Rationalization of Exhaust System Mounting Brackets

RATIONALIZATION OF EXHAUST SYSTEM MOUNTING
BRACKETS FOR BUSES AND TRUCKS

By

V.ARUL RAJ
[Reg. No.512211408001]
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted to the
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

In partial fulfilment of requirements
for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI 600 025

JUNE 2014

SKP ENGINEERING COLLEGE, TIRUVANNAMALAI

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

PROJECT WORK

PHASE II

JUNE 2014

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report titled RATIONALIZATION OF EXHAUST
SYSTEM MOUNTING BRACKETS FOR BUSES AND TRUCKS is the bonafide work
of Mr. V.ARUL RAJ (REG.NO:512212408001) who carried out the research under my
supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does
not form part of any other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or
award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr.M. SIVASANKAR Dr.M.KANNAN
SUPERVISOR PROJ ECT CO ORDINATOR
S.K.P Engineering College, S.K.P Engineering College,
Thiruvannamalai-606 611 Thiruvannamalai-606 611

Submitted for the University Examination held on _______________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my duty to thank the GOD Almighty and my beloved parents and teachers
for their persistent blessing and constant encouragement to reach this level of I am
today.
A project of this nature needs co operation and support from many for
successful completion. In this regard, I am fortunate to express my heartfelt thanks to
our beloved Chairman Mr.K.KARUNANITHI B.E., Secretary, Mr.R.KUPPUSAMY,
Vice Chairman, for providing necessary facilities with high class environment
throughout the course.
I take the privilege of expressing my sincere thanks to our beloved Academic
Director, Dr.C.KUMAR Ph.D., for granting permission to undertake the project and I
also express my heartfelt thanks to Principal, Dr. R.K.GNANAMURTHY Ph.D., for
his advice in accomplishing this project work.
I am most grateful to Dr. M. KANNAN Ph.D., Head of the Department, P.G.
Studies (Mechanical Engineering), for his astonishing guidance and encouragement
for the successful completion of this project. They held me to the highest standards of
quality and accuracy, who has given me both moral and technical support adding
experience to the job I have undertaken.
I thank my project guide Last but not the least. I would like to thank my Staffs
Mr.N.Sarankumar, Mr.V.Bakkiyaraj, my class mates, my family members, friends,
teaching and non-teaching staffs, who has assisted us directly or indirectly throughout
this project.

i

ABSTRACT
Designing and analyzing of the silencer mounting bracket of trucks, this mounting
bracket holds the whole silencer assembly so it plays a vital role in silencer assembly. As a
result modeling and analyzing are major factors to implement this bracket, now days, so
many mediators raised to resolve the above factors. Like finite element analysis As a
traditional procedure, tests are made to assure the proper structural design of vehicles and
Life determination. There is a worldwide trend to use more computer simulation during the
Development phase of new vehicles, in order to improve structural behavior and decrease the
time to Market and costs. An accurate finite element model must be generated in order to
predict the system Structural behavior and to allow fast optimization processes. This work
shows the CAE procedure Applied to a whole system for a heavy truck. The idea of using
product line rationalization process paves a way to eliminate unusual parts, thereby reducing
the making cost without compromising the performance of the exhaust mounting bracket
system.

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OBJECTIVE
A. Mounting brackets in the exhaust system has to be rationalized.
B. Elimination and rationalization of mounting bracket by
(1) Nolonger used parts based on confirmation from the design department.
(2) Duplication/repeated parts identified by part number repetition.
(3) Recommendation of new mounting brackets based on verification by CAE
analysis.
The exhaust system assembly is subjected to force while, braking, cornering and vertical
loading condition in addition to its self weight and mass. For various loading cases in static,
dynamic for fatigue life calculation to evaluate the durability of exhaust mounting brackets
SOFTWARW USED
CATIA - Modeling
Hyper Mesh - preprocessing
Msc. Nastran, Msc. fatigue - Solver
Hyper view - Post processing

RATIONALIZATION
Product Line Rationalization, which can eliminate the most unusual parts from plants as the
most unusual products are eliminated or outsourced This is especially applicable of older-technology
parts, like through-hole circuit board components, which could be rationalized away if the older
products were eliminated or outsourced, thus allowing plants to focus on only surface-mount
components. A related topic would be the elimination or outsourcing of legacy products and spare
parts, which could greatly reduce the part variety in the plants.
Analyze production histories of all products with special scrutiny on replacement products and
any products with low volume, infrequent demand, and high overhead cost (reported or not).

iii

Conduct surveys of manufacturing personnel to identify products that, in the opinion of the
respondents, are incurring more overhead cost and resources than we think.
Identify products that can be immediately eliminated and outsourced.
Identify money saved and resources free from rationalization.
Analyze current and potential processing steps to evaluate candidate product groupings that
could eventually all be made without setup in batch-size-of-one. This includes material resupply,
machine setup, downloading CNC programs, fixturing parts, changing materials, and finding and
understanding instructions.
Structure products into meaningful product families to support lean production, BTO and mass
customization look for any family that corresponds to one customer or industry. Converge on best-case
product family grouping plan.
Identify products that do not fit into any product family. Estimate total costs and true
profitability on these with a general model that estimates setup and other costs based on batch size,
setup time, and build frequency. Obtain sales, marketing, and discrete customer feedback on tentative
proposals to drop or outsource products. Reevaluate those which might appear to have value to the
product line to either (1) stretch potential process flexibility to include them or (2) propose outsourcing,
which could be a niche product Emerson plant or an outside outsourcer. Identify the remaining products
for recommendations to be eliminated. Investigate any salvage value of dropped products for licensing
or sale. Estimate savings and benefits to resource availability, other improvement programs, total costs,
and the bottom line.
Investigate substitution list for alternatives to rationalized products or products to be
discouraged.
Investigate opportunities to redirect liberated resources to improve remaining products with
respect to performance, cost, and sales.

iv

Investigate any trends regarding quality problems on older products that are built infrequently in
low-volume. Summarize cost of quality and throughput implications. Single out worst offenders for
elimination or corrective action, such as redesign of the product or manufacturing processes.
Propose steps to educate and hand-hold customers through ensuing transitions, explaining
reasons for product eliminations and price changes (to rectify money-losing production). Point out how
the remaining products will now be available at lower cost and better delivery.
Identify opportunities for producing families of standard product in a spontaneous build-to-
order environment and custom products through mass customization.
Investigate opportunities for standardization of parts and raw materials.
Investigate processing improvements necessary to be able to process product family groups
more flexibly. Prepare estimates of cost of improvements in capital, calendar time, and human
resources, including how much of the human resources will be freed up by eliminating high-overhead
products. Estimate immediate and long term savings and benefits. Prioritize opportunities.
Investigate impact and contingency plans for interim production of product families in existing
batch-oriented operations. Add this impact assessment to help prioritize manufacturing improvements
and rationalization activities.
Speculate on competitive advantages from rationalization and competitors offering only cash
cow products.
Present recommendations for products to be dropped or outsourced, product family groupings,
and a range of processing improvements to improve processing flexibility. Decide on implementation.
v

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER
NO

TITLE

PAGE
NO
ABSTRACT I
OBJECTIVE II
TABLE OF CONTENT V
LIST OF FLOW CHART IX
LIST OF FIGURES X
LIST OF TABLES XI
LIST OF BAR CHARTS XII

1 HISTORY OF ASHOK LEYLAND 1
1.1 ABOUT ASHOK LEYLAND 2
1.2 HISTORY 2
1.3 ASSOCIATIVE COMPANIES 3
1.4 VISION 3
1.5 NISSAN ASHOKLEYLAND 4
1.6 IBUS 4

2 CAE -PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT 7
2.1 CAE OBJECTIVES IN ASHOK LEYLAND 8
2.2 INTRODUCTION 9
2.3 SUB DIVISIONS OF CAE 9
2.3.1 DURABILITY 9
2.3.2 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD) 10
2.3.3 MULTI BODY DYNAMICS (MBD) AND KINEMATICS 12
2.3.4 NOISE, VIBRATION AND HARSHNESS (NVH) 13
2.3.5 CRASH AND SAFETY 14
2.3.6 FATIGUE ANALYSIS 17
2.4 GENERAL PROCEDURE OF A PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT

3 EXHAUST SYSTEM 19
3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF EXHAUST 19
vi

SYSTEM
3.1.1 FLANGE 20
3.1.2 CATALYTIC CONVERTER 20
3.1.3 O2 SENSOR 20
3.1.4 MUFFLER 20
3.1.5 RESONATOR 20
3.1.6 TAIL PIPE 21
3.1.7 PRIMARY EXHAUST SYSTEM 21
3.1.8 SECONDARY EXHAUST SYSTEM 21
3.2 WORKING OF EXHAUST SYSTEM 23
3.3 NOISE LEVEL ATTENUATION 24
3.4 MUFFLERS CAN ATTENUATE THE NOISE IN ONE OF
THE FOLLOWING WAYS
25
3.4.1 PASSIVE 25
3.4.2 ACTIVE 25

4 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 27
4.1 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 27
4.1.1 ANALYTICAL METHOD 27
4.1.2 NUMERICAL METHOD 27
4.1.3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD 27
4.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALYTICAL, NUMERICAL
AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
28
4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF NUMERICAL METHODS 28
4.3.1 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD (FEM) 29
4.3.2 BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHOD (BEM) 29
4.3.3 FINITE VOLUME METHOD (FVM) 29
4.3.4 FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD (FDM) 29
4.4 THERMAL AND CFD COUPLED PROBLEMS 30
4.5 TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 30
4.5.1 FINITE 31
4.5.2 ELEMENT 31
vii

4.5.3 ANALYSIS 31
4.6 PROCEDURE FOR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 31
4.6.1 PRE-PROCESSING 32
4.6.2 PROCESSING OR SOLUTION 32
4.6.3 POST PROCESSING 34
4.7 DISCRETIZATION OF PROBLEM 35
4.8 GENERAL ELEMENT QUALITY CHECK 36
4.8.1 SKEWNESS 37
4.8.2 ASPECT RATIO 37
4.8.3 WARPAGE 37
4.8.4 JACOBIAN 37
4.8.5 FINAL CHECKS FOR 2-D MESHING 38
4.9 TYPE OF ELEMENTS 39
4.9.1 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS 40
4.9.2 TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS 40
4.9.3 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS 40
4.10 NECESSITY OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 40
4.10.1 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS FOR DESIGN ENGINEER 41
4.10.2 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS FOR DESIGN
ORGANIZATION
41
4.11 APPLICATIONS OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 41
4.11.1 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD BASED ON TYPES OF
ANALYSIS
41
4.11.2 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD BASED ON TYPES OF
JOBS
41
4.12 ADVANTAGES OF FEA 46
5 DATA BASE COLLECTION 47
5.1 DATA BASE COLLECTION 47
5.2 DATA COLLECTION PARAMETERS 49
5.3 MODIFIED BRACKET FOR ANALYSIS 52
5.3.1 EXISTING PART 1 52
5.3.2 EXISTING PART 2 52
viii

6 TYPES OF ANALYSIS 56
6.1 FREE- FREE MODAL 56
6.2 STATIC ANALYSIS 57
6.3 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 59
6.4 FATIGUE ANALYSIS 60

7 COMPARITIVE RESULTS FOR MOUNTING
BRACKETS
63
7.1 FREE- FREE MODAL ANALYSIS 63
7.3 BRAKING ANALYSIS 66
7.4 CORNERING_RH ANALYSIS 68
8 8.1 FE VALIDATION 74
8.2 THEORETICAL CALCULATION FOR EXISTING
MODEL
74
8.3 THEORETICAL & PRACTICAL COMPARISON OF
STRESS
75
8.4 FE SOLUTION 76

9 CONCLUSION 77
9.1.1 VERTICAL_1G 77
9.1.2 BRAKING 77
9.1.3 CORNERING 78
9.1.4 FATIGUE ANALYSIS 78
9.2 FUTURE SCOPE 78
10 REFERENCES 78

ix

LIST OF FLOW CHART
FLOW
CHART
NO

TITLE

PAGE NO

2.1
ROLE CAE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

8
2.2 GENERAL PROCEDURE OF A PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT 18

3.1 PRIMARY FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN
EXHAUST SYSTEM
22
3.2 WORKING OF EXHAUST SYSTEM 24

5.1 DATA COLLECTION 47

6.1 FREE - FREE MODAL ANALYSIS 57
6.3 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 60

x

LIST OF FIGURES
FIG NO TITLE

PAGE NO
3.1 OVERALL SCHEMATIC OF AN AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST
SYSTEM
19

4.1 DISCRETIZATION PROCESS 36
4.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS 39
4.3 TWO -DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS 40
4.4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS 40

5.1 HANGER BRACKET 49
5.2 HANGER BRACKET SPECIFICATIONS 49
5.3 PART 1 CAD MODEL OF HANGER BRACKET 52

5.4
PART 2 CAD MODEL OF HANGER BRACKET

53
5.7 PART 4 CAD MODEL OF HANGER BRACKET

55
7.1 FE VALIDATION STATIC ANALYSIS VERTICAL 3G 65
7.2 FE VALIDATION BREAKING 67
7.3 FE VALIDATION CORNERING_RH 69
7.4 FATIGUE ANALYSIS-BASE 71

7.5 FATIGUE ANALYSIS-VER_1 72
7.6 FATIGUE ANALYSIS-VER_2 72

8.1 LINE DIAGRAM FOR HANGER BRACKET 74
8.2 FE SOLUTION

76

xi

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TITLE

PAGE NO
4.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALYTICAL, NUMERICAL
AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
28

7.1 FREE- FREE MODAL ANALYSIS 63
7.3 BREAKING ANALYSIS 66
7.4 CORNERING_RH 68

8.1 COMPARATIVE RESULT FOR THEORETICAL AND
PRACTICAL

75

xii

LIST OF BAR CHARTS
BAR
CHART
NO
PAGE NO
7.2 BREAKING ANALYSIS 67
7.3 CORNERING_RH 69

1

CHAPTER - 1
HISTORY OF ASHOK LEYLAND
1.1 ABOUT ASHOK LEYLAND
Ashok Leyland is a commercial vehicle manufacturing company based
in Chennai, India. Founded in 1948, the company is one of India's leading manufacturers of
commercial vehicles, such as trucks and buses, as well as emergency and military vehicles.
Operating six plants, Ashok Leyland also makes spare parts and engines for industrial and
marine applications. It sells about 60,000 vehicles and about 7,000 engines annually. It is the
second largest commercial vehicle company in India in the medium and heavy commercial
vehicle (M&HCV) segment with a market share of 28% (2007-08). With passenger
transportation options ranging from 19 seatersm to 80 seaters, Ashok Leyland is a market leader
in the bus segment. The company claims to carry over 60 million passengers a day, more people
than the entire Indian rail network. In the truck segment Ashok Leyland primarily concentrates
on the 16 ton to 25 ton range of trucks. Whoever Ashok Leyland has a presence in the entire
truck range starting from 7.5 tons to 49 tons. The joint venture announced with Nissan Motors of
Japan would improve its presence in the Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV) segment (<7.5 tons).
The origin of Ashok Leyland can be traced to the urge for self-reliance, felt by
independent India. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Indias first Prime Minister, persuaded Mr.
Raghunandan Saran, an industrialist, to enter the automotive manufacture. The company was
established in 1948 as Ashok Motors, to assemble Austin cars. The companys destiny and
name changed soon with equity participation by British Leyland and Ashok Leyland commenced
manufacture of commercial vehicles in 1955. Today the company is the flagship of the Hinduja
Group, a British-based and Indian originated transnational conglomerate.
Early products included the Leyland Comet bus, which was a passenger's body built on a
truck chassis, sold in large numbers to many operators, including Hyderabad Road Transport,
Ahmedabad Municipality, Travancore State Transport, Bombay State Transport and Delhi Road
Transport Authority. By 1963, the Comet was operated by every State Transport Undertaking in
India, and over 8,000 were in service. The Comet was soon joined in production by a version of

2

the Leyland Tiger. The Hinduja Group also bought out IVECO's indirect stake in Ashok Leyland
in 2007. The promoter shareholding now stands at 51%.
1.2 HISTORY
The company began in 1948 as Ashok Motors founded by Raghunandan Saran, to
assemble Austin cars, it was renamed and started manufacturing, commercial vehicles in 1955
with equity participation by Leyland motors. First A40 assembly was done at Ennore. The
Leyland Comet bus was a passenger's body built on a truck chassis. The company acquired the
license to produce 1000 Comets in the year 1954.
The first power steering in commercial vehicles introduced in 1969. Over the years the
production target increased drastically and number of new models emerged. A new plant in
Hosur started functioning in 1980. The technical centre was formed in the year 1990, which has
ever since played a major role in the company's progress towards world class quality.
Ashok Leyland reached major milestones in the journey towards global quality; in 1993 it
earned the ISO 9002 and ISO 9001 in 1994. In the following years, it attained QS 9000 and ISO
14001 certifications. Ashok Leyland became the first automobile company in India to receive
TS16949 Corporate certification. In 1997, it produced all terrain logistics vehicles for the army.
It also released buses with quiet engines and low pollutant emission based on the CNG
technology. In 2005 it acquired BS7799 certification for information security management.
Ashok Leyland is the second technology leader in the commercial vehicles sector of
India. The history of the company has been punctuated by a number of technological innovations
like the rear engine and articulated buses in India. In 1997, the company launched the country's
first CNG bus and in 2002, developed the first Hybrid Electric Vehicle.
The company has also maintained its profitable track record for 60 years. Ashok Leyland
is also one of the largest private sector employers in India- with about 12,000 employees
working in 6 factories and offices spread over the length and breadth of India.

3

1.3 ASSOCIATIVE COMPANIES
The Hinduja Group also brought out IVECO's indirect stake in Ashok Leyland in 2007.
Leyland has a state of the art research and development center at Vellivoyal chavadi near
Chennai.
a. Lanka Ashok Leyland
b. Hinduja Foundries
c. IRIZAR-TVS
d. Ashok Leyland Project Service Limited
e. Automotive Coaches &Components Ltd
Ashok Leyland, announced the sale of vehicles on the new U-Truck platform from
November, 2010 with the rolling out of the first set of 10 models of tippers and tractor trailers in
the 16-49 ton segment.
DOST is a 1.25 ton light commercial vehicle (LCV) that is the first product to be
launched by the Indian-Japanese commercial joint venture Ashok Leyland Nissan vehicles. Dost
is powered by a high-torque, 3-cylinder, turbo-charged Common Rail Diesel engine and has a
payload capacity of 1.25 tones.
Ashok Leyland Defense System (ALDS) is a newly floated company of the Hinduja
Group. Ashok Leyland, the flagship company of Hinduja Group. The company has a mandate to
design and develop defense logistic and tactical vehicles, communication, defense and other
systems. Ashok Leyland is the largest supplier of logistics vehicles to the Indian Army. It has
supplied over 60,000 of its stallion vehicles which form the Army's logistic backbone.
1.4 VISION
Global top five in bus segment and Global top ten in truck segment

4

1.5 NISSAN ASHOK LEYLAND
In 2007, the company announced a joint venture with Japanese auto giant Nissan
(Renault Nissan Group) which will share a common manufacturing facility in Chennai, India.
The shareholding structures of the three joint venture companies are:
Ashok Leyland Nissan Vehicles Pvt. Ltd., The vehicle manufacturing company will be
owned 51% by Ashok Leyland and 49% by Nissan
Nissan Ashok Leyland Power train Pvt. Ltd., The power train manufacturing company
will be owned 51% by Nissan and 49% by Ashok Leyland
Nissan Ashok Leyland Technologies Pvt. Ltd., The technology development company
will be owned 50:50 of the two partners.
1.6 IBUS
Ashok Leyland announced bus at the beginning of Last Year, as part of the future for the
country's increasingly traffic-clogged major cities. Launched as a concept during the Auto Expo
2008 in India, a vehicle for a first production run of pilot models should be ready by the end of
this year. The start of full production is scheduled for 2009. The bus will probably be equipped
with an engine from the new Neptune family, which Ashok Leyland also introduced in this
exhibition, which are ready for the BS4/Euro 4 emission regulations and can be upgraded to Euro
The company has undergone a lot of restructuring and re-engineering, particularly in the
last five years. From 30,000 vehicles sold in 2001-02 to over 80,000 vehicles in 2007-08, Ashok
Leyland has registered a steady growth plan for the future. To enable this growth agenda the
company is strengthening its in-house R&D capabilities through higher investments in
infrastructure and manpower.
The R&D center has state-of-the-art facilities, including the six-poster indoor vehicle test
facility and the transient cycle engine dynamometer, both being the first of their kind in the
Indian commercial vehicle industry. Ashok Leyland has always been in the forefront of
innovation and product development, by introducing technologies and products they have gone

5

on to become industry norms. All this has been achieved through rigorous in-house research and
development and by tying up with international technology leaders.
All new vehicles and critical components developed, both by the company and by its
vendors, undergo severe endurance and quality tests before they are validated and certified. The
technical center has set up a component testing lab wherein performance and static tests are
conducted on all components starting from engine, axles, suspension to seating systems. For
cabins-occupational safety test vibration and crash tests are conducted.
The SIX POSTER is first-ever such full vehicle test facilities in India for multi-axle
vehicles. Used for accelerated testing of the complete vehicle for structural fatigue, it can
simulate road surfaces recorded anywhere in the world and reduce the product development
cycle time.
Apart from testing of components and the vehicle through equipments, rigorous tests are
carried out on a comprehensive test track facility (where cobble-stones are calibrated and reset
periodically), that replicate the treacherous landscapes. Vehicle ruggedness and longevity are a
prime customer concern, as they directly impact earnings.
With its own comprehensive R&D base, strengthened by collaborations with global
technology leaders, Ashok Leyland has established a tradition of technological leadership and a
strong reputation for product reliability. The history of the company has been punctuated by a
number of technological innovations which have since become industry norms.
Ashok Leyland was the first to introduce three-axle trucks, full-air brakes and a host of
innovations like the rear-engine and articulated buses in India, the countrys first CNG bus and
the first Hybrid electric vehicle. Ashok Leyland has been increasing its spend on R&D and
product development last year (2007-08).
One of the pioneering efforts by the R&D team is the low-cost semi low-floor bus with
front engine developed by Ashok Leyland for state transport corporations Like BEST of Mumbai
and MTC of Chennai. The world over, low-floor buses have rear-mounted engines. But that adds
to both capital and operating costs and does not meet the requirement of transport corporations.

6

The challenge was to retain the engine in front and yet lower the floor height. The ingenious
designs meet this challenge, with a floor height of 860mm-with one step less to climb.
The combination of semi-low-floor and front of the engine is unique and rather difficult
to achieve, which Ashok Leyland engineers have done successfully. It is an inexpensive solution
that has enhanced both customer comfort and operational efficiency.
With continental for Telematics, Alteams for high pressure die casting and the recently
formed Albonair for after- treatment solutions. The R&D center will play a very crucial role in
incorporating all these technologies into Ashok Leylands future products. Another pioneering
effort was the ibus, a feature-filled, low-floor concept bus for the metros. Ashok Leyland created
a cross functional team (CFD) comparing 25 engineers from its young exclusive forum (YEF)
and the team was behind the success of the Ibus, which has received overwhelming response.
The most important factor for the success of the tech center is its young team of
engineers. Currently it has over 600 which will grow to 1200 in the next couple of years. Almost
75% of the total workforces are less than 25 years of age.
At 60, Ashok Leyland is going through a period of transformation and aspiring to become
a global auto major. The company is working on many new projects, including the JVs with
Nissan for LCVs.

7

CHAPTER - 2
CAE -PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING (CAE) in Product Design Cycle CAE tools are very
widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled the automakers to reduce
product development cost and time while improving the safety, comfort, and durability of the
vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of CAE tools has progressed to the point, where
much of the design verification is now done using computer simulations rather than too much
depending on physical prototype testing.
Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad use of computer software to aid in
engineering tasks. It includes computer-aided designs (CAD), computer-aided analysis (CAA),
computer-integrated manufacturing (CAM), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), material
requirements planning (MRP), and computer-aided planning (CAP).
This project is mainly focused on the working of the CAE department of the product
development team of Ashok Leyland.

8

2.1 CAE OBJECTIVES IN ASHOK LEYLAND

Flow chart 2.1 Role CAE in product development

9

2.2 INTRODUCTION
CAE department of Ashok Leyland comes into play only after the product designing
department as suggested a variety of designs taking into consideration the specification provided by
the marketing department. In general, there are three phases in any computer aided engineering tasks
1. Pre-processing: defining the model and environmental factors to be applied to it. (Typically a
finite element model, but facet, voxel and thin sheet methods are also used)
2. Analysis solver :usually performed on high powered computers
3. Post-processing :post processing of results (using visualization tools )
2.3 Sub divisions of CAE
1. Durability
2. Thermal and fluid flow analysis computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
3. Multi body dynamics (MBD) and kinematics
4. Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH)
5. Crash analysis
6. Fatigue analysis
2.3.1 DURABILITY
Durability is defined as the performance by virtue of the power to resist stresses or force over
a long period
The durability tests are carried out for the CAB, frame, aggregates, and mounting bracket. A
component should have pass durability test under two conditions they are static and dynamic
Tests under static condition
Vertical 1g
Vertical 3g
Braking
Cornering

10

Tests under Dynamic condition
Modal Analysis
Harmonic analysis
Transient analysis
Spectrum analysis
Random vibration analysis
Static durability analysis
For different loading condition {vertical 1g vertical 3g, Braking (V1g +0.6 longitudinal),
Cornering (V1g + 0.3)} are assumed and the maximum von-misses stresses for those loads are
calculated
If the stress induced under different loading condition are higher, than the component or part
is not safe and further design modification, will be done based on the results obtained
Dynamic durability analysis
The dynamic durability test is done to find weather the component or tool is able to withstand
the stress induced while the vehicle is in motion. The dynamic analysis is normally includes modal,
harmonic and transient analysis.
2.3.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Computational Fluid Dynamics is a numerical tool to solve the equations of fluid dynamics by
suitable methods which can capture the essential physics of the fluid. CFD analysis plays a major role
in Air intake system, Exhaust system, External Aerodynamics, Under-hood, EGR mixing, EGR
cooler; Exhaust manifold, Cabin climate control, Sloshing etc.
Air intake system
The air from atmosphere is taken into the pre-cleaner (Snorkel) and then to main cleaner.
These components constitute the air intake system. The purpose of CFD analysis on this system is to
determine the pressure drop that happens in the air intake system which is also known as Air intake
depression.

11

Exhaust system
The exhaust gas from engine after turbocharger passes through muffler at high pressure and
gets discharged at atmospheric pressure. The drop in pressure in the complete exhaust system also
referred as back pressure is determined using CFD analysis.
Coolant pump
A mixture of glycol and water is used as coolant in the diesel engines. The coolant is used to
remove the heat generated in the engine during power stroke. The coolant pump pressurizes the
coolant and circulates the entire engine. CFD helps us determine the pump characteristic curves, point
of cavitations and its characteristics.
External Aerodynamics
External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. The major
objective of the vehicle external aerodynamics is to improve fuel economy by streamlining the
structure i.e. reducing the drag coefficient. CFD analysis is done to determine the drag coefficient, hot
spots and flow reversal losses.
Under-hood (flow & thermal)
The cooling system, engine and other major heat generating components under the cabin
constitute the under-hood domain. The role of CFD here is to determine the Limiting Ambient air
Temperature (LAT) in CAC and Intake Manifold Temperature Difference (IMTD) in Radiator which
gives you a broad picture on the domain's performance.
EGR Mixing (EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION)
A portion of the exhaust gases is mixed with the fresh intake air and allowed into the intake
manifold. This lowers the oxygen concentration of the combustion gas, thus reducing NO2 generation.
CFD analysis is done to simulate the turbulent flow and then design for Homogenous mixing process

12

EGR Cooler
A portion of exhaust gases gets cooled in a shell and tube heat exchanger before it is sent back
to engine. The performance of the cooler can be improved by optimizing shape and size of the tubes
and diffuser. CFD heat exchanger module helps in analyzing the flow and heat distribution.
Exhaust Manifold
Exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from multiple cylinders and drives it to the turbo
charger. CFD modeling has been used as the main tool in performing design iterations by analyzing
the system and then removing the hot spots.
Sloshing
Slosh refers to the movement of liquid having free surface, inside an object which is under
motion. The fuel tanks undergo the effect of sloshing when the vehicle experiences braking and
cornering. Analyses of stresses formed in the fuel tank due to these effects are calculated by the
structures team considering the inputs of pressure distribution obtained from CFD analysis
Softwares used
a. Fluid model extraction and Meshing: - ICEM-CFD, STAR CCM+
b. Preprocessors and Solvers: - ANSYS CFX, FLUENT, STAR CCM+
c. Postprocessors: - ANSYS CFX, FLUENT, STAR CCM+
2.3.3 Multi body dynamics (MBD) and kinematics
A multibody system is used to model the dynamic behavior of interconnected rigid or flexible
bodies, each of which may undergo large translational and rotational displacements.
The systematic treatment of the dynamic behavior of interconnected bodies has led to a large
number of important multibody formalisms in the field of mechanics. The simplest bodies or
elements of a multibody system were treated by Newton (free particle) and Euler (rigid body). Euler
introduced reaction forces between bodies. Later, a series of formalisms were derived, only to

13

mention Lagranges formalisms based on minimal coordinates and a second formulation that
introduces constraints.
Basically, the motion of bodies is described by their kinematic behavior. The dynamic
behavior results from the equilibrium of applied forces and the rate of change of momentum.
Nowadays, the term multibody system is related to a large number of engineering fields of research,
especially in robotics and vehicle dynamics. As an important feature, multibody system formalisms
usually offer an algorithmic, computer-aided way to model, analyze, simulate and optimize the
arbitrary motion of possibly thousands of interconnected bodies.
2.3.4 Noise, vibration and harshness (NVH)
Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), also known as noise and vibration (N&V), is the
study and modification of the noise and vibration characteristics of vehicles. It is important that the
levels of noise and vibration generated by the vehicles are acceptable. There are two aspects,
1. Government legislations
2. Consumer satisfaction
While noise and vibration can be readily measured, harshness is a subjective quality, and is
measured either via "jury" evaluations, or with analytical tools that provide results reflecting human
subjective impressions Interior NVH deals with noise and vibration experienced by the occupants of
the cabin, while exterior NVH is largely concerned with the noise radiated by the vehicle, and
includes drive-by noise testing
In general, the sources of noise in a vehicle are many, including the engine, driveline, tire
contact patch and road surface, brakes, and wind. Noise from cooling fans, or the HVAC, alternator,
and other engine accessories is also fairly common. Many problems are generated as either vibration
or noise, transmitted via a variety of paths, and then radiated acoustically into the cabin.
Typically instrumentation used to measure NVH includes microphones, accelerometers, force
gauges or load cells.

14

2.3.5 Crash and safety
A crash test is a form of destructive testing usually performed in order to ensure safe design
standards in crashworthiness and crash compatibility for various modes of transportation or related
systems and components.
Crash tests are conducted under rigorous scientific and safety standards. Each crash test is
very expensive so the maximum amount of data must be extracted from each test. Usually, this
requires the use of high-speed data-acquisition, at least one triaxial accelerometer and a crash test
dummy.
A crash simulation is a virtual recreation of a destructive crash test of a truck using a
computer simulation in order to examine the level of safety of the truck and its occupants. Crash
simulations are used during CAE analysis for crash worthiness.
FRONTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS (as per AIS-029)
Prescribed limits are used for cabin crash to ensure occupant protection at frontal impact, roof
strength and rear wall strength. A pendulum impacts the front portion of the cab at 45kJ. The cab
should exhibit a survival space allowing accommodation of the manikin without contacting the non
resilient parts after crash event.
BUS ROLL ANALYSIS (as per AIS-031)
Laden bus is placed on a platform which is slowly raised angularly till the bus rolls over. The
objective is to check the angle at which the bus rolls over and also the space between seats and side of
the bus structure after the impact.
SEAT BELT ANCHORAGE ANALYSIS (as per ECE R14)
The belt anchorages have to resist defined static test loads that represent an vehicular impact.
In this analysis, high forces are applied to the seat belts. The loads are applied slowly and are
sustained over a period of time. The CAE aims to minimize dynamic effect to yield a good
correlation with the quasi static test.

15

UNDER RUN PROTECTION DEVICES (as per AIS - 069)
Crashes where vehicles go underneath a truck have very severe outcomes since "the relatively
soft roof" of the car easily collapses. During such collision there is a risk that the passenger car will
intrude under ( run under) the front or rear part of the truck and thus be jammed between the road
surface and the underside of the frame or load carrier of the commercial vehicle, it leads to serious
injuries to the passenger of car.
These days, heavy commercial vehicles are equipped with under-run protection devices to
enhance the safety of occupants in small vehicle. These UPDs are popularly classified as
FUPD (Front under-run protection Devices)
It is designed to avoid the under run entry of colliding vehicle head during head to head
collision. RUPD (Rear under run protection devices)
It prevents the entry of a small vehicle under the rear side of the truck. It is mounted on the
side rail of chassis ladder or can be mounted on truck body.
SUPD (Side under run protection devices)
It prevents the entry of a vehicle under the side body of the truck. It is mounted on the side rail
or chassis ladder or can be mounted on truck body.
The role of CFD here is to find the minimum static strength, stiffness requirement at
component level for these UPD besides dimensional requirements for their installations on the
commercial vehicles.
Softwares used: LS-Dyna , Radioss.
NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS
Introduction
The non-linear static analysis takes into account the changes in length, cross sectional area
and moment of inertia of section etc. and material properties like elastic modulus, rigidity modulus

16

etc. In this type of analysis, stiffness varies as a function of load. Stress-strain relationship is difficult
to obtain. The reversibility is not applicable. Load is split into small increments with iterations
performed to ensure that equilibrium is satisfied at every load increment. It takes large time to
compute. Stress and displacements are analyzed for all cases.
Types of Non-linearity
1. Geometric Nonlinearities
2. Material Nonlinearities
3. Boundary Nonlinearities
1. Geometric Nonlinearity
Stiffness changes due to geometric deformations are categorized as geometric nonlinearities.
Following are the different kinds of geometric nonlinearities: Large displacement (Large strain, Large
rotations).
Large displacement
If an element changes in shape or orientation, it changes the element stiffness. For example,
deformation of plastic fuel tank due to sloshing.
2. Material Nonlinearities
All engineering materials are inherently nonlinear as it is not feasible to characterize a
nonlinear material by a single constitutive law for the entire range of environmental conditions such
as loading, temperature and rate of deformation. The material is nonlinear elastic if the deformation is
recoverable and plastic if it is irrecoverable. If the temperature effects on material properties are
important then the coupling between the mechanical and thermal behavior should be properly taken
into consideration through thermo-elasticity and visco-plasticity
3. Boundary Nonlinearities
It arises when there is a change in boundary condition in the FE model during the course of
the analysis. The boundary condition could be added or removed from the model due to boundary non

17

linearity as the analyses progresses. This type of non linearity involves contact sets in the model
which could get engaged or disengaged as a response to applied loads
2.3.6 FATIGUE ANALYSIS
Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive
and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The
nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much less than the strength of the
material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit. Fatigue occurs
when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are above a certain
threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress concentrators such as the surface,
persistent slip bands (PSBs), and grain interfaces.
[1]
Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, the
crack will propagate suddenly, and the structure will fracture. The shape of the structure will
significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated local stresses
where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets will therefore increase
the fatigue strength of the structure.

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2.4 GENERAL PROCEDURE OF A PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Flow chart 2.2 General procedure of a product development
DESIGN
VALIDATION
(TESTING)
CAE (VIRTUA)
SIMULATION
PRODUCTION
Design
Modification
MEETING
TARGET
REQUIREMENT
NO
YES

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CHAPTER 3
EXHAUST SYSTEM
3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF EXHAUST SYSTEM
An automotive exhaust system comprises of various devices or parts of an automotive engine,
which are used for discharging burned gases created out of a controlled combustion taking place inside
an engine. All the burnt gases are exhaled from an engine using one or more exhaust pipes. Figure 1
shows a typical automotive exhaust system and various components of the same.

Fig 3.1 overall schematic of an automotive exhaust system
(Courtesy: http://www.sundevilauto.com/auto-diagrams/exhaust-system)

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Briefly, the following is a summary of various components depicted in figure 1 and their role in
an exhaust system.
3.1.1. FLANGE
This connects the engine outlet or the turbocharger outlet to the rest of the exhaust system.
3.1.2. CATALYTIC CONVERTER
It removes the pollutants from the exhaust gases by converting them into Carbon Dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O). It requires a specific amount of Oxygen (O2) and contains certain chemicals
that act as catalysts to promote reactions among the pollutant components. As a consequence of these
reactions the harmful pollutants are transformed into less harmful products which are then discharged
into the ambient after passing through various other components of the exhaust system.
3.1.3 O2 SENSOR
To ensure that the catalytic converter works at its best, it needs to be supplied with the right
quantity of Oxygen (O2). The O2 sensor detects the Oxygen content in the exhaust gases.
3.1.4. MUFFLER
Exhaust gases leave the engine under extremely high pressure. If these gases escaped directly
from the engine the noise would be tremendous. For this reason, the exhaust manifold sends the gases
to a muffler where they go through metal plates, or tubes, with a series of holes. The pressure of the
gases is reduced when they pass through the muffler, so they go out of the tail pipe quietly. For this
reason, muffler is also interchangeably known as a silencer. The perforated pipes and the resonance
chamber shown in figure 1 accomplish this purpose.
3.1.5. RESONATOR
Since a muffler cannot reduce all of the noise of the engine by itself, some exhaust systems also
have a resonator. Resonators are like little mufflers, and are usually the "straight through" type. They
are added at the end of the exhaust system to take care of any noise that has made it through the
muffler. This is also sometimes called a secondary muffler.

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3.1.6. TAIL PIPE
This is the end component of the exhaust system through which less harmful exhaust gases are
finally let into the ambient.
Additionally, the exhaust system also comprises of various piping or tubing that are typically
referred to as first exhaust pipe, second exhaust pipe, flexible pipe etc. Similarly various clamps,
flanges, mounting brackets or hangers are also used to connect different components with each other or
to the vehicle frame. Figure 2 shows another exhaust system typically seen in Ashok Leyland that
combines the tail pipe and Muffler into one component (integrated tail pipe). Please note that this does
not contain an external catalytic converter upstream of the muffler assembly. Also the integrated
muffler does not contain any after-treatment device in it. An after-treatment device is a device such as a
catalytic converter that converts harmful gases into less harmful gases before emitting them out into the
ambient). More details about various after-treatment devices and the need for the same will follow in
subsequent sections.
It may sometimes be useful to consider the exhaust system as having two different sub-systems
as described below:
3.1.7 PRIMARY EXHAUST SYSTEM
This transfers the exhaust from the exhaust manifold through the head pipe and flex pipe to the
catalytic converter. The catalytic converter has a heat shield mounted over it to protect the passenger
cabin from the high heat the catalytic converter can produce. In figure 3, this is shown for a passenger
car where the heat shield is protecting the vehicle floorboard from the catalytic converter. The exhaust
system is held in place by an exhaust hanger.
3.1.8 SECONDARY EXHAUST SYSTEM
Secondary exhaust system is used to transfer the exhaust from the catalytic converter, through
the muffler and out of the rear of the vehicle through the tail pipe. Figure 4 shows the secondary
exhaust system located underneath the floorboard of a passenger car.

22

A bare minimum exhaust system contains the components shown in figure 2, namely, the
necessary piping for moving the exhaust from the engine to the ambient and a muffler to muffle the
noise of the exhaust gases. However various government legislations (for example, Bharat Stage
emission standards in India) require that these engines comply with increasingly stricter norms for the
quality of the emissions . To satisfy these norms, engine manufacturers need to incorporate additional
devices in the exhaust systems to improve the quality of the emissions. In the case of diesel engines,
these include taking either an Exhaust Gas Recirculation(EGR) route or Selective Catalytic
Reduction(SCR) route, and in certain cases both depending on the stringency of the emission norms.
The technologies incorporated in these devices are similar to the catalytic converters found in passenger
cars. However, their internal mechanisms and the reactions may vary.

Flow chart 3.1 Primary functional requirements of an exhaust system

23

Carrying away hot, noxious exhaust gases from engine to a place away from the engine
compartment Thus protecting the passengers of a vehicle by preventing the gases from entering the
passenger compartment.
Significantly attenuating noise output from the engine - The drive-by noise level of vehicles is
subject to government legislation. For example, in India, the current drive-by noise level of 74dB(A)
was introduced in 1995. This level will be reduced further in the future. In almost every country,
vehicles must be tested for similar compliance.
Reducing exhaust emissions - Pollution is hazardous to health and to the environment.
Government legislations exist in various countries of the world limiting the emission of polluting gases
produced by vehicles. All vehicles need to be built to comply with these legislations and have various
built-in emission control systems and devices that eliminate or greatly reduce vehicle emissions.
Various emissions from a typical automotive engine include Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) , Carbon
Monoxide (CO) , Hydro Carbons (HC), black smoke and particulate matter and these are a function of
the properties of the fuel.
Improved engine performance The exhaust system directs the gases produced by the
combustion process out of the engine. By ensuring a continuous smooth flow of exhaust gases out of
the engine & minimum backpressure, the exhaust system improves the engine performance.
Proceed to the section How the System Works? " to understand the working principles behind
an exhaust system or go back to the Table of Contents.
3.2 WORKING OF EXHAUST SYSTEM
As seen in Functional Requirements , two of the most important functional requirements of an
exhaust system are (1) noise level attenuation and (2) emissions control. Noise level attenuation is
achieved by the inclusion of a muffler/silencer component in an exhaust system while the emissions
control is achieved by means of one of the available emission control technologies as shown in figure 1.
How an exhaust system works is primarily decided by how it achieves these two objectives.

24

Flow chart 3.2 working of exhaust system
3.3 NOISE LEVEL ATTENUATION
Exhaust noise is a serious form of environmental pollution and government stipulations in
various countries specify limits for the levels of noise created by automotive engines. For example, the
legislation by Government of India passed in Aug 2005 stipulated a Pass by Noise Requirement of 78
Decibels for Engines with power greater than 75kw and less than 150kw.Mufflers are commonly used
in exhaust systems to minimize the exhaust noise caused by exhaust gases. Exhaust noise is primarily
created when the exhaust valves open and close. When an exhaust valve opens, it discharges the burned
gases at high pressures into the exhaust pipe, which is at low pressure. This type of action creates sound
waves that travel through the flowing gas, moving much faster than the gas itself (up to 1400 m.p.h.),
that the muffler must silence. It generally does this by converting the sound wave energy into heat by
passing the exhaust gas and its accompanying wave pattern, through perforated chambers of varied
sizes. The pressure of the gases is reduced when they pass through the muffler, so they go out of the tail
pipe quietly. Passing into the perforations and reflectors within the chamber forces the sound waves to
dissipate their energy.
Acoustics, which is the study of sound, covers all aspects of sound production, propagation and
reception whether created and received by human beings, machines or measuring instruments. A basic

25

understanding of Acoustics is needed for gaining an insight into various parameters that affect the
design and functioning of a muffler.
3.4 MUFFLERS CAN ATTENUATE THE NOISE IN ONE OF THE FOLLOWING WAYS:
3.4.1. PASSIVE
They are made up of reactive or resistive elements (typical automotive mufflers) that absorb,
reflect or disperse sound energy to muffle the sound
3.4.2. ACTIVE
They contain a secondary noise source to cancel out the effect of the primary noise source
(mostly in head-sets)
Among the passive mufflers the silencing (or muffling) chores are accomplished by one of the
following methods:
1. ABSORPTION
Absorptive silencers contain either fibrous or porous materials, and depending upon their
absorption properties they reduce noise levels. Absorptive mufflers depend on the sound energy being
converted into heat through shear in layers of fibrous or porous materials. The fraction of the sound
energy absorbed by the material generally increases with frequency. Therefore, absorptive silencers are
less effective at low frequencies and become more efficient as the frequency increases. Glass fiber,
mineral wool and open-cell plastic foams are commonly used as the absorbing material, depending on
the operating environment of the silencer.
2. REFLECTION
Reflective silencers do not contain any absorptive materials, but are based on the principle of
muffling of the original source of the noise by impedance mismatch, which result in reflection of noise
back to the source.

26

3. DISPERSION
The noise reduction of dispersive silencers is based on the principle of diffusing high velocity
gas flow into smaller lower velocity stream(s). Some mufflers use a combination of all the above to
achieve noise reduction (example, Absorptive-Reflective mufflers). A basic understanding of each type
of muffler is absolutely essential for an acoustical engineer for providing effective noise attenuation in
fluid flow systems.

27

CHAPTER 4
4.1 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Methods of solving any engineering problem constitutes three different types of methods that
they are listed below
1. Analytical Method
2. Numerical Method
3. Experimental Method
4.1.1 Analytical method
An analytical solution is a mathematical expression that gives the values of the desired
unknown quantity at any location in the body; as a consequence it is valid for infinite number of
location in the body. Analytical method is a classic approach which gives accurate results. But this
method is best suitable for simple problems like find the deflection of cantilever, simply supported
beams etc and also find stresses and strains etc, by using ready-mate equations. But it consume more
time as compare to Numerical Method.
4.1.2 Numerical Method
The use of numerical methods enables the engineer to expand his ability to solve practical
Design problems. It is not possible to obtain analytical mathematical solutions for many engineering
problems. For problems involving complex materials properties and boundary conditions, the
engineer's prefer to numerical methods that provide approximate, but 8 acceptable solutions. Numerical
method is a mathematical representation which gave approximate results.
4.1.3 Experimental Method
Experimental method is an actual measurement method. It physically test the prototype under
varies condition. Thus it gives 100% accurate results. But engineers can't prefer because it require
expensive set up and more time consuming method as compare with analytical method and numerical
method.

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4.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALYTICAL, NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
METHODS
S.NO ANALYTICAL
METHOD
NUMERICAL METHOD EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
1 Classic approach Mathematical representation Actual measurement
2 Accurate result Approximate results 100% Accurate results
3 Requires, mathematical
Equations
Requires CAD model Applicable only if physical prototype
is available
4 Applicable only for
simple problems
Applicable for complicated
problems
Applicable only if physical prototype
is available
5 Results depend on
mathematical equations
Results cannot be believed
blindly & must be verified by
calculation for knowing the range of
results or analytical or experimental
methods
Results cannot be believed blindly &
minimum 3 to 5 prototypes must be
tested.
6 Analytical method
obtain results from
different types of
mathematical equations
Types of Numerical Methods
1.Finite Element Method
2.Boundary Element Method
3.Finite Volume Method
4.Finite Difference Method
Strain gauge
1.Photo elasticity
2.Sensors for temperature &
pressure
3.Fatigue test etc.

Table 4.1 Difference between Analytical, Numerical and Experimental methods
4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF NUMERICAL METHODS
Numerical methods are broadly classified into four categories:
1. Finite Element Method (FEM)
2. Boundary Element Method (BEM)
3. Finite Volume Method (FVM)
4. Finite Difference Method (FDM)

29

4.3.1 Finite Element Method (FEM)
Finite element method, sometimes referred to as finite element analysis, is a computational
technique used to obtain approximate solutions to boundary value problems in engineering. Simply
stated, a boundary value problem is a mathematical problem in which one or more dependent variables
must satisfy a differential equation everywhere within a known domain of independent variables and
satisfy specific conditions on the boundary of domain. Boundary value problems are also sometimes
called field problems. The field is domain of interest and most often represents a physical structure. The
field variables are the dependent variables of interest governed by differential equation. Depending on
the type of physical problem being analyze, the field variable may include displacement, temperature,
heat flux and fluid velocity etc. FEM is the most popular numerical method due to its applications.
Applications - Linear, nonlinear, buckling, thermal, dynamic & fatigue analysis etc
4.3.2 Boundary Element Method (BEM)
It is a very powerful and efficient technique to solve acoustics or NVH problems. Just like finite
element method it also requires nodes and elements but as the name suggest it considers only outer
boundary of the domain. So in case if the problem is of a volume only outer surfaces are considered. If
the domain is area then only outer periphery is considered. This way it reduces dimensionality of the
problem by a degree of one & helps in solving it faster.
4.3.3 Finite Volume Method (FVM)
All Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software is based on FVM. Unit volume is
considered in Finite Volume Method (similar to element in finite element analysis). Variable properties
at nodes are pressure, velocity, area, mass etc. It is based on Navier - Stokes equations.
4.3.4 Finite Difference Method (FDM)
Finite Element and Finite Difference Method share many common things, General Finite
Difference Method is described as a way to solve differential equations. It uses Taylor's series to
convert differential equations to algebraic equations. In the conversion process higher order terms are
neglected. It is used in combination with BEM or otherwise FVM to solve

30

4.4 THERMAL AND CFD COUPLED PROBLEMS
Finite Difference Method is discretization of partial differential equations while Finite
Element Method, Boundary Element Method and Finite Volume Method are discretization of integral
form of equations. It is possible to use all the listed methods (FEA, BEA, FVM, and FDM) to solve
similar problem (say cantilever problem). But the difference is in accuracy achieved, programming ease
& time required to obtain the solution. When internal details are required (such as stresses inside a 3-d
object) BEM will lead to poor results (as it considers only outer boundary), while FEM or FDM or
FVM are preferable. FVM has been used for solving stress problems but it is well suited for
computational fluid dynamics problems where conservation & equilibrium is quite natural. FDM has
limitations with complicated geometry, assembly of different material components and combination of
various types of elements (1-D, 2-D & 3-D). For these type of problems FEM is far ahead of its
competitors. Numerical methods like FEM are based on Discretization of integral form of equation.
Basic theme of all numerical methods is to make calculations at only limited number of points & then
interpolate the results for entire domain (surface or volume). Even before getting the solution we
assume how the unknown is going to vary over a domain. Say for example, when meshing is carried
out using linear quadrilateral elements, assumption made is linear variation of displacement over the
domain and for 8 nodded quadrilateral elements, assumption is parabolic variation. This may or may
not be the case in real life & hence all numerical methods are based on an initial hypothetical
assumption. After getting the results there are several ways to check numerical as well as practical or
field result correlation accuracy & minimization of errors. "All the numerical methods including FEM
are approximate & one should not believe the results blindly.
4.5 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
The finite element analysis is numerical analysis technique for obtaining approximate solutions
to a wide variety of engineering problems. Because of its diversity and flexibility as an analysis tool, it
is receiving much attention in almost every industry. In more and more engineering situations today,
we find that it is necessary to obtain approximate solutions to problem rather than exact closed form
solution. It consists of a computer model of a material or design that is loaded and analyzed for specific
results. It is used in new product design and existing product refinement. Basic theme is to make

31

calculations at only limited (Finite) number of points and then interpolate the results for entire domain
(surface or volume).
4.5.1 Finite
Any continuous object has infinite degrees of freedom & it's just not possible to solve the
problem in this format. Finite Element Method reduces degrees of freedom from Infinite to Finite with
the help of Discretization i.e. meshing (nodes & elements).
4.5.2 Element
All the calculations are made at limited number of points known as nodes. Entity joining nodes
and forming a specific shape such as quadrilateral or triangular etc. is known as Element. To get value
of variable (say displacement) anywhere in between the calculations point interpolation function (as per
the shape of element) is used.
4.5.3 Analysis
FEA has become a powerful tool for numerical method of wide range of engineering problems.
Application range from deformation and stress analysis of automotive, aircraft, building and bridge
structures to field analysis of heat flux, fluid flow, magnetic flux and other flow problems.
With the advances in computer technology and CAD systems, complex problems can be
modeled with relative ease. Several alternative configurations can be tried out on a computer before the
first prototype is built. In this method of analysis, a complex region defining a continuum is discredited
into simple geometric shapes called finite elements and expressed in terms of unknown values at
element corners.
4.6 PROCEDURE FOR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Certain steps in formulating a finite element analysis of a physical problem are common to all
such analyses, whether structural, heat transfer, fluid flow, or some other problem. The steps are
described as follows:

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1. Pre-processing
2. Processing or Solution
3. Post processing
4.6.1 Pre-processing
The preprocessing steps are described as follows:
1. Define the geometric domain of the problem.
2. Define the element type(s) to be used.
3. Define the material properties of the elements.
4. Define the geometric properties of the elements (length, area, and the like).
5. Define the element connectivity (mesh the model).
6. Define the physical constraints (boundary conditions).
7. Define the loadings.
There is specialized software available for CAD modeling, meshing and analysis. CAD
model & meshing consumes most of the time. For example- typical time for a single person to model
(CAD) a 4 cylinder engine block is 6 weeks & for brick meshing 7 weeks. Boundary conditions
consume least time but it is the most important step. Three months of hard work of meshing & CAD
data preparation of an engine block can be undone in just one day if boundary conditions are not
applied properly.
4.6.2 Processing or Solution
During the solution phase, finite element software assembles the governing algebraic equations
in matrix form and computes the unknown values of the primary field variables. The computed values
are then used by back substitution to compute additional, derived variables, such as reaction forces,
element stresses, and heat flow. As it is not uncommon for a finite element model to be represented by
tens of thousands of equations, special solution techniques are used to reduce data storage requirements
and computation time. For static, linear problems, a wave front solver, based on Gauss elimination is
commonly used.

33

During pre-processing user has to work hard while solution step is the turn of computer to do
the job. User has to just click on the solve icon. Internally software carries out matrix formation,
inversion, multiplication and solution for unknown e.g. displacement and then find strain & stress for
analysis.
Steps in Processing
a) Compute the element stiffness matrix
After the continuum is discretize with the discrete element shapes and the number, and then the
element stiffness matrix is formulated. Basically it is matrix formed by using the governing equations
which tells how a parameter varies in the matrix. It is a square matrix with its size depending upon the
degree of freedom of each node i.e.
[No. of columns] = [No. of rows] = No. of nodes in an element Degree of freedom.
There are 3 methods for deriving Stiffness Matrix:
1) Direct method Easy to understand but difficult to program. It is not used for commercial software
code generation.
2) Variational method Rayleigh Ritz method is used, difficult to understand; moderate from code
writing point of view.
3) Weighted Residual method Galerkin method: difficult to understand but easy from programming
point of view. This method is used in most of the commercial software's.
b) Compute the overall stiffness matrix
Previous step we have found the algebraic equation that give the characteristic of the element
now all those algebraic equation are combined together to form a complete set of equation that govern
the domain or structure. All the element stiffness matrices generated in last step are combined to form a
overall stiffness matrix. It is always a symmetric square matrix with size as
[No. of columns] = [No. of rows] = Total No. of nodes in the body Degree of freedom.

34

c) Formation of Element load matrix
Load applied on the body is very important parameter in any problem load applied inside the
element is transferred at the node and an element load matrix is formed, it is a column matrix With
[No. of rows] = No. of nodes in an element Degree of freedom.
d) Formation of the overall load matrix
Like the overall stiffness matrix the element load matrix is assembled to form the overall load
matrix. It is a column matrix with
[No. of rows] = (Total No. of nodes in the body Degree of the freedom).
4.6.3 Post-processing
Analysis and evaluation of the solution results is referred to as post-processing. Postprocessor
software contains sophisticated routines used for sorting, printing, and plotting selected results from a
finite element solution. Examples of operations that can be accomplished include:
1. Sort element stresses in order of magnitude.
2. Check equilibrium.
3. Calculate factors of safety.
4. Plot deformed structural shape.
5. Animate dynamic model behavior.
6. Produce color-coded temperature plots.
Post processing is viewing results, verifications, and conclusions and thinking about what steps
could be taken to improve the design. While, solution data can be manipulated many ways in post-
processing, the most important objective is to apply sound engineering judgment in determining
whether the solution results are physically reasonable.

35

4.7 Discretization of problem
All real life objects are continuous means there is no physical gap between any two consecutive
particles. As per material science, any object is made up of small particles, particles of molecules,
molecules of atoms and so on and they are bonded together by force of attraction. Solving a real life
problem with continuous material approach is difficult and basic of all numerical methods is to simplify
the problem by discretizing (discontinuation) it. In simple words nodes work like atoms and with gap in
between -filled by an entity called as element. Calculations are made at nodes and results are
interpolated for elements.
There are two approaches to solve any problem
1. Continuous Approach (all real life components are Continuous)
2. Discrete Approach (Equivalent Mathematical modeling)

From mechanical engineering point of view any component or system could be represented by three
basic elements:-
1. Mass, m
2. Spring, k
3. Damper, c
All the numerical methods including Finite Element follow discrete approach. Meshing (Nodes
& elements) is nothing but Discretization of a continuous system with infinite degree of freedoms to
finite degree of freedoms.

36

a) Discretization Process

Fig. 4.1 a) Discretization Process
Continuous elastic structure (geometric structure) divided into small (but finite), well-defined
substructures, called elements.
1. Elements are connected together at a point called nodes.
2. Discretization process known as meshing.
4.8 GENERAL ELEMENT QUALITY CHECK
Element quality is a subject often talked about and never fully understood. The reason for this is
complex but is related to the fact that quality is relative and the solution, by definition, is approximate.
In the formulation of finite elements a local parametric coordinate system is assumed for each element
type and how well the physical coordinate systems, both element and global, match the parametric
dictates element quality. Below you see some graphics representing element quality and you should
attempt to follow them, however, there will be a point of diminishing return if you try too hard to get
every element within the acceptance criteria. Your judgment is your only guide in those cases. Always
perform quality checks on the meshes you create. Check with local experts regarding the appropriate
values for each element type required by your element checking computer programs. Be aware that, in
these situations, correct answers can vary a great deal as illustrated in the following table where the
range between OK and very poor is quiet wide.

37

4.8.1 SKEWNESS
Skew in trias is calculated by finding the minimum angle between the vector from each node to
the opposing mid-side and the vector between the two adjacent mid-sides at each node of the element.
Ninety degrees minus the minimum angle found is reported Skew in quads is calculated by finding the
minimum angle between two lines joining opposite mid-sides of the element. Ninety degrees minus the
minimum angle found is reported. The skew check is performed in the same fashion on all faces of
three-dimensional elements.
4.8.2 ASPECT RATIO
Aspect ratio in two-dimensional elements is calculated by dividing the maximum length side of
an element by the minimum length side of the element. The aspect ratio check is performed in the same
fashion on all faces of three-dimensional elements.
4.8.3 WARPAGE
Warpage in two-dimensional elements is calculated by splitting a quad into two trias and
finding the angle between the two planes which the trias form. The quad is then split again, this time
using the opposite corners and forming the second set of trias. The angle between the two planes which
the trias form is then found. The maximum angle found between the planes is the Warpage of the
element. Warpage in three-dimensional elements is performed in the same fashion on all faces of the
element.
4.8.4 JACOBIAN
The Jacobian ratio is a measure of the deviation of a given element from an ideally shaped
element.
The Jacobian value ranges from -1.0 to 1.0, where 1.0 represents a perfectly shaped element.
The ideal shape for an element depends on the element type. The check is performed by mapping an
ideal element in parametric coordinates onto the actual element defined in global coordinates. For
example, the coordinates of the corners of an ideal quad element in parametric coordinates are (-1,-1),
(1,-1), (1,1), and (-1,1).

38

The determinant of the Jacobian relates the local stretching of the parametric space required to
fit it onto global coordinate space. Hyper Mesh evaluates the determinant of the Jacobian matrix at each
of the elements integration points (also called Gauss points), and reports the ratio between the smallest
and the largest. Different solver codes use different patterns of integration points, and the same solver
may use different patterns for different formulations of the same element configuration. One method is
as follows:
1. quad4 (2x2 points)
2. tria3 (1 point)
3. tetra4 (1 point)
4. quad8 (2x2 points)
5. tria6 (4 point)
6. tetra10 (4 point)
7. penta6 (3x2 points)
8. hexa8 (2x2x2 points)
9. penta15 (3x2 points)
10. hexa20 (2x2x2 points)
If the local stretching is the same at all of its Gauss points, then the Jacobian value equals 1.0.
As the element becomes more distorted, the Jacobian value approaches zero. A Jacobian value of less
than zero represents a concave element, which most analysis codes do not allow. Both first and second
order solid and plate elements are included in this check; however, first order trias and tetra elements
always have a Jacobian value of 1.0.
4.8.5 FINAL CHECKS FOR 2-D MESHING
The following table represents the various parameters involved in mesh quality check;
1. 1-D elements-free 1ds, rigid loops, dependency
2. 2-D elements
3. 3-D elements-tetra mesh, hexa mesh
4. Duplicate elements
5. Duplicate nodes/equivalence

39

6. Delete free/temp nodes all
7. Element normals
8. Free edge/free faces
9. Minimum element length/time step for crash analysis
10. Flow pattern-Representing appropriate pattern of stress Waves
11. Mess penetration, Deviation from the geometry
12. Assign appropriate DOFs for rigid body elements
13. Renumber-nodes, Elements, Mats, props and etc.,
14. Element summary-check element type and family, number of plot elements
15. Assign appropriate property Cards, materials, c/s, thickness, DOFs
16. Compare mass-actual mass vs finite element model mass
17. Free-free run for assembly of components-first 6 modes rigid,7
th
onwards positive
deformable modes
18. Linear static analysis with dummy boundary condition for single component mesh jobs
4.9 Type of elements
There are three types of elements in which they are listed below
1. One-Dimensional Elements
2. Two-Dimensional Elements
3. Three-Dimensional Elements

4.9.1 One-Dimensional Elements - Rods, Beams, Trusses.

Fig 4.2 One-Dimensional Elements

40

4.9.2 Two-Dimensional Elements - Triangular, Quadrilateral, Plates, Shells.

Fig 4.3 Two -Dimensional Elements
4.9.3 Three-Dimensional Elements - Tetrahedral, Rectangular Prism (Brick)

Fig 4.4 Three-Dimensional Elements
4.10 NECESSITY OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
There are two main necessities in finite element analysis in which they are listed below
1. Finite Element Analysis for Design Engineer
2. Finite Element Analysis for Design Organization

41

4.10.1 Finite Element Analysis for Design Engineer
The FEA offers many important advantages to the design engineer:-
1. Easily applied to complex, irregular-shaped objects and having complex boundary conditions.
2. Applicable to problems like steady-state, time dependent etc.
3. Applicable to linear and nonlinear problems.
4. One method can solve a wide variety of problems, including problems in solid mechanics,
fluid mechanics, chemical reactions, electromagnetic, biomechanics and heat transfer etc.
5. The FEA can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate solid modeling and mesh generation.
4.10.2 Finite Element Analysis for Design Organization
Simulation using the FEA also offers important advantages to the design organization:
1. Reduced testing and redesign costs thereby shortening the product development time.
2. Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed.
3. Refine components before dependencies to other components prohibit changes.
4. Optimize performance before prototyping.
5. Discover design problems before litigation.

4.11 Applications of Finite Element Method
Two types of applications are listed according to finite element methods
1. Finite Element Method based on types of Analysis
2. Finite Element Method based on types of Jobs
4.11.1 Finite Element Method based on types of analysis
The various types of analysis, which can be done with FEM, are -:
1. Linear static analysis
2. Dynamic analysis
3. Buckling analysis
4. Thermal analysis
5. Fatigue analysis
6. Optimization
7. CFD analysis
8. Crash analysis

42

4.11.1.1 Linear Static Analysis
It is the simplest and most commonly used type of analysis. Linear means straight line. = E
is an equation of straight line (y = mx) passing through origin. E Elastic Modulus is slope of the
curve and is a constant. In real life after crossing yield point material follows non linear curve but
software follows same straight line. There are two conditions for static analysis:
a) No variation of force with respect to time (dead weight), dF / dt =0
b) Equilibrium condition, Force = 0, Moments = 0
Practical applications: All Aerospace, Automobile, Offshore and civil engineering industries perform
linear static analysis.
Commonly used softwares: Nastran, Ansys, Abaqus, I-deas, Radioss, Cosmos, UG, Pro- Mechanica
and Catia etc.
4.11.1.2 Dynamic Analysis
Static analysis does not take in to account variation of load with respect to time. Output in the
form of stress, displacement etc. with respect to time could be predicted by dynamic analysis.
Practical applications: Dynamic behavior of components subjected to dynamic loads.
Commonly used software: Nastran, Ansys, Abaqus, Matlab, I-deas NX, Radioss etc

4.11.1.3 Linear Buckling Analysis
Linear buckling analysis is applicable for only compressive load. It is used to analyze the
slender beams and sheet metal parts. Output of analysis is Critical value of load.
Practical applications: Commonly used for civil engineering applications. Mechanical engineering
applications- vacuum vessel, long gear shifted rod analysis etc.
Commonly used softwares: Nastran, Anys, and Abaqus etc

43

4.11.1.4 Thermal Analysis
Thermal analysis is used to predict the thermal response of structures. Adequate knowledge of
temperature distribution in structures, thermal flux and structural response to thermal gradients is
critical to successful designs.
Practical applications: Engine, radiator, exhaust system, heat exchanger, power plants, satellite design
etc.
Commonly used softwares: Ansys, Nastran, Abaqus, I-deas NX etc.
4.11.1.5 Fatigue Analysis
Fatigue analysis is used to calculate the life of the structure when subjected to repetitive load. S-
N curve (alternating stress vs. cycles) or -N (alternating strain vs. reversals) is the base for fatigue
calculation (like - diagram for static analysis).
Practical applications: Applicable to all components subjected to dynamic loading i.e. all automobile
components. Fatigue accounts for 90% of failure in the real life.
Commonly used softwares: MSC Fatigue, FEMFAT, FE SAFE, LMS etc
4.11.1.6 Optimization
Optimization analysis is used to optimize the geometric parameters and shapes of over or under
designed components. Optimization for geometry parameters, work well at individual component level
rather than complicated assemblies. Software is not useful to add or remove the geometry but it works
only within specific limits. Shape optimization is usually restricted to linear static or normal mode of
dynamics. It is good tool for innovation kind of product (when initial shape is not known or fixed)
Software can help for addition or removal of geometry.
Practical applications: Applicable to any component which is over or under designed.
Commonly used Software: Opti-struct, Tosca, Nastran, Ansys etc

44

4.11.1.7 CFD Analysis
CFD is the branch of the fluid mechanics which use the numerical method to analyse the fluid
dynamic problems. It is based on the Navier- Stroke equations (Mass, Momentum and sEnergy
conservation equilibrium equations).
Practical application: Drag prediction and stream lining of a car, combustion chamber design to check
an optimum fuel air mixing, aero plane design etc.
Commonly used Software: Fluent, Star CD, CFX, CFD Expert etc
4.11.1.8 Crash Analysis
Crash analysis is performed to find deformation, stress and energy absorbing capacity of various
structural components of a vehicle hitting a stationary or moving object. Crash analysis can also be
done to find the effects of crash on human body and making the ride safe for driver as well as
passengers.
Commonly used softwares: LS-Dyna, Pamcarsh, Radioss, Abaqus-Explicit, Madymo etc
4.11.2 Finite Element Method based on types of Jobs
CAE group responsible for FEA related activities, receive following types of job orders -
1. New design
2. Optimization or cost cutting projects
3. Failure analysis

4.11.2.1 New Design
New or innovative kind of design is a real challenge for design engineer. In automobile
industry, when new version of existing vehicle is launched (upgraded version), most of the components
are quite similar to the existing one (scaled proportionately). Innovative kind of components is usually
not more than 15 %. At least initial run of this category of job is easy for CAE engineer. Sit with design

45

& test engineer to decide boundary conditions and then run the analysis. Real work starts only when the
prototype is prepared and test & FEA result correlation process is initialized. After achieving
correlation various permutations and combinations could be carried out to make the product better and
optimum from cost as well design point of view.
4.11.2.2 Cost cutting or optimization projects
At the moment Indian Auto sector is experiencing a boom but from 1995 to 2003 there was a
slack. During the period most of industries were busy with cost cutting measures for their survival. In
Indian market till late 80's, same kind of vehicles were running on the road without any change (do you
remember old designs of Indian cars and heavy, bulky & noisy-trucks). These designs were transferred
to India; companies in- 50's & 60's from their overseas collaborators (mainly American & Europeans).
Design philosophy was different at that time i.e. design for infinite life. But slack in the market and
emergence of new tools like CAD/CAM/CAE, new cost efficient manufacturing techniques and
availability of low cost materials forced auto manufacturers to adapt to the changing circumstances via
optimization of design. Suppose selling price of the product is Rs. 100 & actual manufacturing cost is
Rs. 60. Reduction of cost even by say Rs. 1 by using CAD / CAM / CAE (reduction in thickness,
change in material etc.) will result in lot of profit for the company.
Earlier days design philosophy was, Design for infinite life
1. Survival for years
2. Heavy & oversized components
3. Noisy & rough operations
4. High cost
Now a day's design philosophy is, Design for warranty life
1. Use & throw concept
2. Life just greater than warranty offered by company
3. Additional source of income, after sales services
4. Light weight components
5. Low cost

46

4.11.2.3 Failure Analysis
Warranty: Every company offers warranty on its product. Company is under legal binding to replace
the component failing within warranty period, free of cost. It is not only additional cost which is
incurred but also bad name to the product and company
1. Probable reasons of failure
2. Improper process
3. Manufacturing defects
4. Faulty material
5. Environmental Conditions
6. Weather
7. Road Condition
8. Genuine Design problem
4.12 Advantages of FEA
The advantages of FEA are as follows listed below,
1. Easy to model irregular shapes
2. Possible to evaluate different materials
3. Can apply general load conditions
4. Large numbers and kinds of boundary conditions are possible in FEA
5. Different sizes of elements can be used where necessary
6. Dynamic effects, nonlinear behaviours and nonlinear materials can be examined
7. Reduce the number of prototypes required in the design process
8. Increase the visualization of the product
9. Reduce the Design Cycle time of a product
10. testing on prototype also decreases and optimum design

47

CHAPTER 5
5.1 DATA BASE CREATION

Flow chart 5.1 Data Collection
Z- Bracket Support L-
Bracket
Drawing for mounting brackets
Received list for Obsolete Drawing from PLM team
Consolidate the list of Remaining Brackets by its shape
Twist
Bracket
Clutch housing
bracket
L - Bracket with C-
Section

Hanger
Bracket

L- Bracket on
Frame
Datas are collected according to geometrical parameters
Identification of Repeated parts and eliminate from the list
Identification of Part similarities
New Design proposals to standardize the parts / eliminate the parts
Creation of CAD model in CATIA V5 R20

48

Specifications for the mounting bracket have been got from the reference data possessed by
design team. It has been observed that the total number of mounting bracket is 688. Of which, 157
brackets are found to be obsolete by the PLM team. Hence, the remaining 531 brackets are taken into
consideration for further design or modification.
The type of mounting brackets is as follows:
1. Twist bracket
2. Hanger bracket
3. L bracket
4. L - bracket with c-section
5. Clutch housing
6. Support L bracket
7. Z bracket
The geometrical and topological details of all mounting brackets are collected and they are
compared with each other for having identical geometrical details. Those parts having similarities in
geometrical data are found out and considered for new design proposals.
Modification in design of brackets having same geometrical data is the way to attain improved
performance of the system. Those modifications has been carried out in part modeling phase through
modeling software (CATIA V5) and kept ready for further analysis.
In my project I choosed hanger bracket for rationalization in which it has been shown in below
fig 5.1 and 5.2

49

Fig 5.1 hanger bracket
Fig. 5.2 hanger bracket Specifications

50

The parameter and specification, indications are explained below
A- width of hanger bracket
B- horizontal length of hanger bracket
C- Total height of hanger bracket
D- horizontal length of supporting plate
E- Length between top of the plate to the 1
st
bend
F- Length between top of the plate to the 2
st
bend
G- Length between 1
st
bend to the 2
nd
bend
H- Distance between center of the hole to width of the bracket
I- Height from 1
st
bend to 2
nd
bend
J- Centre of the hole to length of the plate
K- Distance between top of the plate to centre of the slot
L- Distance between two slot centre
M- Distance between slot centre to the width of the plate
T-Thickness of the plate
DIA1-Diameter of the hole
5.2 DATA COLLECTION PARAMETERS
Data base are created according to the geometric parameters of the mounting brackets as
follows shown in fig 5.2 (a), fig 5.2(b), fig 5.2 (c), shows the cad model of overhang Bracket which has
to be rationalized and standardized.

51

CASE: 1
Totally there are 50 hanging brackets are identified from the given drawing pdf .From that pdf
data's are collected and identified according to the similarities of the bracket and repeated part number.
Part 5, Part 32 .Part 33, Part 41- The overall length of part 5 is 120, part 32 is 120, Part 33 is
110, part 41 is 127, width of all the parts are 50 .thickness of all the three parts, part 32 .part 33, part
41are same 5mm and the part 5 is 6mm. Part no 5,32,33,41 can be combined into single part
a=50,b=76,c=127,dia1 is similar to all the 4 part no diameter -2 varies and k varies from 92-113
Part no 7 and 14 can be replaced by dim a=50, b=71, c=137, dia1=27, k=108, 124, thickness
same
Part 3, Part 4 - length, width, height, thickness of two parts are same .Number of holes are
different and the position of the hole is different. So, Two part number is modified to one part number
by making a slot in Part 4.
Part 10, Part 16- Over all length of the part 10 is 250 and part 16 is 245.height of part 10 is 252
and part 6 is 255. Numbers of slots are same. By changing the position of slot in Part 5 1mm in vertical,
4 mm in horizontal, modify a part num Part 16.
Part 8, Part 34- By increasing the length in Part 34 (7mm), and slot hole changing position
varying from 1 to 2 mm.(1mm slot varying position is not affecting any function reduce a Part 8).
Part 40, Part 41 - Over all length, width and height of the two parts are similar except height.
The difference between the heights in vertical plate is 9mm.if it didn't cause any hit modify the part 40.
Part 29, Part 30 - the part num is repeated two times hence it should be eliminated from the total
parts
REMARK:
From 12 hanging brackets have possibility to reduce to 8 and 4 can be eliminated by positioning
the holes and overall length of the brackets.

52

CASE: 2
Similarly all the other 38 hanging brackets are been separated according to the size ,shape,
overall length, no of holes ,position of holes ,no of slots, position of slots and thickness they have been
reduced into a small quantity in which they have been very helpful in production as well as in assembly
area.
By reducing the part number according to the above conditions we can made the investment less
and the part can be assembled in easy way ,part number confusions has been reduced and we can
moderately use similar bracket for the more assemblies in which might that it should have the
performance more than the older design
REMARK:
From 38 hanging brackets have possibility to eliminate 10 hanging bracket by introducing the
new hanging bracket design by changing the dimensions.
5.3 HANGING BRACKETS
Hanging brackets are used to fix the exhaust system to the frame in which some of the hanging
brackets cad model has been listed below
PART 1

Fig. 5.3 PART 1 cad model of hanger bracket

53

Overall length is 450, width is 50, height is 70, thickness is 5 mm, Number of holes present in
part 1 hanging bracket is 3, number of slot in part 1 hanging bracket is zero, Diameter of the hole in the
top plate and top of the part 1 hanging bracket is 27 mm, the other two holes of diameter 13mm, and
distance between two holes from each of its centre is 80.
PART 2

part 2 hanging bracket is 3, number of slot in part 2 hanging bracket is zero, Diameter of the hole in the
top plate and top of the part 2 hanging bracket is 27 mm, the other two holes of diameter 13mm, and
distance between two holes from each of its centre is 75

PART 3
part 3 hanging bracket is 2, number of slot in part 3 hanging bracket is 1, Diameter of the hole in the
top plate and top of the part 3 hanging bracket is 27.5 mm, the slot diameter 13.5 mm, and the distance
between hole centre to the centre of the slot is 70, length of the slot is 20 mm from each of its centre.

54

PART 4
Overall length is 470, width is 50, height is 65, thickness is 6 mm, Number of holes
present in part 4 hanging bracket is 3, number of slot in part 4 hanging bracket is 1, Diameter of the
hole in the top plate and top of the part 4 hanging bracket is 27.5 mm, the slot diameter 13mm, and the
distance between hole centre to the centre of the slot is 40, length of the slot is 20 mm from each of its
centre and distance from each centre of the hole is 25mm


55

PART 5
Average of all the dimensions we conclude that the Overall length is 460, width is 50, height is
75, thickness is 5 mm, Number of holes present in part 5 hanging bracket is 2, number of slot in part 5
hanging bracket is 2, Diameter of the hole in the top plate and top of the part 1 hanging bracket is 27
mm, the slot diameter 13mm, and the distance between hole centre to the centre of the slot is 40, length
of the slot is 20 mm from each of its centre and the cad model is designed according to the above
conditions.
The above conditions should have the design specification in which the distance around the hole
have 1.5 D mm free and should not overlap the other .if the overlap is formed then the stress developed
in particular area will be high and the failure will be caused in that area alone and the crack propagate
from the hole


56

CHAPTER 6
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
6.1 FREE- FREE MODAL
Firstly, the cad model has been imported. Then, it is subjected to meshing. The main
purpose of free-free analysis is to find out the element connectivity. After checking out that, file
had to be checked for fatal error and rigid modes and then it can be said that it is ready to
perform static analysis. Free-free modal analysis results for the base model are tabulated as
follows.

NO
YES
Start
Import CAD model
Extract Middle
Surface
Meshing
Check
element
Quality
Prepare Solver deck for analysis
Proceed Free-
Free Model
Analysis
Check file
for
connectivity
from modal
shapes
A
YES
NO

57

Flow chart 6.1 Free - free modal Analysis
The same procedure is carried out for modified model (ver1) to do free-free modal
analysis.
6.2 STATIC ANALYSIS
The mesh data from free-free analysis is imported to new file and subjected to load and
boundary conditions. Then, it is exported to analysis mode to proceed static analysis. After
analysis, it is checked for presence of fatal error and rigid modes. Then to perform post
processing, the file has to be imported in hyper view.
The same procedure is been followed for modified model (ver1) and the results are
tabulated as below.

Proceed to Static
Analysis
END
A
YES

58

Flow chart 6.1 Static Analysis

Start
Import Mesh data from Free- free Modal Analysis
Applying Loads and Boundary Condition

Prepare deck model for Analysis
Prepare deck model for Analysis

Proceed Modal Analysis
Check stress
value (within
Yield limit)

Post processing Results
End
Proceed Static
Analysis
Check mesh
quality

Tabulate Results
YES
YES
NO
NO

59

6.3 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS:
The file after doing static analysis is imported and the load number, load steps, card data
are deleted. The elements and node are renumbered and excitation node is termed as 1. Then, the
mesh file is exported to update the dynamic analysis template with the current data. The updated
file is subjected to dynamic analysis. After that, the fatal error checking is carried out. If it is
found to be present, the whole nodes and elements renumbering has to be redone.
The same procedure is carried out for modified model (ver1) to do dynamic analysis.

Import static file .dat
Delete load collector and load steps
Delete card data's and include omit cards
Renumbering the elements and nodes
Renumber the excitation node into 1
Prepare solver deck in the name of
mesh_dynamic
Correcting fea model
Start
A
B

60

Flow chart 6.3 Dynamic Analysis

6.4 FATIGUE ANALYSIS
The dynamic mesh data is imported to a new file to perform fatigue analysis. There, it is
grouped based on materials and information are fed to it. Fatigue analysis is performed for each
material groups. Then, the individual mounting brackets are grouped and the fatigue analysis
results are post processed for examining and comparing the life cycles with the target value.
The same procedure is been followed to do fatigue analysis on modified model (ver1) and
those results are tabulated below.

NO
YES
Update the dynamic analysis template file with new mesh data
Perform dynamic analysis for all signals
Proceed for fatigue analysis
Check if any
fatal is present
in.f06
A
B

61

Mesh_dynamic.dat
Read results .op2
Create group based on materials
Fatigue job set up
Loading information
Read punch file .pch
Create time history with multi signal
Assigning materials
Fatigue analysis
Import fatigue results
A
Start

62

Flow chart 6.4 Fatigue Analysis
Base modal
No change has been done in the complete exhaust system
VER_1
Changing the existing hanger bracket into new hanger bracket which is rationalized
VER_2
Keeping the VER_1 modal and changing the L_Bracket to find the Performance between
the two new designs and checking the life when they are in comparative use

Create group for individual bracket
Post processing fatigue results
Extract fatigue life in cycles
A
Compare the minimum cycle value with target value
Tabulate the results
End
63

CHAPTER 7
COMPARITIVE RESULTS FOR MOUNTING BRACKETS
7.1 FREE- FREE MODAL ANALYSIS
Free-free modal analysis is used to check the connectivity of the model on analysis only 6
rigid body modes should come. If it is more than 6, it indicates the connectivity is not proper.
Modal analysis is the study of the dynamic properties of structures
under vibrational excitation. Modal analysis is the field of measuring and analysing the dynamic
response of structures and or fluids when excited by an input.

MODAL ANALYSIS
MODE.NO
FREQUENCY (HZ)
BASE VER_1 VER_2
1 0 0 0
2 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
7 19.47234 19.22 19.27
8 20.15118 20.11 20.12
9 25.34903 25.33 25.36
10 27.06346 27.05 27.09
11 31.81074 32 32.01
12 39.70866 39.56 39.59
13 47.02485 47.03 47.07
14 54.56674 54.1 54.15
15 60.53666 60.5 60.51

Table no 7.1 FREE- FREE Modal Analysis

64

7.2 STATIC ANALYSIS
Static analysis is done to check the brackets within the material yield point. for simplified
analysis wherein the effect of an immediate change to a system is calculated without respect to
the longer term response of the system to that change. Such analysis typically produces poor
correlation to empirical results. Its opposite, dynamic analysis or dynamic scoring, is an attempt
to take into account how the system is likely to respond to the change.
YIELD STRESS 250 Mpa
SL.NO
LOAD CASE_VERTICAL 3G
Increment in Percentage
(%)
COMPONENT NAME BASE VER_1 VER_2
Base Vs
VER_1
Base Vs
VER_2
1 Frame_L
34.53
22.03
36.98 56.74 6.62
2 Hanger 1
67.78
43.617
43.77 55.39 54.85
3 L_Bracket
21.25
22.055
20.36 3.64 4.37
4 Muffler Mtg. 1
77.99
90.187
75.89 13.52 2.767
5 Muffler Mtg. 2
69.37
80.296
66.25 13.60 4.70
6 Hanger 2
42.68
36.471
32.33 17.02 32.01
7 L Bracket With O_clamp
30.06
26.347
26.58 14.09 13.09
8 Z_Bracket
33.36
34.008
30.98 1.90 7.68

Table no 7.2 Static Analysis vertical 3g

65

Bar chart 7.1 Static Analysis vertical 3g

Fig no 7.1 FE Validation Static Analysis Vertical 3G
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Base
Ver_1
Ver_2
Y
i
e
l
d

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
p
a
)

66

By comparing the results of BASE model Static analysis, VER1 and VER2 analysis, it
has been observed that the stress value for existing hanger bracket is 42.60 Mpa and modified
hanger bracket VER_1 is 41.47 Mpa and for VER_2 is 32.33 Mpa
By comparing the VER_1 results with base model results, VER_2 stress value is 8%
reduced.
7.3 BRAKING ANALYSIS
SL.NO
LOAD CASE_BRAKING Increment in Percentage (%)
BASE vs
VER_1
BASE vs
VER_2
1 Frame_L
13.89
8.877
8.83 56.47 57.30
2 Hanger 1
32.14
24.224
24.25 32.67 32.53
3 L_Bracket
7.91
8.275
7.61 4.41 3.94
4 Muffler Mtg. 1
38.46
46.935
37.59 18.05 2.31
5 Muffler Mtg. 2
34.75
41.101
33.38 15.45 4.10
6 Hanger 2
14.45
13.114
10.96 10.18 31.84
16.23
14.502
14.66 11.91 10.70
8 Z_Bracket
18.43
19.196
17.56 3.99 4.95

Table no 7.3 Breaking Analysis
67

Bar chart 7.2 Breaking Analysis

Fig no 7.2 FE Validation Breaking

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Base
Ver_1
Ver_2
Y
i
e
l
d

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
p
a
)

68

By comparing the VER_1 results with base model results, VER_2 stress value is 23 %
reduced.
7.4 CORNERING_RH ANALYSIS
SL.NO
LOAD CASE_CORNERING_RH Increment in Percentage (%)
BASE vs
VER_1
BASE vs
VER_2
1 Frame_L
15.4
9.856
12 56.25 28.33
2 Hanger
25.42
24.535
24.72 3.60 2.83
3 L_Bracket
6.8
7
6.48 2.85 4.93
4 Muffler Mtg. 1
21.65
24.986
21.06 13.35 2.80
5 Muffler Mtg. 2
18.49
18.308
17.52 0.99 5.53
6 Hanger 2
22.01
18.724
18.28 17.54 20.40
25.88
26.022
26.27 0.54 1.48
8 Z_Bracket
17.5
17.292
16.88 1.20 3.67

Table no 7.4 Cornering_RH

69

Bar chart 7.3 Cornering_RH

Fig no 7.3 FE Validation Cornering_RH

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Base
Ver_1
Ver_2
Y
i
e
l
d

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
p
a
)

70

By comparing the VER_1 results with base model results, VER_2 stress value is 4 %
reduced.
7.5 FATIGUE ANALYSIS
Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the
progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic
loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much less than the
strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress
limit.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are
above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress concentrators such
as the surface, persistent slip bands (PSBs), and grain interfaces.
[1]
Eventually a crack will reach
a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and the structure will fracture. The shape of the
structure will significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp corners will lead to
elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or
fillets will therefore increase the fatigue strength of the structure.
SL.NO COMPONENT NAME BASE VER_1 VER_2
CYCLE
INCREASED
FOR BASE vs
VER_1
CYCLE
INCREASED
FOR BASE vs
VER_2
1 Frame_L 30100 26100 10200 1.15 2.95
2 Hanger 569 4440 15000 0.12 0.03
3 L_Bracket 1000 1000 1000 1 1
4 Muffler Mtg. 1 409 445 680 0.91 0.60
5 Muffler Mtg. 2 2333 2750 7210 0.84 0.32
6 Hanger 2 3930000 2.3E+07 1.1E+07 0.17 0.35
7 L Bracket With O_clamp 2640000 3000000 8880000 0.88 0.29
8 Z_Bracket 274 889000 1790 0.03 0.15
Table no 7.5 Fatigue Analysis
71

Bar chart 7.4 Fatigue Analysis

Fig no 7.4 Fatigue Analysis-BASE
0
5000000
10000000
15000000
20000000
25000000
Series1
Series2
Series3
Series4
Series5
72

Fig no 7.5 Fatigue Analysis-VER_1

Fig no 7.6 Fatigue Analysis-VER_1
73

It has been observed that the life value for BASE hanging bracket to VER_1 and VER_2
has been increased by 35% hence new design can be proposed to reduce the part number for
standardization as well as the proposed design is in safe condition

74

CHAPTER 8
8.1 FE VALIDATION
FE result for existing model has been verified by hand calculation and comparison has
been made.
8.2 THEORETICAL CALCULATION FOR EXISTING MODEL
Existing model has been consider as a cantilever beam (Free Body Diagram)

Fig. no 8.1 line diagram for hanger bracket
Bending moment equation

- Bending stress
M - Moment about the neutral axis
Y - Perpendicular distance to the neutral axis
F

75

Ix - second moment of area about the neutral axis x
B - Width of the section being analyzed
h - Depth of the section being analyzed

I = b*d^3/12 b-breath, d depth
=50*5^3/12
I =520mm^4
M =force *distance force=100N distance=337.927mm
M =100N*337.927mm
=33742.7Nmm
Y =2.5mm Y-displacement
Stress = 33742.7*2.5/520
Stress = 162.22 N/mm^2
8.3 THEORETICAL & PRACTICAL COMPARISON OF STRESS

S.NO

COMPONENT

APPLIED
VERTICAL
FORCE ( N )

FE STRESS
(N/mm^2)

HAND
CALCULATION
(N/mm^2)
1

OVER HANGING
BRACKET

100

162.38

162.22

Table No. 8.1 comparative result for theoretical and practical

76

8.4 FE SOLUTION

Fig 8.2 FE Solution
Moderately there is slight difference between theoretical stress and practical stress .this
difference arise because of the practical solver solves the problem accurately each and every
element but theoretically we calculate whole component through derivative formula in that
chance to such areas like fillet curves etc., any away theoretical stress approximately equal to
piratical stress, so FE method is acceptable one for solve other models

Maximum stress

77

CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
Rationalization has been done in hanging brackets at first for testing. As we get better
results, the same procedure is proposed to analyze for all the exhaust mounting bracket system.
Analysis like free-free, static, dynamic, fatigue has been performed to the modified
exhaust mounting bracket which was already rationalized.
The results are derived from those analyses shows that the modified exhaust mounting
brackets performance well and reaches the target value without fail.
Thus, it can be said that, the exhaust mounting bracket system can be modified by
rationalization to eliminate the unwanted parts without compromising the performance.
Rationalization of mounting bracket by
(1) No longer used parts 4 part from L-bracket
(2) Duplication/repeated parts 4 in hanging bracket.
(3) Recommendation of new mounting brackets 7 from hanging bracket
One of the modified parts is first analyzed and the results are as follows tabulated in the
chapter 7 and some of the results are listed below for the reference
9.1 STATIC ANALYSIS
9.1.1 Vertical_3g
From the base model Static analysis, VER_1, VER_2 analysis, it has been observed that
the stress value for existing hanger bracket is 42.60 Mpa and modified hanger bracket is 41.47
Mpa and 33.33 Mpa
9.1.2 Braking
From the base model Static analysis and VER_1 and VER_2 analysis, it has been
observed that the stress value for existing clutch housing bracket is 14.45 Mpa and modified
clutch housing bracket is 14.42 Mpa and 10.96 Mpa

78

9.1.3 Cornering
From the base model Static analysis and VER_1 and VER_2 analysis, it has been
observed that the stress value for existing clutch housing bracket is 22.01Mpa and modified
clutch housing bracket is 21.26 Mpa and 18.28 Mpa
From the above observation, all stress values are within the yield stress value (250Mpa),
the bracket is safe under static loading conditions.
9.1.4 Fatigue analysis
1. The minimum fatigue life of base model is 180 cycles. But the ver1 have 300 cycles.
From this analysis result, conclude that the life of modified bracket is safe under static
load condition and life is increasing in fatigue load condition.
9.2 FUTURE SCOPE
The present work can be extended by this method for the other proposed mounting
brackets and it can be rationalized.

.

79

CHAPTER 10
REFERENCES
1. David M. Anderson, "Build-to-Order & Mass Customization, the Ultimate Supply Chain and
Lean Manufacturing Strategy for Low-Cost On-Demand Production without Forecasts or
Inventory," (2008, 512 pages, CIM Press,1-805-924-0200; www.build-to-order-
consulting.com/books.htm); Chapter 4, "Standardization of Parts," and Chapter 5, "Material
Variety Reduction."
2. Dynamic analysis of compressor mounting bracket of Automobile air conditioning system ,
tarundeep singh brar, department of mechanical engineering Thapar university patiala-147004,
india
Http://dspace.thapar.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/10266/2456/1/Tarundeep+brar+-+ME+
+CCR.pdf

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RATIONALIZATION OF EXHAUST SYSTEM MOUNTING

BRACKETS FOR BUSES AND TRUCKS

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