows that the lower frequency
portion of the curve is sufficiently flat to provide a useable range up to approxi-
mately 1/3 of the resonant frequency. This will not be the case however, if, dur-
ing the mounting, other springs are inadvertently interposed between mating
surfaces creating secondary spring-mass systems with lower natural frequencies
than that of the accelerometer itself. The following section is an attempt to
explain how this can happen if care is not exercised during mounting of the
test accelerometer. We start by exploring the various mounting methods com-
monly used to mount accelerometers.
Stud Mounting
The preferred method of mounting an accelerometer to the test object is the
stud mount method. (See Figure 3). The stud may be integral, i.e., machined
as part of the accelerometer or it may be separate (removable). The stud mount
method yields the best results because when the instrument is installed in this
fashion, the accelerometer and the test surface are essentially fused together
by virtue of the high clamping force of the stud, ensuring the exact duplication
of motion of both bodies at all frequencies.
The inclusion of a thin layer of silicone grease between mating surfaces aids in
the fidelity of motion by filling in any voids due to slight imperfections in the
mounting surfaces.
Accelerometer Mounting Considerations
OSCILLOSCOPE
CH A CH B
10 0
20
OPEN NORMAL
TEST
SENSOR BIAS VDC
CURRENT

SOURCE
4119B
SHORT
STD
ON PWR
DIGITAL
FREQUENCY METER
USA
OPEN
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
24
SHORT
0
SENSOR BIAS VDC
NORMAL
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
12
TEST ACCEL.
POWER UNIT
CURRENT
SOURCE
4110C
ON PWR
TEST
ACCELEROMETER
MULTIMETER
MOD 4119B STD.
SYSTEM PWR.
UNIT
BK-BK STD.
ACCELEROMETER
10 TURN POT
ATTENUATOR
2-POSITION
SELECTOR SWITCH
VIBRATION EXCITER
(SHAKER TABLE)
POWER
AMPLIFIER
n
LOG f
a
f
n
K
1/3 f
M
(b)
M
A
G
N
I
T
U
D
E
(c)
QUARTZ CRYSTALS
(k)
SEISMIC MASS (M)
(a)
n
f =
1
2
K
M
The Mounting Stud
The mounting stud itself is a very important factor of the performance of the
accelerometer. Most Dytran mounting studs are fabricated from heat treated
beryllium copper because of its high tensile strength and its low modulus of
elasticity. This means that the stud will be very strong and relatively elastic, a
perfect combination for the task of holding two surfaces together under a high
preload.
The collar that is machined into the stud (see Figure 3a) prevents the stud
from bottoming in either mounting hole. This ensures that the stud will be
centered between the two mounting holes so that both sides have adequate
thread engagement.
All Dytran accelerometers have a recess machined into the mounting surface to
accommodate this collar allowing both surfaces to be in intimate contact.
When installing the stud, it is best to first thread the stud into the accelerometer
to ensure that the stud enters the threaded port fully, then thread the
accelerometer into the mounting port until the surfaces meet and torque in
place.
In the design of miniature accelerometers such as the models 3030B, 3144A
and the 3200B et.al., interior space is at a premium and the only alternative for
stud mounting is the integral stud as shown in Figure 3b. This style of
accelerometer with reasonable care, will provide a long lifetime of normal
operation.
When Mating Surfaces Are Not Flat
As previously stressed, flatness of mating surfaces between accelerometer and
mounting surface, is of prime importance for best frequency response.. Here we
will examine the mechanics of a poor mount and its effect on frequency
response.
Figure 4: Non-flat accelerometer mounting surface
Figure 4a illustrates schematically, a condition where the accelerometer has
acquired a dished shape thru heavy usage. The mechanical analogy of this is
a leaf spring with spring rate K
m
as shown in Figure 4b. There are now two
spring-mass systems with this type of anomaly and both will affect frequency
response.
The new spring-mass system is formed by spring K
m
and the mass of the entire
accelerometer M
m
. The resonant frequency f
m
of this new system will most like-
ly be lower than that of the accelerometer and may affect the response curve as
illustrated in Figure 4c.
Even though the new resonant frequency is higher than the actual resonance of
the accelerometer, its effect will be to increase the output of the accelerometer
at the high frequency end of the accelerometer response.
Figure 3: The threaded stud mount
Two stud mount designs are illustrated in Figure 3, the separate stud in Figure
3a and the integral stud in Figure 3b. The separate stud style accelerometer is
the most popular for several reasons:
1. The removable stud allows easy access to the mounting surface of
the accelerometer for restoration of surface flatness should this become neces-
sary. Even with normal care, in time, after many installations, the mounting
surface of the accelerometer may become worn or damaged to a point where it
is no longer flat enough to affect a satisfactory mount and frequency response
will be compromised. It is a simple matter to restore flatness if the stud can be
removed and the accelerometer base can be applied directly to a lapping plate
for restoration of flatness. When the stud is integral and cannot be removed,
refurbishment of the mounting surface becomes very difficult and can only be
performed at the factory.
2. If the integral stud is broken or the threads become stripped or
otherwise damaged, the instrument may be essentially destroyed. On the other
hand, the separate stud can be easily replaced.
3. At times, with radial connector style accelerometers like the
model 3100B, it is important during installation, to orient the connector so that
nearby obstacles may be avoided. By exchanging mounting studs, the desired
orientation may be obtained.
4. The separate stud type accelerometer may be adhesive mounted
without using a mounting adapter, should this be desired.
M
m
K
m
ARTICLE VIII FIG 4
OCT 23 2000
(C)
(b)
M
n m f f
LOG f
M
A
G
N
I
T
U
D
E
(a)
K
LOWER SUB RESONANCE
ORIGINAL RESPONSE
NEW RESPONSE
ERROR DUE TO FAULTY SURFACE
ACCELEROMETER
(b) (a)
REMOVABLE STUD
TAPPED HOLE
INTEGRAL STUD
MOUNTING
SURFACE
(c)
(b) (a)
We have chosen for purpose of this explanation, a hypothetical non-flat condi-
tion to illustrate the mechanics of response degradation. This analogy can be
extended to include other situations where mating surfaces are precluded from
intimate contact such as when foreign particles are entrapped between mating
surfaces or when other types of surface irregularities exist. The results of all
such imperfections will be more or less similar in nature to the example chosen
here.
Surface Preparation
It is difficult to overemphasize the importance of flatness of mating surfaces in
the mounting of piezoelectric accelerometers, especially with regard to frequen-
cy response. All Dytran accelerometer mounting surfaces are lapped optically
flat where possible or machined to very tight flatness tolerances. The test object
surface must be as carefully prepared. Although lapping is usually not possible,
other machining processes such as spotfacing, grinding, milling, turning, etc.,
can produce acceptably flat mounting surfaces (flat to .001 TIR).
After machining the surface and preparing the tapped mounting hole, clean
the area thoroughly with compressed air and a solvent to remove all traces of
metal chips, cutting oil, and any other surface contaminants. Before installing
the accelerometer, spread a light coating of silicone grease on either mating
surface. The grease will lubricate the surface and ensure intimate contact by
filling in tiny surface imperfections, maximizing high frequency transmissibili-
ty to the accelerometer.
Mounting Torque
Although every Dytran accelerometer is designed to minimize the effect of
mounting torque variations on sensitivity, it is good practice to set the torque
level, using a torque wrench, to the value recommended on the installation
drawing provided with the instruments. This will ensure that the instrument is
properly mounted and will preclude the expense and delays that may result
from overtorquing and breaking or stripping the threads of mounting studs.
This practice will also eliminate one of the main causes of calibration inaccu-
racy.
Adhesive Mounting
Situations often arise where the stud mount method is impractical, even impos-
sible, such as when mounting the accelerometer to thin sheet metal or to other
surfaces where drilling a mounting hole is not allowable. In such cases, an
adhesive mount installation can be the only practical way to install an
accelerometer.
Some accelerometers are designed to be adhesive mounted directly to the test
surface. (models 3115A, 3105A, 3053A, etc.). Others utilize mounting adapters
or bases for adhesive mounting. These adapters are normally first glued to the
test surface, then the accelerometers are stud mounted to them.
Figure 5: The adhesive mount, direct and with adapter
Figures 5a and 5b illustrate two adhesive mount installations, one direct mount
and the other with adhesive adapter. Figure 5c shows the undesirable thick glue
line and figure 5d illustrated the mechanical analogy of the thick glue line
mount. The thick layer of adhesive is actually a spring and has the effect of cre-
ating a new spring mass system as previously described in the section When
mating surfaces are not flat, with a similar result as shown in figure 4c.
To avoid the thick glue line, we recommend the use of a cyanoacrylate adhe-
sive, sometimes known as Instant Bond adhesives. These types of adhesives
are readily available and are recommended because:
1. They set very quickly,
2. Not much adhesive is required for a strong bond so glue lines will necessarily
be very thin,
3. Cleanup is easy because these types of adhesives are easily dissolved with ace-
tone.
Some users report good results with dental cement. Because of its high rigidity,
acceptable transmissibility can be obtained even with the slightly thicker glue
line that results. However, the problem with dental cement lies with its tenacity.
We know of no solvent that readily dissolves it so removal of the accelerometer
can result in damage to the instrument.
In conclusion, when using the adhesive mount method, expect problems at
high frequencies in direct relationship to the mass of the accelerometer. If pos-
sible, calibrate your accelerometer using a back-to-back accelerometer system
(such as the 3120BK calibration system) using the exact adhesive that will be
used in the actual test. In this manner, you can determine the precise behavior
of your measurement system at the expected frequencies.
Removal (unmounting) of Adhesive Accelerometers
Many accelerometers and adhesive adapters have been damaged or destroyed by
improper removal. The only sure way to avoid such damage is to torque the
accelerometer or adapter with a wrench using the flats provided. Adhesives are
generally weakest in shear strength and will yield under steady torque. Under
no circumstances should you strike an accelerometer or adapter to remove it.
The accelerometer would most likely sustain damage and may, at best, change
calibration after such trauma. All Dytran adhesive mount adapters have hex or
other flats to facilitate removal.
Electrical Isolation Bases
Isolation bases are used to electrically insulate the housing of an accelerometer
from the test surface. This may be necessary to avoid annoying ground loops
which can interfere with the measurement process when the test surface is an
elevated electrical potential.
Be aware of the fact that the use of any such base will effect the high frequency
response in the same manner as previously described in the section The
Adhesive Mount. Again, we recommend calibration with the actual adapter to
determine the effect on high frequency response.
The model 6220 is an example of a well-designed isolation adapter with some
exceptional features. The design incorporates stainless steel upper and lower
bases with an insulating anodized aluminum disc sandwiched between them
under high preload. The lower base has an integral threaded stud and the
upper has a 10-32 tapped hole. The upper and lower bases are interlocked
(d)
M
K
(c) (b) (a)
Thick Glue
Line Analogy
Thick Glue
Line
Direct
Adapter
together to withstand high levels of mounting torque without damage. Both
upper and lower bases can be refinished to restore flatness without affecting
insulation.
Several anodized aluminum bases are also available for less demanding appli-
cations, (models 6226, 6244, 6245, and 6261 for example). These bases must
be handled carefully to avoid scratching the anodized surfaces that will com-
promise the insulating properties.
Magnetic Mounting Adapters
In general, magnetic adapters should be used with caution and rarely trusted at
frequencies above 1 kHz. Expect response degradation in direct proportion to
the weight of the accelerometer. There are some things the user can do to
ensure the best possible accuracy from the magnetic mount installation:
1. If possible, attach the magnet to a flat, bare, ferromagnetic metal surface
(See Figure 6a). A thick layer of paint on the test surface will lessen the holding
force of the magnet and could lower the effective high frequency response.
2. Clean the mounting area to remove any oil, grease and other foreign matter
which could preclude the intimate contact necessary to ensure a strong mag-
netic bond.
3. Select a flat area if possible, to achieve maximum surface contact. Avoid situ-
ations as illustrated in Figure 6b.
4. Attach the magnet to the test surface CAREFULLY. Remember that the pull of
a magnet rises sharply just before contact with the ferromagnetic surface and
this force could pull the assembly from your grip resulting in a very severe
metal-to-metal impact. This could overrange the accelerometer beyond its
maximum shock range and permanently damage it.
If possible, calibrate the accelerometer/magnet assembly by use of the back-to-
back calibration method.
Mounting Wax
Mounting wax is very convenient to use but we do not recommend this method
as a viable means of mounting an accelerometer. It should only be used when
no other alternatives are feasible. The inconsistency in thickness and the low
modulus (rigidity) of wax make the results unreliable at higher frequencies. As
previously mentioned, calibration with the exact wax to be used will give the
best indication of the expected results.
Figure 6: Magnetic mounting adapters
Magnetic mounting adapters are used to attach accelerometers to ferromagnet-
ic surfaces such as machinery and structures where the instrument is to be
moved quickly from place to place. The accelerometer is attached to the mag-
netic adapter (usually by stud mount) and the assembly is applied to the test
surface. While this method is certainly convenient, the user may be misled by
this convenience.
(a) (b)
Magnetic
Adapter
(a) (b)
To calibrate a vibration accelerometer is to accurately determine its sensitivity
(in mV/g or pC/g) at various frequencies of interest. The ISA approved back-to-
back comparison method is probably the most convenient and least expensive
technique.
At Dytran, back-to-back calibration involves coupling the test accelerometer
directly to a (NIST) traceable double-ended calibration standard accelerometer
and driving the coupled pair with a vibration exciter at various frequencies and
acceleration (g) levels. The assumption here is that since the accelerometers
are tightly coupled together, both will experience exactly the same motion, thus
the calibration of the back-to-back standard accelerometer can be precisely
transferred to the test accelerometer.
The Dytran model 3120BK vibration calibration system used in conjunction
with a small electrodynamic shaker, a signal generator, a frequency meter and
several other pieces of equipment provides an inexpensive means to set up a
calibration facility. The 3120BK may also be used with more sophisticated com-
puter driven automatic calibration systems.
The 3120BK Back-to-Back Calibration System
The model 3120BK vibration calibration system consists of a double ended cali-
bration accelerometer, (model 3120B), a standardization amplifier, (model
4119B), and the necessary interconnect cables and accessories. (See figure 1).
Figure 1: Model 3120BK system
Model 3120B Back-to-Back Standard Accelerometer
Figure 2 is a representative cross section of the model 3120B back-to-back stan-
dard accelerometer. This type of accelerometer is also known as a double
ended standard because of its two mounting surfaces. The lower surface
attaches to the shake table armature and the test accelerometer is attached to
the upper surface.
Figure 2: Model 3120B back-to-back calibration accelerometer
The quartz shear seismic element in the 3120B is mounted directly to the
underside of the upper mounting surface to position it in closest possible prox-
imity to the unit under test. This location ensures the tightest possible coupling
to the test accelerometer. The excellent strain isolation of the quartz shear ele-
ment serves to minimize the effect of the mass of the test accelerometer on the
sensitivity of the standard. Subsequent sections of this article will address this
phenomenon, known as mass loading.
Within the 3120B, the electrical output of the self generating quartz shear seis-
mic element is connected directly to the input of an integral IC impedance con-
verting amplifier. (See the article Introduction to LIVM Accelerometers for a
complete treatment of the Dytran internal amplifier concept). This amplifier
buffers the signal making it impervious to outside interference and to cable
generated noise.
The electrical connector of model 3120B is the convenient 10-32 coaxial type
which has become the industry standard.
Model 4119B Standardization Amplifier
The line-powered model 4119B supplies constant current power to operate the
IC amplifier in the 3120B and standardizes the system sensitivity to precisely
10.00 mV/g at 100 Hz. It also provides the necessary low-pass filtering to sup-
press the rising high frequency characteristic of the 3120B to provide flat fre-
quency response to 10 kHz. (See Figure 3).
Figure 3: Block Diagram Model 4119B amplifier
Back-to-Back Accelerometer Calibration
4119B
SENSOR BIAS VDC
0
SHORT
10.00 mV/g OUTPUT
CURRENT SOURCE
NORMAL
24
OPEN
USA
12
ON
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
PWR
6010A10 COAXIAL
CABLE
6200 MTG. STUD
(TYP)
3120B BACK-TO-BACK STANDARD
ACCELEROMETER
MODEL 4119B
STANDARDIZATION
AMPLIFIER
6020A05 COAXIAL
OUTPUT CABLE
IC AMPLIFIER
10-32 COAXIAL
CONNECTOR
TEST UNIT MOUNTING
SURFACE
10-32 TAPPED HOLE
TOP AND BOTTOM
QUARTZ SHEAR MODE
SEISMIC ELEMENT
VIBRATION TABLE
MOUNTING SURFACE
10.00 mV/g
OUTPUT
CURRENT
LIMITING
DIODE
INPUT FROM
3120B
A
-
+
FILTER STAGE
STANDARDIZATION
STAGE
A
-
+
C
+20
VDC
The constant current source, a 2 mA current limiting diode, is powered by an
internal 20 VDC power supply. A coupling capacitor C blocks the DC bias volt-
age which exists on the 3120B line, and connects the vibration signal (AC) to
the input of the standardization stage.
This variable gain stage adjusts the system sensitivity to exactly 10.00 mV/g at
the 100 Hz reference frequency. The next stage of the 4119B is a second order
Butterworth low-pass filter with adjustable frequency characteristics. This filter
is adjusted to exactly match the high frequency characteristics of the 3120B.
The rolloff characteristics of the 4119B cancel the rising characteristics of the
3120B at higher frequencies.
Performing the Calibration
Assemble the system elements as shown in Figure 4. Couple the test accelerom-
eter to the top surface of the 3120B. By setting the vibration frequency and the
amplitude (using the output of the 3120BK system) a frequency response curve
may be plotted for the test accelerometer. At each frequency, set the amplitude
(in RMS gs) and read the corresponding amplitude from the test accelerometer
(in RMS mV).
Figure 4: The complete calibration system
Mass Loading Compensation
It is appropriate at this time to discuss a very important but little emphasized
phenomenon associated with back-to-back accelerometers known as mass
loading.
The 3120B is initially calibrated with a single ended accelerometer, model
3010B, which has been calibrated by an NIST certified calibration station. This
accelerometer weighs 19 grams. When accelerometers (or velocity pickups),
weighing considerable more that 19 grams, are placed atop the 3120B, the
increased inertial loading due to the increase in mass, actually changes the
effective sensitivity of the 3120B inserting a small calibration error. This error
increases at higher frequencies.
These errors are negligible when calibrating units weighing up to 30 grams but
over this weight, correction curves should be constructed to compensate for this
effect. The following section shows how to establish the compensation curve for
test units of varying weights.
Mass Loading Compensation Curves
The mass loading effect is frequency dependent as illustrated in Figure 5a. This
figure shows a typical family of correction curves as plotted with various masses
atop the 3120B.
To plot a mass loading correction curve for a model 3120BK system, proceed as
follows:
1. Select a single-ended accelerometer to use as a transfer standard (preferably
a model 3010B). Weigh the instrument precisely and record this weight, in
grams.
2. Attach this accelerometer to the 3120B and determine its sensitivity at all fre-
quencies of interest using the 3120B as the standard. Record the sensitivity at
each frequency.
3. Weigh the new instrument to be calibrated. (If it weighs less than 30 grams,
you do not need mass loading correction.
4. If it weighs more (say 50 grams) subtract the weight of the transfer standard
from 50 grams and record. This is the needed weight of the compensation
mass.
5. Calculate the dimensions of a steel (or tungsten) cylinder required to equal
the result of step 4 and fabricate a compensation mass as shown in Figure 5b.
Note: It is important that the mating surfaces of the compensation
mass be very flat (optical flatness is preferred). This degree of flatness is best
obtained by a lapping process. Dytran has the equipment and skills to produce
compensation masses at reasonable cost.
6. Attach the transfer accelerometer and compensation mass together as shown
in Figure 5b, placing a light coating of silicone grease between all mating sur-
faces. Torque in place.
Figure 5: Typical correction curves and a compensation weight
OSCILLOSCOPE
CH A CH B
10 0
20
OPEN NORMAL
TEST
SENSOR BIAS VDC
CURRENT SOURCE
4119B
SHORT
STD
ON PWR
DIGITAL
FREQUENCY METER
USA
OPEN
FUNCTION
GENERATOR
24
SHORT
0
SENSOR BIAS VDC
NORMAL
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
12
TEST ACCEL.
POWER UNIT
CURRENT SOURCE
4110C
ON PWR
TEST
ACCELEROMETER
MULTIMETER
MOD 4119B STD.
SYSTEM PWR.
UNIT
3120B BK-BK STD.
ACCELEROMETER
10 TURN POT
ATTENUATOR
2-POSITION
SELECTOR SWITCH
VIBRATION EXCITER
(SHAKER TABLE)
POWER
AMPLIFIER
W
E
I
G
H
T

G
R
A
M
S
150
75
50
19
10,000
9.00
9.50
10.00
S
E
N
S
I
T
I
V
I
T
Y

m
V
/
g
100 10 1
LOG f
(a)
1000
COMPENSATION
MASS
TRANSFER STD.
ACCELEROMETER
TEST
ACCELEROMETER
MODEL 3120B
SHAKE TABLE
ARMATURE
(b)
EQUIVALENT
WEIGHTS
(c)
7. Using the sensitivity of the transfer standard (obtained in step 2) to deter-
mine the amplitude at each frequency point, determine the loaded sensitivity of
the back-to-back standard accelerometer and record each of these values. These
new sensitivity values plotted against frequency represent the correction curve
for that particular mass of test instrument.
8. Mount the test instrument atop the 3120B, as shown in Figure 5c and, using
the new values obtained in step 7, proceed to calibrate the test instrument by
setting the amplitude at each frequency using the corrected output from the
3120BK system and reading the corresponding output from the test instrument
at each frequency point.
NOTE: When using an RMS reading voltmeter to read amplitude
values, you may convert to equivalent peak g levels by multiplying the RMS
values by 1.414. This will only be necessary when calibrating velocity or dis-
placement pickups.
Figure 6: System dimensions
MODEL 3120B
6200 MOUNTING
STUD (REF)
1.07
1.79
USA
PWR
CURRENT SOURCE
NORMAL SHORT
INSTRUMENTS, INC.
4119B
OPEN
SENSOR BIAS VDC
10 20 0
ON
(b)
MODEL 4119B
7.75
5.50
.83
1.00
.625
(a)
The LIVM Sensor/Power Unit System
In order to fully understand the purpose of current source power units, it will
be necessary to first understand the operation of the low impedance voltage
mode (LIVM) sensors with which the power units are designed to operate.
Most Dytran sensors utilize a common drain unity gain MOSFET integrated cir-
cuit (IC) amplifier to reduce the impedance level of the self generating piezo-
electric crystals by 10 orders of magnitude (see Figure 1). Some Dytran sensors
have voltage gain ICs, others utilize miniature charge amplifiers. All operate
on the same two-wire principle. All of the amplifiers are located within the sen-
sor housing.
Figure 1: Unity gain LIVM sensor and power unit schematic diagram
The amplifier circuit illustrated in Figure 1 is called a source follower since the
source voltage essentially follows the gate voltage dynamically. This is a unity
gain amplifier.
The source load R
S
is remote, i.e., it is located in the power unit and not within
the sensor housing. It is apparent upon examination of this circuit that the
power to the sensor amplifier and the signal from the sensor amplifier are car-
ried over the same two wire conductor. This fact makes possible the convenient
two conductor operation which characterizes LIVM operation.
The voltage gain of the sensor amplifier shown in Figure 1 is:
V
out
Y
fs
G = ------------- = -------------- Eq. 1
V
IN
Y
fs
+ 1/R
S
Where:
Y
fs
= Forward transadmittance of the common drain FET. (Mhos)
R
S
= Dynamic impedance of the source element. (Ohms)
Using 40,000 Mhos for Y
fs
and 100,000 Ohms for R
S
and solving for voltage
gain g, we have:
40,000 x 10
-6
G = ---------------------------------------- = .99 Eq. 2
40,000 x 10
-6
+ 1/ 100,000
The result of equation 2 shows that the gain of the follower circuit is very close
to unity and indicates that the value of source resistor R
S
must be necessarily
very high to keep the gain close to unity. Yet this element (shown as a resistor)
must be able to pass enough drive current to give the system the ability to drive
the shunt capacitance of long cables when necessary. These demands pose a
dilemma for the source element RS.
The Current Source
The constant current diode possesses the necessary qualities to satisfy the
requirements of the source element. A drive current level to 20 mA and a
dynamic impedance of 100k Ohms.
At Dytran, we utilize two types of constant current devices . (see Figure 2)
A 2 mA JFET constant current diode (Figure 2a) is used in our battery operated
power units to keep power drain to a minimum to prolong battery life.
In our line-operated power units, we utilize a clamped base bi-polar transistor
constant current circuit. (see Figure 2b) The value of emitter resistor R
e
sets the
value of constant current. Dytran line operated power units with the variable
drive current feature utilize a multi-turn potentiometer for R
e
to allow adjust-
ment of sensor drive current over the range of 2 to 20 mA.
Figure 2: Two Constant Current Elements
The DC Power Source
In the portable Dytran power units, the energy to operate the LIVM sensor
amplifier is supplied by two 9-Volt dry cell batteries. In the line-powered units,
a well regulated DC power supply is utilized.
Several of our rack mountable multi-channel power units such as the 4116,
4120 and 4121 have provision for mains power and external battery power.
Terminals are provided on the rear panel to allow the connection of batteries in
field situations where AC power is not available or when lowest sensor noise
level is desired.
Introduction To Current Source Power Units
R
S
COUPLING CAP
Vout
+
in
S
G
PIEZO
ELEMENT
SENSOR
R V
POWER UNIT
CABLE
CAPACITANCE
DC POWER
SOURCE
CABLE
IC AMPLIFIER
in
V D out
ARTICLE X FIG 2
OCT 31, 00
PHYSICAL DIODE
SCHEMATIC OF JFET
CIRCUIT
SCHEMATIC SYMBOL
OF CURRENT DIODE
(a)
(b)
R
e
i
CONSTANT
CURRENT OUT
THE CONSTANT CURRENT DIODE
A CONSTANT CURRENT CIRCUIT
Sensor Bias Voltage
When the LIVM sensor is supplied with constant current from a current source
type power unit in the prescribed range of 2 to 20 mA, and +18 to +30 VDC
compliance level, the sensor amplifier will turn on at a bias level established
by the specific amplifier used in that unit. This bias level can range from +8
Volts to +13 Volts DC. To the power unit, the sensor amplifier looks like a zener
diode, i.e., the bias voltage is constant, unaffected by the current level applied
once the diode knee has been exceeded.
Figure 3: Bias Voltage Levels in the LIVM System
Referring to Figure 3, the signal from the piezo element applied to the gate of
the FET is at zero Volts (ground) quiescent level. At the source terminal of the
FET, the bias voltage is at the previously mentioned turn on level of +8 to
+13 Volts DC. To restore the output voltage level to zero volts quiescent, a sim-
ple DC blocking coupling capacitor C
c
, (usually 10F) is used in most Dytran
power units to couple the signal to the readout instrument.
This capacitor and the 1 Megohm pulldown resistor in parallel with the readout
instrument input impedance constitute a high-pass filter which may limit the
low frequency response of the measurement system. Refer to the section
System Low Frequency Response in the article Introduction to LIVM
Accelerometers for a more complete discussion of this topic.
Output Voltage Swing
Most LIVM sensors are ranged for a full scale output voltage swing of 5 Volts.
An overrange capability exists (the point where the signal clips) in most instru-
ments and it is informative for the user to know where this point is in both the
positive and the negative directions.
The maximum output voltage swing, without clipping of the signal, is con-
trolled by two parameters:
1. Power supply (compliance) voltage.
2. Sensor bias voltage.
Note: The exact bias voltage is reported on the calibration sheet supplied with
each LIVM instrument.
Figure 4: Output signal waveform clipping
Figure 4 illustrates the three different situations of output signal status as seen
at the source terminal of the LIVM amplifier using a hypothetical sensor whose
bias voltage we have set at +10 VDC. The waveform illustrated is typical of that
generated by an accelerometer subjected to a sinusoidal input stimulus.
The first waveform (Fig. 4a) represents a normal full scale output signal at 5
Volt level with no clipping of the signal.
The second waveform (Fig 4b) illustrates the overrange limit when using a
battery powered current source power unit such as the Dytran model 4102B
which has a +18 Volt supply voltage level. As seen in this example, overrange is
limited on the positive swing where the signal clips at the +18 Volt level, 8 Volts
above the +10 Volt bias level. The negative side remains unclipped since the
signal peak amplitude is well below the +10 Volt swing available before clip-
ping.
The third waveform illustrates the result on voltage clipping when using a line
operated power unit like the Dytran models 4110C and 4114B and others, with
+24 Volt compliance. This shift changes the overrange on the positive side to
+24 minus the +10 Volt bias or 14 Volts before clipping occurs.
Please note that in this illustration, we used a sensor with a bias voltage of +10
Volts. Dytran produces sensors with many different bias voltages. The overrange
capability of each specific model will vary dependent upon the specific sensor
bias chosen. Now you have the tools to accurately determine these overrange
points.
Sensor Drive Current Explained
The IC amplifier in most standard Dytran LIVM sensors can operate normally
with drive currents anywhere within the range of 2 to 20 mA. Battery operated
power units such as models 4120B, 4103B and 4105B utilize 2 mA constant
current diodes as the current source element. Line-operated power units such as
the 4110C, 4114B, 4120, 4121, 4116, etc., use variable constant current circuits
(as described in Figure 2b) to allow setting the sensor drive current within the
range of 2 to 20 mA.
A logical question that may come to mind is: Why do you fix drive current in
some power units and make it variable in others? Another question often
asked is: Why do you offer variable drive current and what level of current
should I use in my application if it is variable?
To answer the first question, we us a fixed 2 mA constant current diode in the
battery powered units simply to conserve battery life. For most laboratory or
field use when relatively short cables are in use, 2 mA of drive current is suffi-
cient to give satisfactory results while keeping battery life high.
The answer to the second question is a bit more complicated and the next sec-
tion is an attempt to answer it.
Driving Long Cables
Referring back to Figure 1, it can be seen that cable capacitance
appears directly across the source terminal of the LIVM amplifier.
Cable capacitance can become a significant factor when long cables
are being used. This capacitance loads the amplifier and can cause
signal distortion especially at higher frequencies. (See Figure 5a) This
type of distortion is caused by slew rate limiting as seen in opera-
tional amplifier circuits when this specification is exceeded.
0
-V
+V
INPUT RESISTANCE
OF READOUT
INSTRUMENT
+
cc
0
0
+V
-V
-V
+V
+10V BIAS VOLTAGE
in R
G
S
D
10V
t
(c) SIGNAL CLIPPING
SENSOR BIAS
(a)
0
14V
8V
(b)
10V
S
U
P
P
L
Y

V
O
L
T
A
G
E
+5V
+24V
+18V
+15V
+10V
SIGNAL CLIPPING
Figure 5: Slew rate limiting as seen in LIVM sensors
Figure 5 illustrates two manifestations of this effect when insufficient drive cur-
rent is supplied to the LIVM amplifier to charge the cable capacitance at a high
enough rate. Figure 5a illustrates the type of distortion as it might appear on a
sinusoidal waveform.
Figure 5b shows a result of insufficient drive current as it might affect the result
of a waveform that might be generated by a shock tube wavefront acting on a
LIVM pressure transducer.
The solution to these problems is to increase the sensor drive current sufficient-
ly to eliminate the distortion. The instruction manuals supplied with the power
units shows how to adjust the sensor drive current.
The distortion illustrated in Figure 5 is a function of several different system
parameters. These are:
1. Cable length as previously discussed. (This determines capacitive load).
2. Desired maximum output voltage swing. (This is determined by the
sensor sensitivity and the amplitude of the measurand).
3. The needed system high frequency response. (This is set by the rise
time or highest frequency parameters).
The interaction of drive current on these three parameters is illustrated in the
following chart, Figure 6. This chart will be helpful as a general guide to
choosing optimum drive current for your specific application and to illustrate
limitations in the system performance for various situations.
Figure 6 gives the sinusoidal frequency response of a typical LIVM sensor with
three different lengths of cable, four different drive current settings and two dif-
ferent full scale output voltage swings. The effects of these parameters can be
seen vs. drive current.
Please note that this chart represents the capability of the LIVM amplifier alone
and does not show the limitations which may be imposed by the particular sen-
sor element. Overall performance will likely be limited by other factors inherent
in the design of the particular sensor. For example, pressure sensors in general,
will have higher frequency capability than most accelerometers, etc.
Consult the specification sheet in the manual for the performance characteris-
tics of your particular sensor.
The chart, Fig. 6 is based on a cable capacitance of 30 pF/ft, the approximate
capacitance of RG58/U coaxial cable. Adjust chart values accordingly for cables
with differing capacitances per ft.
Figure 6: Cable Driving Parameters vs. Sensor Drive Current
NOTE: The combined lengths of input (sensor to power unit) and output
(power unit to readout) cables must be used when entering the chart for
unbuffered (passive) power units such as the 4102B, 4110C, 4121, 4116, etc.
Only input cable lengths need be considered for the buffered units such as
models 4105B, 4115B, 4125B, 4126, 4112B, 4119B, etc. These units have op-
amp circuits which can drive long output cables independent of sensor drive
current. Consult the sales department if you need help in determining which
units are buffered.
Why Not to Use Maximum Allowable Drive Current
Unless Necessary
The factory setting for all Dytran line operated power units with variable drive
current is 5 mA. There are several reasons why we do not set this current to 20
mA (the maximum allowable for LIVM units) and why you should increase this
current only when necessary.
The integrated circuit (IC) amplifier used in most LIVM sensors is necessarily
very small and its heat dissipation properties are limited. Low values of drive
current keep junction temperatures low, minimizing thermal stress and pro-
longing amplifier life. This is especially important when the sensor is used at
elevated temperatures close to the +250 maximum allowable temperature.
Another factor associated with drive current is that the background noise level
of the IC amplifier is lowest when drive current is low. Therefore, if maximum
(b)
SENSOR (OUTPUT)
WAVEFORM
SENSOR (OUTPUT)
WAVEFORM
INPUT WAVEFORM
INPUT
WAVEFORM
(a)
1000
100
10
500 kHz
700 kHz
25 kHz
80 kHz
500 kHz
Drive
Current
Cable
Length
@30 pF/ft
8 kHz
600 kHz
150 kHz
300 kHz
1300 kHz
40 kHz
70 kHz
16 kHz
200 kHz
300 kHz
900 kHz
150 kHz
100 kHz
1V Ft. mA
2
5
10
20
10
100
1000
1000
100
10
1000
100
10
Frequency Response 5%
Output Signal Amplitude
5V
20 kHz
10 kHz
50 kHz
5 kHz
1.7 kHz
50 kHz
resolution is important, it is best to operate with the lowest possible sensor drive
current.
Another reason to keep drive current low is to minimize transient thermal
effects during very low frequency measurements. In such situations, high ther-
mal dissipation from the IC amplifier, due to high drive current, can alter the
thermal equilibrium within the sensor and may cause annoying baseline shift
when the orientation of the sensor changes. This could show up as a drift on
the output signal.
See the section Extending The Low Frequency Response in the article
Introduction to LIVM Accelerometers for more information on the topic of
low frequency response.
The Fault Meter as a Troubleshooting Tool
Most of Dytrans current source power units incorporate a front-panel mounted
voltmeter which monitors the sensor bias voltage. On battery powered units, the
meter serves as a battery voltage monitor also.
Figure 7: Various fault meters
Figure 7a illustrates, schematically, where the meter is located in the power
unit. Figure 7b shows the low current DArsonval meter used in the battery
powered units and Figure 7c illustrates the 10-segment bar type LED voltmeter
used on most line-powered units. Although they look different, both meters
serve the same basic function.
These meters are handy system troubleshooting tools and they serve as confi-
dence builders for LIVM systems, especially for first time users of such systems.
Normal operation of sensor, power unit and cables is indicated by an approxi-
mate mid-scale reading on the meter (in the NORMAL area of the meter
scale). The reading is approximate because the normal tolerance on the bias of
standard LIVM sensors is from +9 to +12 Volts. The actual indication will thus
vary from sensor to sensor. This is normal.
If a short circuit exists across the SENSOR terminal, a zero Volts reading will
result. The meter will read in the SHORT section of the meter face.
NOTE: If a SHORT indication exists, do not worry about the power unit burn-
ing up. The SHORT current is limited by the setting of the constant current
source and will not exceed 20 mA.
By systematically disconnecting the cables, first from the sensor to the power
unit, then from the output, the fault can be located. If the fault disappears
when the 10-32 sensor cable is disconnected, look for slivers of metal which
can peel off of cable connectors and short across the cable ends. A small brush
will be helpful in removing these slivers of metal and correcting the short con-
dition.
If an OPEN (full scale) reading is noted, check for an open sensor cable.
Disconnect the sensor from the cable and leave the cable attached to the power
unit. Now short across the cable end with a metal object and observe the meter.
If the cable is good, the meter will go to SHORT when the cable end is short-
ed. If the meter does not go to SHORT when the cable end is shorted, the
cable is faulty and should be replaced. When a SHORT or OPEN indication
exists after the cable has proved to be intact, the problem may lie in the sensor
itself. Faulty sensors are not field repairable and must be returned to the factory
for evaluation and possible repair or replacement.
With no sensor attached to the power unit, the meter will read in the OPEN
area (full scale on the meter), verifying that the power source is functioning
and set at the proper compliance voltage.
With the battery powered units, the meter will indicate when it is time to
replace the batteries. When the BATT TEST momentary pushbutton is
depressed and held, this measures battery voltage and it should indicate above
the BATT OK line on the meter scale if the batteries are serviceable.
The Zero Clamp (DC Restorer)
When measuring relative unidirectional pulses such as may be gener-
ated by impact forces from a punch press, it is often desirable or even
necessary to maintain the baseline (zero) reference voltage during the
test. The Dytran zero clamp (standard on the model 4110C only and
available on special order on some other models) will retain the base-
line voltage during such testing.
Figure 8: Baseline shift and the clamped waveform
Figure 8a indicates what occurs to the baseline of the output waveform from
the typical LIVM AC coupled power unit under conditions as described here.
Starting at time t
0
, the pulse train baseline drifts slowly downward until the
area enclosed by the waveform above the zero line will exactly equal the area
below the baseline. This is the normal quiescent condition of a typical AC cou-
pled system. The zero baseline is lost.
Figure 8b illustrates the results under the same set of conditions as in Figure 8a
but using the Dytran zero clamp feature.
Dytran has designed an adjustable zero clamp circuit with a potentiometer to
make up for variations in the readout instrument characteristics and precisely
zero the baseline. Consult the catalog specification information covering LIVM
power units or contact the factory to determine which model power units (other
than the 4110C) are available with the zero clamp option.
SENSOR
MONITOR
METER
COUPLING CAP.
+
R
c
OUTPUT
OPEN
BATT.
O.K.
SHORT
10
NORMAL
(a)
20 0
SENSOR BIAS
DC VOLTS
NORMAL SHORT
24
(c)
(b)
12 0
OPEN
SENSOR BIAS VDC
-V
+V
0 t
(a)
+V
0 t
(b)
Introduction
A transfer function of a mechanical system describes its dynamic behavior in
response to an applied stimulus (excitation). There are six major transfer func-
tions used in mechanical systems analysis.
These are:
Dynamic Mass (Force/Acceleration)
Mechanical Impedance (Force/Velocity)
Dynamic Stiffness (Force/Displacement)
Compliance (Displacement/Force)
Accelerance (Acceleration/Force)
(Note that each of these transfer functions is itself a function of Force.)
Each transfer function describes the dynamic behavior of the mechanical sys-
tem in a different fashion and each involves the ratioing of the output
response to the input stimulus. Response can be measured most conveniently
with accelerometers placed at important points throughout the structure under
test. Spectrum analyzers perform the necessary mathematical ratioing on input
and response signals to produce, almost instantaneously the desired transfer
function.
The input stimulus (forcing function) may be applied to the structure by vari-
ous methods. One common way to excite structures is by use of an electrody-
namic or hydraulic shaker. A force sensor attached to the armature driving the
test object may be used to define input force amplitude and a signal generator
controls frequency. When the test object is too large to be excited in this fash-
ion, or when it is physically impossible to do so, there is another method to
consider.
An alternative method available to excite a structure without the complication
and expense of a shaker system, involves striking it with a calibrated dynamic
impulse hammer. A force sensor mounted in the head of the hammer trans-
forms the input force pulse into an analogous waveform that contains the nec-
essary amplitude and phase information to completely describe the forcing
function. Impact tip material stiffness helps determine the frequency content of
the input forcing function by controlling the impact pulse duration. By defin-
ing the frequency and amplitude of the forcing function, impulse hammers
present a fast, simple way to excite structures in a well defined fashion.
Spectrum analyzers in conjunction with hammer systems (with accelerome-
ters) can instantaneously plot transfer functions greatly simplifying testing and
saving valuable man hours. A branch of mechanical system analysis called
Modal Analysis, uses software to further refine the frequency response data to
describe in detail each mode (resonance and anti-resonance) of the structure.
The Impulse Hammer
The dynamic impulse hammer has two primary functions:
1. It must excite the test structure with constant force over the frequency
range of interest and,
2. It must produce an analog voltage pulse which is an exact representa-
tion of the input impulse (Ft) both in amplitude and phase.
A piezoelectric impulse hammer consists of a head assembly containing a force
sensor and a handle with rubber grip, interchangeable head extenders and sev-
eral different impact tips (steel, aluminum, hard plastic and soft plastic).
Figure 1 illustrates the construction of one of several models of Dynapulse
hammers produced by Dytran, the model series 5800B. The two other
Dynapulse hammers are the series 5801B and the model 5850B.
Figure 1: Impulse Hammer Structure
Dytran Dynapulse
impulse hammers utilize an exclusive acceleration com-

pensated quartz force sensor to ensure that hammer self-resonances do not pro-
duce spurious noise glitches in the hammer output signal spectrum. The
high rigidity of the force sensor combined with acceleration compensation pro-
duces a clean, smooth output signal which is an exact representation of the
forcing function, both in amplitude and phase.
The Low Impedance Voltage Mode (LIVM) force sensor is permanently mounted
to the front surface of the hammer head with electrical connections conve-
niently routed through head and handle, terminating in a BNC connector
located at the end of the handle. This streamlined concept in design was pio-
neered by Dytran and has become the industry standard.
Tailoring The Force Pulse
Since structures vary greatly in size, mass and dynamic response, input forces
with widely differing characteristics are required for proper excitation. For
example, small low-mass objects in general, will have higher response frequen-
cies and thus will require higher frequencies of excitation at lower force levels.
Heavier structures with lower frequency responses (resonances) require lower
frequency excitation at higher input force levels.
Using these general guidelines, the user can combine various head extenders
which alter the hammer head mass) and selected impulse tips (provided with
hammer systems) to create different impulse waveforms. A spectrum analyzer is
usually used to verify the input force spectrum produced by the various tip and
extender combinations.
Fourier analysis shows that faster rise time pulses with short pulse duration
contain the highest frequencies so use the metal (aluminum or steel) impact
tips and no head extender for quickest rebound to produce impulses with the
highest frequency content.
Introduction To Impulse Hammers
Figure 2 is a typical result from a Dytran series 5800B hammer as seen with a
spectrum analyzer.
Figure 2: Impulse Spectrum, Aluminum Tip, No Extender
To decrease the high frequency content of the input excitation, increase head
inertia by adding a head extender and use a softer impact tip to increase the
rise time and pulse duration. This will further lower the frequency content of
the excitation.
Figure 3: Impulse Spectrum, Hard Plastic Tip, One Head Extender
Figure 4: Impulse Spectrum, Soft Plastic Tip, One Head Extender
Figure 5 is an expanded view of the analog voltage pulse (time base) produced
by a 5801B using a hard plastic impact tip and no head extender. The pulse
duration is .640 mSec.
Figure 5: Hammer Pulse, No Extender, Hard Plastic Tip
Figure 6 is an expanded view of the pulse with added mass by use of a head
extender with the same impact tip as in Figure 5, above. Notice that the pulse
duration is longer.
Figure 6: Hammer Pulse, One Extender, Hard Plastic Tip
Coherence plots will enable the user to determine if the structure is being prop-
erly excited at all frequencies of interest. Various Impact tip materials and
extender mass can be substituted to achieve close to optimum excitation.
System Interconnection
Figure 7 illustrates how an impulse hammer system may be used in conjunc-
tion with a spectrum analyzer. A computer operating in concert with the ana-
lyzer may be added to perform modal analysis, a software based extension of
mechanical system frequency response testing.
Figure 7: Typical Impulse Hammer Analysis System
Hammer Selection
All Dytran hammers feature internal impedance converting IC amplifiers for
convenient LIVM operation. Hammers may be purchased separately or as ham-
mer kits which include accelerometers, power supplies, cables, several tips and
head extenders. The complete Dytran hammer line consists of seven different
hammer configurations, from the very miniature 5800SL to the large 12 lb.
sledge hammer model 5803A, to excite a wide range of test objects and struc-
tures from tiny turbine blades to viaducts. All Dytran hammers come supplied
with NIST traceable calibration certificates at no extra cost.
The following summary will help in determining the best hammer for your
application:
Model 5800SL: This miniature Super Light hammer was designed to excite
very light compliant structures such as small turbine blades and disc drive read
heads. Model 5800SL has a very high tip stiffness and low head mass making it
ideal for very high frequency excitation of small structures. A removable head
extender is supplied with each instrument. The impact tip, made from hard-
ened steel, is not interchangeable. Sensitivity is 100 mV/lbf.
Model Series 5800B: The first in the Dynapulse
series, model 5800B has a 100

gram head mass and is available in five force ranges from 10 to 1,000 lbf. full
scale. Interchangeable impact tips and a 40 gram head extender are supplied.
Acceleration compensation ensures a smooth frequency spectrum free from
anomalies. This hammer is recommended for general purpose use on bearing
housings, brake rotors, I-beams, plates and other small structures and
machines.
Model Series 5801B: This general purpose Dynapulse
hammer series is avail-

able in three force ranges, 500, 1000 and 5,000 lbf. Series 5801B hammers have
a 150 gram head which can be increased to 210 grams and 270 grams with the
two head extenders available. This hammer is recommended for engine block
castings, auto frames, airframes, machine tools, etc.
Model 5850B: The patented Dynapulse
Multi-Range hammer offers versatil-

ity to dynamics laboratories where structures of varying size and weight are to
be tested. A three-position toggle switch located in the handle allows the user to
select sensitivities of 1, 10 and 100 mV/lbf. The switch summons three different
ranging capacitors to change sensitivity and adds no electrical gain to the cir-
cuit ensuring that the three ranges share the same low noise level. The model
5850B effectively replaces three dedicated range hammers. Dynapulse accelera-
tion ensures smooth glitch free response. This hammer comes with three
impact tips and two head extenders to allow tailoring of the impulse. The very
wide dynamic range of this hammer provides adequate excitation of a multi-
tude of structures from small to large.
Model 5802A: This lighter sledge hammer (3 lb head) can be equipped with
any one of four interchangeable plastic impact tips of varying stiffness and can
be used to excite low frequencies in concrete castings, storage tanks, pipelines,
towers, etc.
Model 5803A: Our heaviest hammer at 12 lbs, this instrumented sledge ham-
mer has been used to shake buildings, bridges, dams and foundations.
Model 5805A: This is the lightest of the sledge hammers at 1 lb and was
designed to be used on smaller structures than the 3 lb 5802A.
By nature, cables are usually the weakest part of any measurement system.
Because they are somewhat fragile, they must be handled with care. The weak-
est point on the cable assembly is the intersection of the wire and the cable
connector, so excess stress at this point must be minimized. Sharp bends here
can overstress conductors and insulation causing cable failure.
Tie Cables Down
It is very important to anchor cables properly, especially when using accelerom-
eters for high shock and vibration measurements or any time excessive motion
is involved. Figure 1 illustrates the preferred methods of cable tie-down for sev-
eral styles of accelerometers. The idea is to cause the flexure to occur away
from the cable connector to avoid stressing this weak point.
Figure 1: Various Methods of Cable Tie-down
Relative cable motion at the sensor body or connector can cause erroneous out-
put signals at frequencies where cable motion is amplified by cable resonance
(sometimes called cable whip). Miniature accelerometers are especially sus-
ceptible due to their small size and relatively low mass. This problem can be
remedied by proper cable tie-down. A strain relief loop with proper tie-down will
ensure that cable flexure does not occur at the connector when the cable is fas-
tened to a stationary surface.
Figures 1a, 1b and 1c illustrate proper tie-down methods for situations where
the cable is tied to a surface which moves with the accelerometer. Figure 1d
illustrates the proper way to handle the case where the cable can be tied to a
surface which is stationary with respect to the accelerometer.
Cleaning Connectors
Clean 10-32 connector ends periodically with a stiff bristled brush dipped in a
solvent such as Freon TF
or equivalent. This will remove oil, other contami-

nants and metal slivers which can peel off from connector threads and short
across contacts.
Cleaning of high impedance low noise cable connectors used with charge mode
accelerometers is especially important since degradation of insulation resis-
tance can adversely affect low frequency performance.
Tightening Cable Nuts
When connecting 10-32 or 5-44 miniature threaded connectors, do not use a
pliers to torque the knurled cable nuts in place. Hand tightening is sufficient
for most applications. To hold the nut in place under severe shock or vibration,
we suggest the use of a mild thread locking compound. Use it very sparingly
and apply it only to the male thread (jack) to avoid contamination of the elec-
trical contact.
Cable Selection
At the time you purchase your sensor, the sales engineers at Dytran will recom-
mend the best cable for your application. Remember that general purpose
cables are used with LIVM sensors and low noise cables are used with charge
mode sensors. Small LIVM sensors generally use flexible light weight cables to
minimize cable whip effect.
Cables are available in any length with very few exceptions. Standard lengths
for most cables are three, five and ten feet. (These are the lengths most likely to
be in stock). The Model Series designation (6010A, 6020A, etc.) specifies cable
type and connector (s). The length of the cable (in feet) is added to this desig-
nation after the letter A. For example: Model 6010A10 is a series 6010A cable,
10 feet long. The combination of the series designation and the length in feet
constitute the complete cable model number.
Pricing per foot for the various cables can be found in the published Dytran
price list or can be supplied by our sales department. This pricing will be
expressed as a base price for the cable plus a cost per foot for the specified
length.
Output cables are used to connect the output jack of power units to read-
out instruments. This type of cable (series 6020A) uses RG-58/U coaxial cable
and has BNC connectors at both ends. All Dytran power units have BNC output
jacks as do most readout instruments such as oscilloscopes, analyzers, recorders
and meters, so this is the cable of choice for this purpose. Since this Model
cable is less expensive than most miniature coaxial cables, many users prefer to
make long runs with this type using various available adapters to switch
between 10-32 or 5-44 to BNC connectors as needed.
2-Pin Electrical Adapters
Models 6115 and 6116 connector adapters thread onto 10-32 sensor connectors
and permit the solder connection of light 2-wire ribbon cable or twisted pair
wire for LIVM sensors. These adapters are useful for situations where the use of
heavier coaxial cable is impractical such as in some high shock and vibration
applications that tend to destroy conventional coaxial cables. When using this
light cable, be sure to tie the sensor body as shown in Figure 2 to avoid stress
on the solder joints.
Figure 2: Solder Terminal Adapter
Cable Considerations
FIXED
(d)
MOVING
STRAIN
LOOP
"O" RING
(c) ) b ( ) a (
ADHESIVE CABLE CLAMP
ADHESIVE
CABLE CLAMP
(b)
MODEL 6115
ADAPTER
MODEL 3200B
SHOCK ACCEL.
TWISTED
PAIR
"O" RING
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(b)
MODEL 3200B
SHOCK ACCEL.
MODEL 6115
ADAPTER
O RING
TWISTED
PAIR
Low Frequency Response, Piezo Sensors
Lower Corner Frequency (-3dB Frequency) 1st Order High Pass
1 1 1 1 .16
f
c
= ------ x ------ = ------ x ------ x ------- (Hz)
2 2 TC TC
Note: = TC = Discharge Time Constant, Seconds
Lower -5% frequency = 3 x f
c
, e.g., f
-5%
= 3f
c
(Hz)
Sinusoidal Waveform
Average Value = 0.637 x Peak Value
RMS Value = 0.707 x Peak Value
Peak Value = 1.414 x RMS Value
Peak to Peak Value = 2 x Peak Value
Peak to Peak Value = 2.828 x RMS Value
Acceleration
Multiply by To Obtain
Accel. of Gravity 9.80665 meters/sec
2
32.174 feet/sec
2
386.088 inches/sec
2
cm/sec
2
0.010 meters/sec
2
feet/sec
2
0.3048 meters /sec
2
inches/sec
2
0.02540 meters/sec
2
Velocity
feet/minute 5.080 mm/sec
feet/sec 0.3048 meters/sec
inches/sec 0.0254 meters/sec
km/hour 0.6214 miles/sec
knots 0.5144 meters/sec
1.151 miles/hr US
meters/sec 3.2808 feet/sec
2.237 miles/hr US
miles/hour 88.0 feet/min
0.447 meters/sec
1.6093 km/hr
0.8684 knots
Pressure
atmospheres 1.01325 bars
33.90 feet of H
2
O
29.92 inches of Hg
760 mm of Hg
101.325 kN/m
2
(kPa)
14.696 lbs/in
2
bars 75.01 cm of Hg (Torr)
10
5
N/m
2
(Pa)
14.50 lbs/in
2
dyne/cm
2
0.1000 N/m
2
(Pa)
inches of H
2
O 248.84 N/m
2
(Pa)
0.07355 inches of Hg
kg (f)/cm
2
14.22 lbs/in
2
9.80665 N/m
2
(Pa)
mm of Hg (torr) 133.32 N/m
2
(Pa)
0.01933 lbs/in
2
13.595 mm of H
2
O
newtons/cm
2
1.450 lbs/in
2
N/m
2
(Pa) 1.450 x 10
-4
lbs/in
2
lbs/ft
2
0.19242 inches of H
2
O
47.880 N/m
2
(Pa)
lbs/in
2
0.06805 atmospheres
2.036 inches of Hg
27.708 inches of H
2
O
68.948 millibars
703.77 mm of H
2
O
51.72 mm of Hg
0.68948 N/cm
2
6894.8 N/m
2
(Pa)
7.031 x 10
-4
kg (f)/mm
2
Force/Mass
dynes 10
-5
newtons
grams (force) 980.7 dynes
kilograms (force) 9.80665 newtons
1.00 kilopound newton
10
-5
dynes
0.1020 kilograms (force)
3.597 ounces (force)
0.2248 lbs (force)
7.2330 poundals
ounces (force) 0.2780 newtons
0.0625 pounds (force)
pounds (force) 16.00 ounces (force)
0.45359 kilograms (force)
4.448 newtons
tons (force, short) 2000 pounds (force)
8896 newtons
carats 0.200 grams
grams 0.03527 ounces (advp)
kilograms 2.2046 ounces (advp)
ounces (advp) 28.35 grams
pounds (avdp) 16.0 ounces (avdp)
453.6 grams
Relationships, Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
Useful Formulae and Conversion factors
Peak
Peak to Peak
Average
RMS
DISPLACEMENT (x)
2
note 180
phase shift
from displ.
note 90
phase lead
dv
dt
a = ---- = - A sin t
2

x = A sin t
A
A
A = Peak Displacement
v = ---- = A cos t
dx
dt

ACCELERATION (a)
VELOCITY (v)
Acceleration Compensation
A design incorporating components within the sensor to cancel the effect of
motion (vibration) on the sensor output signal.
Acceleration Sensitivity
In a pressure transducer or impulse hammer, this refers to the unwanted out-
put signal from the sensor in response to vibration in the sensitive axis of the
sensor. This parameter is specified in terms of psi/g for pressure sensors and
Lbs/g for impulse hammers. Certain Dytran sensors such as the Series 2200 and
2300 pressure sensors and the Dynapulse series of impulse hammers are
acceleration compensated to minimize this effect.
Charge Mode
Sensors which contain piezoelectric crystals but no built-in electronics. These
sensors may use quartz or piezoceramics to generate electrostatic charge sig-
nals in response to input measurands.
Current Source Power Unit
A power supply expressly designed for use with Low Impedance Voltage Mode
(LIVM) sensors consisting of an energy source (batteries or DC power supplies)
and a constat current element. These units are characterized by stable constant
current output and high dynamic impedance. They also serve as signal decou-
pling devices.
Discharge Time Constant (TC)
The time required for the output voltage from a sensor or system to discharge
to 37% of its original value in response to a zero rise time step function input.
This parameter determines low frequency response.
Fault Monitor Meter
A DC Voltmeter incorporated into LIVM power units to read the DC voltage at
the output of the current source. If a sensor is connected, the meter reads the
sensor bias voltage and can be used to indicate open and shorted cables and
sensors or to verify normal system operation.
Frequency Response
The highest and lowest frequencies at which measured deviations from a refer-
ence sensitivity (usually 100 Hz) lie within a specified error. The deviations are
usually specified as -5%, but in some cased -3dB is specified.
LIVM
Low Impedance Voltage Mode, Dytrans Trademark describing its line of piezo-
electric sensors with built-in impedance converting electronics.
Linearity
Actually the non-linearity or deviation from a straight line in a plot of output
amplitude vs. input amplitude of a sensor or system. At Dytran, we use the pop-
ular zero based best straight line method of determining linearity. Full scale is
determined, a zero based best straight line plot of output vs. input is made, an
error band is created using a specified percent of full scale. All points on the
curve must fall within this error band.
Mass Loading
The change in actual sensitivity of a back-to-back accelerometer when loaded
with masses significantly different from the transfer standard with which it was
originally calibrated. Correction curves of actual sensitivity vs. frequency are
referred to as mass loading correction curves.
Normalization
See Standardization.
Phase Shift
The difference in phase angle between input measured and output electrical
signal, measured in degrees. The response may lag or lead the input.
Picocoulomb
A measure of electrostatic charge output from piezoelectric sensors.
1 Picocoulomb= 1 x 10
-12
Coulomb.
RMS
Root Mean Square. In AC theory, this is the heating value of an AC wave-
form and it is equal in amplitude to .707 times the peak value of the waveform.
Most AC meters are calibrated to read in RMS. To obtain the peak value of the
waveform, multiply the RMS value by 1.414.
Resonant Frequency
Also called natural frequency. The lowest frequency of a second order system
(spring-mass system) which satisfies the solution to the differential equation of
motion.
At this frequency, the amplitude increases by factors of as much as 100. The
useable upper frequency of a sensor is determined by this parameter. All sensors
are spring-mass systems with intrinsic natural frequencies
Rise Time
The time required for a sensor or system to respond to an instantaneous input
step function, measured from the 10% to 90% points on the response wave-
forms.
Sensitivity
The scale factor of a sensor or system, measured in terms of change in output
signal per change in input measured. Accelerometer sensitivity is expressed in
terms of mV or pC/g, pressure sensor sensitivity is expressed in terms of mV or
pC/psi and force sensor sensitivity is expressed in terms of mV or pC/LbF.
Sensor Bias
When LIVM sensors are supplied with constant current, a DC voltage bias exists
at the center conductor of the sensor connector. The output signal is superim-
posed on this DC bias. The power unit extracts the signal from this bias by vari-
ous means, effectively blocking it. The normal range for this voltage is +9 to
+12 volts.
Standardization
As applied to systems, refers to the application of gain or attenuation as needed
to correct the sensitivity of a sensor to the exact nominal (or design) sensitivity.
As applied to sensors, refers to the process by which the sensor sensitivity is
brought close to the nominal value. In specification sheets, it is the highest
acceptable deviation of the measured sensitivity from the nominal value,
expressed in percent.
Transient Thermal Response
The time history of the change in output (voltage or charge) from a sensor
resulting from a sudden change in ambient temperature.
Transverse Sensitivity
The output of an accelerometer in response to motion in directions orthogonal
to its sensitive axis, expressed as a ratio of measured output to cross axis input,
in percent.
Thermal Coefficient of Sensitivity
The measured change in the sensitivity (of scale factor) of a sensor, from its
room temperature (reference) value to the value at a higher or lower stabilized
ambient temperature. This parameter is measured in percent of change in sen-
sitivity per degree of temperature deviation.
Triboelectric Noise
The unwanted generation of electrical charges by the chafing together of insu-
lation layers inside electrical cables during flexing caused by vibration and
shock induced motion.
Zero Shift
The change in baseline level of the output voltage of an accelerometer immedi-
ately after a mechanical shock.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
n
f =
1
2
K
M
k

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Introduction

Piezoelectric sensors (Transducers) measure dynamic phenomena such as

impulse hammers utilize an exclusive acceleration com-

series, model 5800B has a 100

hammer series is avail-

Multi-Range hammer offers versatil-

or equivalent. This will remove oil, other contami-

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