athirdtestament

malcolm muggeridge
Amodernpilgrimexploresthe
spiritualwanderingsofAugustine,
Blake,Pascal,Tolstoy,Bonhoeffer,
Kierkegaard,andDostoevsky
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contents
introduction _______________________________v
saintaugustine_____________________________1
blaisepascal ______________________________16
williamblake _____________________________31
srenkierkegaard__________________________50
fyodordostoevsky__________________________67
leotolstoy________________________________85
dietrichbonhoeffer________________________103
afterword _______________________________119
theauthor_______________________________120
introduction
No,no,no!Come,letsawaytoprison:
Wetwoalonewillsinglikebirdsithecage
Andtakeuponsthemysteryofthings
AsifwewereGodsspies.
KingLear
I
toftenhappensthatthereasonfordoingsomethingonlyemerges
clearlyafterithasbeendone,consciousintentandallthevarious
practicalitieswhichgotherewithbeingbutthetipofanicebergof
unconsciousintent.Inanycase,ashasoftenbeenpointedout,timeitself
isacontinuum,andnotdivisibleintopast,presentandfuturetenses.
Thus, it was only after the completion of the series of television pro-
gramswhosescriptsareherecollected,whenIwasaskedtoexplainwhyI
hadchosenSaintAugustine,BlaisePascal,WilliamBlake,SrenKierke-
gaard,FyodorDostoevsky,LeoTolstoyandDietrichBonhoeffertobe
theirsubjects,thatIfullygraspedthethemetowhichtheyallbelonged.
Previously,Ihadseenthemsinglyandseparatelyassevencharactersin
searchofGod,andassuchofgreatinterest,andaformativeinuence
inmyownthinkingandquesting.
Consideringthemasagroup,itbecamecleartomethat,although
theywereallquintessentiallymenoftheirtime,theyhadaspecialrole
incommon,whichwasnoneotherthantorelatetheirtimetoeternity.
Thishastobedoneeverysooften;otherwise,whenthelureofself-suf-
ciencyprovestoostrong,ordespairtoooverwhelming,weforgetthat
vi introduction
menneedtobecalledbacktoGodtorediscoverhumilityandwithit,
hope.InthecaseoftheOldTestamentJews,itwastheprophetswho
thus called them back to Godand when were there more powerful
andpoeticvoicesthantheirs?ThencametheNewTestament,whichis
concernedwithhowGod,throughtheIncarnation,becameHisown
prophet. Nor was even that the end of prophets and testaments. Be-
tweenthefantasiesoftheegoandthetruthoflove,betweenthedark-
nessofthewillandthelightoftheimagination,therewillalwaysbethe
needforabridgeandapropheticvoicecallingonustocrossit.Thisis
whatmysevenseekersafterGodweredestinedtoprovide,eachinhis
ownwayandinrelationtohisowntime.
SoIcametoseethemasGodsspies,postedinactualorpotential
enemy-occupiedterritory,theenemybeing,ofcourse,inthisparticular
case,theDevil.AsithappensIwasmyselfinvolvedinespionageopera-
tionsintheSecondWorldWar,whenIservedwithMI6,thewartime
versionoftheBritishSecretService,orSIS.Wehad,forinstance,what
were known as stay-behind agents in German-occupied France, who
wererequiredtolielowuntilcircumstancesaroseinwhichtheycould
makethemselvesusefulbycollectingandtransmittingintelligence,or
organizing sabotage. While they were waiting to be activated, it was
essentialthattheyshouldmakethemselvesinconspicuousbymerging
intothesocialandpoliticalscene,and,intheiropinionsandattitudes,
echoingthecurrentconsensus.Thus,itwouldbeappropriateforastay-
behindagentpostedin,say,VichyFrance,tobeostensiblyPtainistin
politics,Catholicinreligion,andbourgeoisinwayoflife,eschewing
any association with resistance organizations and, equally, the more
fervidpro-Naziones.Bythismeanshemighthopetoestablishhimself
asaloyalsupporterofMarshalPtain,andso,whenthetimecame,be
thebetterplacedtoacteffectivelyonbehalfofthebelligerentGaullists
andtheirAnglo-Americanallies.
A Third Testament
vii introduction
Those who direct our intelligence services are not blessed with the
insightsandvision of Godthoughtheyare sometimes prone tosuppose
so.NorareourhumancalamitiesinGodseyeswhattheyseemtobein
ours.ThereisnoimagerythatcanconveyeventhesimilitudeofGod,
letaloneforecastHispurposes;toknowHimatallwearebeholdento
the great mercy of the Incarnation. Even so, in considering the place
ofaSaintAugustineinhistory,itispossibletoseehisroleasthatofa
stay-behindagentpostedbyacelestialspymasterinacollapsingRoman
EmpirewithabrieftopromotetheChurchssurvivalascustodianofthe
Christianrevelation.Certainly,noonecouldhavebeenbetterqualied
forsucharolethanthefamousBishopofHippo,ardent,ashewas,for
Roman civilization as only a North African could be, and ardent for
CatholicorthodoxyasonlyaconvertandsometimeManicheanheretic
couldbe.*Hisworldlycredentialswereimpeccableahighlysuccessful
professorshipofrhetoricatMilanUniversity,whichinhisregenerate
dayshecalledhisChairofLies,friendsandacquaintancesinthehigh-
estcirclesandoccasionalspeech-writingjobsfortheEmperorhimself.
Asforhispicesjusticatives,astheFrenchpolicecallsupportingdocu-
ments,whocouldaskforanythingbetterthanhisConfessions,therst
greatautobiographyandstillreckonedamongthegreatest,andhisCity
of God, whichlaiddowntheguidelinesforChristians,rsttosurvive,
andthentosetaboutbuildinganewgreatcivilizationtobeknownas
Christendom?
When Augustine came to die, the barbarians were already at the
gatesofHippo,andwerepillagingandburningthecitywhilehisbody
layinhisbasilicaawaitingburial.HisservicesonbehalfofhisChurch,
however,bynomeansendedwithhislife,butcontinuedthroughthe
succeedingDarkandMiddleAges,deningandstrengtheningthefaith
*Manicheism, to which Augustine adhered for some nine years before his conversion, was based on the
notionofaneternalconictbetweenlightanddarkness.Itsfollowerswereexpectedtopracticeextreme
asceticism.
A Third Testament
viii introduction
hehadsocherished,therebyfacilitatingitsmovementwestwardtoleave
initstraingreatcathedralslikeChartrestomarkitsprogress.
IfSt.Augustineappearedtoday,andhadaslittleauthorityashisdefenders,
hewouldachievenothing.GodguidedHisChurchwellbysendinghim
earlier,andinvestinghimwiththeproperdegreeofauthority.
ThuswroteBlaisePascalsometencenturiesafterAugustinesdeath.By
thattimenewdangerswerethreatening.Thegreattorrentofcreativity
releasedbyChristianitynowlookedasifitwereoverowingitsbanks,
sweepingasidethedikesanddamsdesignedtoholditback.Inplaceof
theCloudofUnknowingbetweenGodandus,aCloudofKnowingwas
gathering;now,thethreatwasoflight,notdarkness adazzling,blinding
light.ThistimeGodsngerpointedinexorablyatPascalhimself.Heit
waswhowouldberequiredtocounteractatwo-foldattack:ontheone
hand, a clamor for self-indulgence, freedom from all restraint, license
to,inhisownwords,licktheearth;and,ontheother,therstcrazy
rumblingsofgodlessmenofscience,soblownupwithprideintheirown
achievementsandthestaggeringpotentialitiestherebyopenedup,that
theywerebeginningtothinktheyweregodsthemselves,capableofshap-
ingtheirowndestinyandcreatingakingdomofheavenonearth.
PascalscredentialsasGodsspyintheseparticularcircumstanceswere
nolessimpeccablethanAugustineshadbeeninthesituationcreated
bythefallofRome.Ostensibly,hewassupremelyamanofhistime;by
virtueofhismathematicalandscienticattainmentsinthesameclassasa
Newton,asathinkeronequaltermswithaDescartes,andasapolemicist
andstylistequippedtoaimeffectivebarbsataMontaigne.AsaJansenist*
sympathizer,PascalwasdeepinthecontroversiesraisedbytheReforma-
tion, and came within an aceof being excommunicated something,
*Jansenism, a heresy derived from the Augustinianism of Cornelius Jansen, in Pascals time Bishop of
Ypres.Itholdsthatgraceisirresistible,andhasthereforebeenregardedasdeterministicandinlinewith
Calvinism.Itsfollowers,whoincludedthereligiousofPortRoyal,amongthemPascalssisterJacqueline,
practicedextremeasceticism.
A Third Testament
ix introduction
incidentally, liable to happen to Gods spies at all times, whether at
thehandsoftheInquisition,politicalpolice,or,thelatestvariant,the
MediaPundits.HisLettresprovinciales,venomouslyattackingthetime-
servingJesuits,werebyuniversalconsentamasterpieceofdemolition
andirony,andallinallthereseemedeveryreasonforregardinghim
asanoutstandingandcharacteristicproductoftheRenaissanceanda
harbingeroftheEnlightenmenttocome.
YetallthisamountedonlytowhatPascalcalleddistractions,in-
tended,asheputit,toamuseusandbringusimperceptiblytodeath.
Thedivinebrienghadalreadytakenplace,andheknewjustwhathe
hadtodo,whichwasnolessthantouseeveryscrapofknowledgehe
hadacquired,hisscienticexplorationsandexperimentations,allthe
giftsoftheintellectandtheimaginationGodhadendowedhimwith,
toproducehisgreatmasterpiece,hissuperbapologiafortheChristian
faithitself,posthumouslynamedhisPenses.Furthermore,byasignal
grace, due to his early death at thirty-nine, this splendid exercise in
faith at its most durable and thought at its most perceptive, was left
behind him in the form of notes on scraps of paper rather than the
long,conscientiouslyworkedover,andpossiblytedious,treatisehehad
envisaged.
Thenotes,revealing,astheydo,theworkingofhisbrilliantmind,
havebeenuniquelyeffectiveintheirimpact;personnelbombsexploding
unpredictably instead of with a single devastating blast. Furthermore,
theimpossibletaskofputtingthenotestogetherintheorderPascalmay
bepresumedtohaveintendedhaskeptscholarsbusywhomightoth-
erwisehaveturnedtheirattentiontoform-criticismandreinterpreting,
ratherthanjustrearranging,whatPascalwrote.Ifonlysomesimilarly
blameless exercise had occupied contemporary biblical scholarship,
especially NewTestament commentators, the Bultmanns and Kungs
and Robinsons, what a blessed deliverance that would have been! It
A Third Testament
x introduction
was surely signicant that Pascals worldly achievements should have
included inventing the computer, which has become twentieth cen-
tury mans topmost graven image, before which he readily prostrates
himself,andwhosecrypticutteranceshereceiveslikeDelphicoracles.
PascalsservicesasGodsspywerecorrespondinglyillustriousnoless
thantheexpositionandcelebrationofthetrueChristianfaithinwords
so luminous that they have continued to shine with their own inner
lighteversince,likeanElGrecoportrait.
IturnmyeyestotheSchools&Universities
ofEurope
AndtherebeholdtheLoomofLocke,
whoseWoofragesdire,
WashdbytheWater-wheelsofNewton:
blackthecloth
InheavywreathesfoldsovereveryNation:
cruelWorks
OfmanyWheelsIview,wheelwithout
wheel,withcogstyrannic
Movingbycompulsioneachother,notas
thoseinEden,which,
WheelwithinWheel,infreedomrevolvein
harmony&peace.
TheselinesfromWilliamBlakesJerusalemwerewrittenaboutacen-
turyandahalfafterthePenses,andinBlakesinimitablewayconveya
sensesimilartoPascalsthatknowledgeisbutavastcul-de-sac,andthe
technologyderivedfromitadreadservitudecogstyrannicmovingby
compulsioninsteadofrevolvinginharmonyandinpeaceasinEden.
Notwohumanbeingscouldhavebeenmoredifferentintheirback-
groundsandpursuits,intheirsocialpositionandupbringing,andin
thetimesinwhichtheylived,thanBlakeandPascal.Yettheystoodside
by side in their common awareness of the enormous dangers arising
A Third Testament
xi introduction
frommansventuringintotheCloudofKnowing.Pascalreachedthe
conclusionthattheonlyseriousquesthereonearthwasforGod,and
thatthewaytoHimwascharteredintheOldTestament,sign-posted
in the New, and illumined by faith. Blake likewise was insistent that
onlytheimaginationwascapableofgraspingwhatlifewasabout,and
he never tired of belaboring the ideologues of the age, like Rousseau
andVoltaire and Newton, or of pouring scorn on the contemporary
wisdomforinstance,LockeonHumanUnderstandingandBaconon
theAdvancementofLearning.
OnlyGodwouldhavedaredtorecruitsostrange,inspiredanderratic
apersonasBlaketositoutonHisbehalfthetumultuousyearsandaf-
termathoftheFrenchRevolutionanditsliteraryandartisticequivalent,
theromanticmovement.Amongmanyofhiscontemporarieshepassed
forbeingmad,andinhiswaysandstatementswassoincalculableand
eccentricastobewhat,inhumanterms,iscalledasecurityrisk.God,
however, sees further in selecting His stay-behind agents than mortal
spymastersdo,andknewthatHisarchadvocateofexuberanceandexcess
wouldmakeofJesusgospelofloveandself-abnegationabrightrainbow
shiningacrossastormysky,keepingalivethehopeofdeliverancefrom
darksatanicmillsofeveryvariety,andalltheirliesandpollution.
LikePascal,Blakewasamanofhistime;temperamentallyarevo-
lutionaryhimself,whorejoicedwhentheRevolutionhappened,wore
theredcapoftheLibertyBoysinthestreetsofLondonuntiltheReign
ofTerror led him to lay it aside, and frequented the table of Joseph
Johnson,thepublisher,wherehemetsuchrevolutionaryluminariesas
WilliamGodwinandTomPaine,nottomentionJosephPriestly,the
discovererofoxygen,whomheimmortalizedasInammableGasthe
Wind-Finder.HealsohadapassingrelationshipwithMaryWollstone-
craft,knownasthehyenainpetticoats,whofullledhisnotionofFear-
fulSymmetrybybecomingthewifeGodwindeserved,andproducing
intheirdaughterMary,thewifeShelleydeserved.
A Third Testament
xii introduction
Blake also belonged temperamentally to the romantic movement.
Indeed,hemay besaidto haveushereditinwith his glowing verses
andpaintings,whichowednothingtoanyfashionorschool,andwhich
many consider, as I do, to be its nest product.These writings and
picturesremaininalltheirbeautyandspiritualawarenesstooffsetthe
tawdryofferingsoflaterromanticartistsandpoets,allmovingtowards
totalmindlessnessandincoherenceaDevilsLogoswherebytheWord
becameeshtodwellamongus,gracelessandfulloflies.
OverinDenmark,ofallplaces,anotherpropheticvoicewastobe
raisedSrenKierkegaardstoecho,andprojectstillfurtherintothe
future, Pascals and Blakes. Kierkegaard knew and admired Pascals
writings,butthoughhislifeoverlappedwithBlakes(hewasfourteen
when Blake died), it is extremely improbable that he ever heard tell
ofhim.WhatheandBlakehadincommonwasadetestationofthe
sortofmaterialist-collectivistsocietytheysawcomingtopassaround
them, and an uncanny awareness of the sinister potentialities of sci-
ence.Theywereevenalikeintheiroddity,whichsetthemapartfrom
theircontemporaries;intheirresolutedeterminationtogotheirown
way without making concessions to the collectivity. Seeing them in
termsoftheirpredecessors,theHebrewprophets,BlakewasIsaiahand
Kierkegaard,Amos;boththeirvoicesbeingraisedinwarningagainst
thewrathtocomeifmendecidedtodispensewithGodandestablish
HisKingdomhereonearth,withappropriatelawsandmoralityand
ecclesiasticalestablishments.
Of all Gods spies, a motley enough crew anyway, Kierkegaard is
surelyoneoftheweirdest.Interminablywanderingaboutthestreetsof
Copenhagen,onetrouserlegshorterthantheother,hehadthepeople
inthecafsnudgingoneanotherandexchangingsignicantnodsand
winksashepassedby.Howcouldhepossiblyhaveunderstoodinad-
vance,ashedid,thegreathoaxofuniversal-suffragedemocracy,sothat
A Third Testament
xiii introduction
inWestminsteroronCapitolHillitishissharpsayingsthatcometo
mind rather than Jeffersons, Bagehots, or Bryces ponderously struc-
turedones?Howcouldhisimpishmindhavereachedout,asitdid,into
thenewsrooms,theradioandtelevisionstudios,thecommunications
satellites keeping the muzak and newzak going round the world and
roundtheclock?Howtohaveforeseensoclearlythosevoicescanting
slogansinunison,oncampuses,inRedSquare,whereveruniformity
wasmasqueradingasunanimity?Or,takethis:Apassionate,tumultu-
ousagewilloverthroweverything,pulleverythingdown;butarevo-
lutionaryagethatisatthesametimereectiveandpassionlessleaves
everythingstandingbutcunninglyemptiesitofsignicance.Whata
perfect description of the revolutionary happenings now, which take
placesilently,invisibly,withthemedialullingeveryonetosleep,until
the people awakenif they ever doto nd that the Honorable and
RightHonorableMembersgoinginandoutoftheAyeandNolobbies
areghostsvotingforandagainstnothing;thatthevestedpriestsatthe
highaltarareprayingtonooneaboutnothing,anddispensingwine
andwaferslifelessasstaleyeast;thatthecurrencynotesbeingprinted
at the Minthavelosttheirvaluebefore theycome offthepresses,as
thewordsdispatchedtothecomposingroomhavelosttheirmeaning
beforetheyareprinted.Insuchcircumstances,whatistheneedfora
revolution?ItwouldbelikeblitzingPompeisomethingthatactually
happenedintheItaliancampaign inthe SecondWorldWar, though
nobody noticed.Suchinsightsarenotof this world;atthenon-stop
treasontrialwhichishistory,Kierkegaardstandsconvictedofworking
asanundercoveragentforGod.
Dostoevsky, notoriously a Slavophile, Christian, monarchist, and
inveterateanti-Marxist,fallsperfectlyintothecategoryofGodsSpies;
heforesawwithuncannyclarityhowtheterribleprideanddynamism
of godless men seeking to construct an earthly paradise would infal-
A Third Testament
xiv introduction
liblyprovedestructivetothemselves,theirfellowhumanbeings,and
ultimatelytowhatwestillcallChristendom.
WhenIwasrstinRussia,in1932,Dostoevskywasstillanathema
becauseofhisessentiallyreligiousviewoflife,asexpressedinTheIdiot
andTheBrothersKaramazov,andbecauseofhisdetestationofrevolu-
tionariesandtheirideologies,especiallyMarxism,asexpressedinThe
Devils.HisgraveinSt.Petersburg,whenIvisitedit,wasneglectedand
difculttond,andhisbooks,thoughnotspecicallybanned,were
unobtainable.Inanycase,LeninhadsavagelyattackedDostoevskyand
hiswritings,whichatthattimeprecludedanyattempttore-establish
hisreputation.EspeciallyoffensiveintheclimateoftheSovietregime
wasthefamousspeechhedeliveredin1880,theyearbeforehedied,
on the occasion of the unveiling of the Pushkin statue in Moscow.
In the speech, Dostoevsky lambasted the revolutionary and nihilistic
viewswhich,heclaimed,cameintoRussiafromtheWest.Hespoke
inexaltedmysticaltermsofRussiasgreatdestinytounitemankindin
abrotherhoodbasedonChristianloveastheantidotetopowerrather
thanonpowerastheantidotetotheinequality,theinjustice,theop-
pressionunderwhichthepooreverywherelabored.
At the time the speech was rapturously received. Bringing it into
mycommentarynecessitatedquotingwordsfromitwhich,utteredin
RussianandbyaSovietcitizen,wouldleadstraighttotheGulagAr-
chipelago. Equipped with a radio mic, and speaking these words as
I walked along a crowded Moscow street, gave me a kind of ecstasy
such as I have rarely experienced. None of the passersby heard what
I was saying or would have understood it if they had; in their eyes I
wasjustaforeignerforsomereasongiventomutteringtohimself.Yet
nonetheless,asIconjuredupinmymindtheextraordinaryresponseto
Dostoevskyswordswhenhespokethem,somehowIknewwithoutany
shadowofdoubtthathisvisionofChristsgospeloflovetriumphing
overMarxsgospelofpowerwascertain,ultimately,tobefullled.
A Third Testament
xv introduction
WelmedtheDostoevskyprograminRussiajustwhenthetidehad
turned,andhehadbecomeacceptable.Inpreparationforthecelebra-
tionofthecentenaryofhisdeath,alargeeditionofhiscollectedworks
hadbeenpublishedandprovedenormouslypopular.Itwasfascinating
toobservehowDostoevskysbooks,productsofaminddiametrically
opposedtoeverythingtheSovietregimestoodfor,could,byvirtueof
an amazing exercise in ideological gymnastics, be molded into seem-
ingcompatiblewiththecurrentPartyLineratherlikediscoveringin
Gandhis life and writings another Genghis Khan, or in Mussolini a
reincarnationofSt.FrancisofAssisi.
ThecaseofTolstoyinmylittlegalaxyofGodsspiesisparticularly
interesting, if only because he is still, as it were, en poste, so that his
performanceisopentoscrutinybyadiscerningeye.Thiswasveryob-
viouswhilewewerelmingtheprogramonTolstoyinRussiaatplaces
associated with himhis Moscow home, his country estate Yasnaya
Polyana, nearTula, and the obscure little railway station at Astapova
wherehedied.InsomedegreeIhadbeenpreparedfortheexperience
whenIinterviewedforBBCtelevisionaRussianwriternamedAnatoly
KuznetsovwhohaddefectedandsoughtasyluminEngland.Intalking
withhim,Ibecameawarethathiswayoflookingatlifehaddistinct
Christianundertones.WhenImentionedthis,hetoldmethatsoonaf-
terhewasbornhisUkrainiangrandmotherhadarrangedforhimtobe
secretlybaptized.Evenso,Iputittohim,hecouldscarcelyhavehada
ChristianupbringingunderthemilitantlygodlessSovietregime.What
abouttheGospels,forinstance?They,surely,wereunavailable.Yes,he
said,thatwasso,andthenwentontodeliverhimselfofamemorable
remarknamely,thatStalinhadmadeaverygreatmistakeinnotban-
ningtheworksofTolstoyandDostoevsky.
Isawthepoint,ofcourse,andcontinuedtomarvelattheextraordi-
narychanceifchanceitwaswherebytheworksofthetwogreatest
A Third Testament
xvi introduction
Christianwritersofmoderntimesshouldhavecontinuedtocirculate
intheworldsrstavowedlyatheisticstate.Afterall,betweenthemthey
coverthewholeground,fromTolstoyssplendidlylucidcommentaries
ontheNewTestament,hisaccountofhisconversioninhisConfession,
aswellashisshortstories,eachoneaparableofconsummateartistry,to
Dostoevskysdevastatinglypenetratingexpositionofsinandsuffering
andredemption.Supposingonewereaskedtonamethetwobooksbest
calculatedtogiveanunbelievertodayaclearnotionofwhatChristi-
anityisabout,couldonehopetodobetterthanResurrectionandThe
Brothers Karamazov? Kuznetsov was undoubtedly correct in his sup-
positionthatbyallowingthecirculationofTolstoysandDostoevskys
works,Stalinunwittinglycounteractedinthemosteffectivewaypos-
siblealltheeffortsoftheSovietpropagandamachine,withitsanti-God
museumsandequivalentpublicationsandexhortationsandscientic
mumbo-jumbo,toextirpatethepractice,andeventhememory,ofthe
ChristianreligionamongtheRussianpeople.
Holdingforthinfrontofacameraisnotanactivitythatintheordinary
wayI ndparticularlycongenial, but somehow, inthelight of thethoughts
myconversationwithKuznetsovhadconjuredup,Ifoundourlming
expedition to the Soviet Union in search of Tolstoy quite entranc-
ing.ThiswasespeciallytrueofthedayswespentatYasnayaPolyana,
which, in the perfect autumn weather, seemed an enchanted place.
StandingbyTolstoysgrave,lookingovertheravinewhereasachildhe
hadbelievedthe green stick was hidden which had carved on it the
secretofeverlastinghappiness,andspeakingthereofthebeautifulway
he had written about the NewTestament, in shining words, so clear
andtellingthattheymighthavebeenspeciallyintendedformindsoth-
erwiseuninformedordeliberatelyclosed-uponthesubject;speaking,
too,ofhisinveteratedistrustofpowerandofthosewhoexercisedit,
howeverseeminglywell-disposedtheirintentions,Ifeltuplifted,my-
A Third Testament
introduction xvii
self.Myaudience,itistrue,wasonlyagapingcamera,with,gathered
roundit,ourownquipe,alongwithsomeRussiansattachedtousfor
onepurposeandanother,butIseemedtocatchaglimpseofanother
presence,lurkingamongthesilverbircheshehadplantedacenturybe-
fore,bearded,high-bootedandbelted,inhisfamiliarpeasantsblouse.
Coulditbewasitpossiblethathewasfavoringmewithadistinc-
tivelymischievouswink?
ImmediatelyfollowingourlmingbyTolstoysgrave,Iwasduetobe
interviewedmyselfbythelocalTulatelevisionstation.Myinterviewer,
anagreeableindividualinleathertrousers,wasalreadystandingby,and
toldmethatheproposedtoputtomeonlyonequestionWhydidI
admireTolstoy?whichseemedfairenough.WhileIwaswalkingup
anddownthinkingofwhatIshouldsay,theRussianwhowastoactas
interpreterfellintostepbesideme,and,inasoftpersuasivevoice,with,
asitseemedtome,undertonesofridicule,remarkedthatTolstoyhad
beenagreatpacist,hadhenot?Iagreedthathehad,thoughwithout
addingthattherebyhehadearnedtheunboundedcontemptofLenin.
Inthatcase,theinterpreterwenton,itwouldbegreatlyappreciated
ifIweretopointoutthatMr.Brezhnevspolicyofdtentemightbe
regardedasthefulllmentofTolstoyspacism.
Itwasdifculttokeepastraightface,butoutofconsiderationforthe
interpreterIcontentedmyselfwithsayingthatMr.Brezhnevspolicyof
dtentewastodowithdiplomacy,aheavily-minedeldintowhichI
shouldnotcaretoventure.Therethematterrested,andwhenIcame
toanswerthesinglequestionofwhyIadmiredTolstoyIstucktomy
threepointshisgreatnessasawriter,hisuniquequalityasaspokes-
manforChrist,andhisabidingdistrustofgovernments,whatevertheir
complexion and ostensible objectives. No words I have ever uttered,
Ithink,gavememoresatisfactionthanthese,eventhoughIfeltsure
theywouldneverbetransmitted.Itwasakindofecstasytobespeaking
A Third Testament
introduction xviii
theminthosecircumstancesandinthatplace.Intheevent,asIantici-
pated,allthatappearedonthetelevisionscreenwassomemutefootage
ofuslmingatYasnayaPolyana,butIfeltthatwhatIhadsaidwould
alsolingeronamongthesilverbirchtreesinsomemysteriousway.
InMoscowwelmedinfrontoftheheadquartersoftheSovietWrit-
ersUnion.ThehousewastheoneTolstoyhadusedfortheresidenceof
theRostovfamilyinWarandPeace,andalargestatueofhimdominates
thefaade.Again,asatYasnayaPolyana,IwasconsciousofTolstoys
presence.Lookingupathisstatueartistically,notparticularlygood,
butstillthelikenesssufcedIsawinhisbronzefacewhattheRussian
writerMaximGorkyhadsowelldescribed:somethingeverlasting,near
athandandfaraway,divinelyearthyandinnocentlyold.
ThereremainsDietrichBonhoeffer,who,forme,doesnottinto
theroleofGodsspyasclearlyandsuccinctlyastheothers,doubtless
becauseheisthenearesttousintime.Godsspies,bythenatureofthe
case,requiretobeseeninacertainperspectivetobefullyunderstood
andappreciated.Bonhoeffercontinuestobeenmeshedinthepresent,
andsotosomeextentpartakesofitsuncertaintiesandequivocations.
Forinstance,hetookhisgreatdecisiontojointheconspiracytokill
AdolfHitlereventhoughherecognizedthatsodoingmightbeamor-
tal sin. In other words, he considered that delivering Germany from
the Nazi regime was more important even than saving his own soul.
We who have seen the consequences of Germanys deliverance from
HitlermaywellquestionBonhoeffersdecision;buthewassparedany
such agonizing doubts by his martyrdom just before Germanys nal
defeat.
ItisinterestingtomethatinLondonSimoneWeil,anotherofGods
spies,workingwiththeGaullistsandbecomingincreasinglydoubtful
aboutwhattheforthcomingsoi-disantliberationofFrancewasgoing
toamounttointermsofhervalues,waslikewisesparedtheunedify-
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xix introduction
ingspectacleofCharlesDeGaullesFifthRepublic,asBonhoefferwas
thatofGermanysFederalRepublic.Inhercase,admittedly,herdeath
in1943canberegardedasinsomedegreeself-inicted,inthatitsos-
tensiblecausewasherrefusaltoeat.Theeffect,however,wasthesame
asBonhoeffersmartyrdomthatshedidnotlivetoseethehollowness
oftheAlliedvictoryshehadsopassionatelyhopedforandbelievedin.
AndhowgreatlyshewouldhavepreferredtodielikeBonhoefferona
NaziscaffoldtodyingofmalnutritioninaKenthospital!
StandingontheBerlinWallItriedtoimaginewhatwouldhavebeen
Bonhoeffersfeelingsif,insteadofbeingmartyred,hehadlivedoninto
post-war divided Germany. Eastwards, I could see the familiar scene
ofdesolationandoppression,thebedraggledhouses,theemptyshops,
the somehow muted trafc and people in the streets; westwards, the
othersortofdesolationandoppression,equallyfamiliar,thegleaming
neonandglass,theexhortationstospendandtoconsume,thebanks
forchurchesandtheeroticafordreams.Thepursuitofpowerversus
the pursuit of happiness, black-and-white television versus color, the
clenched st versus the raised phallus, guns before butter and butter
before guns. And in between, the no-mans land or limbo of vigilant
sentriesonwatch-towers,dogsandland-minesandarmedpatrols.Was
thereanythingheretorisketernaldamnationfor,orforthatmatterto
live for?The strip-tease joints and the garish posters announcing the
mighty achievements of the triumphant German proletariat, equally
fantasy. Plastic esh and fraudulent statisticswheres the difference?
Perhaps, after all, the limbo is the place, lurking among the land-
mines.
Bonhoeffers active service as Gods spy ends, then, with an unan-
sweredquestion.Maybehisperfectserenityashewenttohisexecution
waspartlyduetothefactthatnowhewouldneverhavetoansweritat
least not in this world. Meanwhile, we may be sure that other spies
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havebeenbriefedandposted.Itwouldbefoolisheventospeculateon
theiridentityandwhereabouts.Ashasalreadybeensaid,therstduty
ofastay-behindagentistotakeonthecolorationofthecontemporary
scene.Onethingiscertain,though:whoeverandwherevertheymay
be,greatserviceswillberequiredofthemandgreatdangersencompass
them.
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W
henatthebeginningofthefthcenturya.d.Romewas
sacked, Augustine was at the height of his fame as the
BishopofHippoinNorthAfrica.Confrontedwiththe
dissolutionoftheRomanEmpire,likealatter-dayNoah,hewascon-
strainedtoconstructanark,inhiscaseOrthodoxy,whereinhisChurch
couldsurvivethroughthedarkdaysthatlayahead.
ThankslargelytoAugustine,thelightoftheNewTestamentdidnot
gooutwithRomesbutremainedamidstthedebrisofthefallenempire
tolightthewaytoanothercivilization,Christendom,whoselegateeswe
are.
Itwasasthoughhehadbeenspeciallygroomedforthetask.Tem-
peredintheresofhisownsensuality,toughenedbyhisarduousexplo-
rationsoftheheresiesoftheage,hewasamasterofwordswrittenand
spoken,whichheofferedinGodsservice,rstaskingthatGodwould
givehimthewherewithaltooffer.
InAugustineseyesRomestoodattheverypinnacleofhistory.He
saw it as the secular state carried to the highest degree of perfection,
providingtheonlytolerableframeworkoflifeformankind.Itsdisap-
pearancefromthehumanscene,ifsounthinkableacatastrophewere
tohappen,wouldleavebehindnotother,alternativecivilizations,but
st.augustine 2
avacuum,adarkness.
AugustinesownNorthAfricapartookofthisglory.ThecityofCar-
thagewasalittleRome.Theabundantharvests,theourishingcities
andports,theentertainmentsandspectacles,allsigniedparticipation
intheRomanEmpire,whichtoAugustinewasthewholeworld.
Augustinewasbornintheyear354,somefortyyearsafterChristian-
ityhadbecometheacknowledgedreligionoftheRomanEmpireunder
Constantine.HisbirthplacewasinahillydistrictofNorthAfrica,the
Roman province then known as Numidia, in one of the many small
townswhichwerescatteredaboutwhatwasthenarichandluxuriant
countryside.
Hisfather,Patricius,belongedtothemiddleclassesandwasreason-
ablywelloffexceptthathewasavictimoftheveryexcessivetaxation
whichcharacterizedthosetroubledyears.Hewasawealthymanwho
remainedapagantilltheendofhislife,whenhewasbelatedlybap-
tizedaChristian.AugustinesmotherMonica,ontheotherhand,was
aChristianoftremendouspiety.Withoutanyquestion,herdevotions
andmeditationswereconducivetoAugustinenotfulllinghisfathers
purposeandbecomingasuccessfullawyerorcivilservant,but,asshe
hoped,dedicatinghislifetotheserviceofChristandtheChurch.She
madehimasaintandhissanctityresulted,induecourse,inherbeing
canonized.
Hisstudieswenteasily.Heexcelledandquitesoonbecameateacher
ofrhetoricaratheremptyandpretentiousdisciplinewhichinthose
days was very highly regarded, rather as sociology is today. Looking
backonhisprofession,hecontemptuouslycalleditbeingavendorof
words.Alas,myowntrade!
Bytheendofthefourthcenturythedecadencewhichhadaficted
RomehadspreadtothenorthernAfricanprovinces,especiallytothe
greatportandmetropolisofCarthage,atwhoseuniversityAugustine
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studied and later taught.Thence he transferred to Rome because he
saidhefoundtheCarthagestudentstooturbulentaverycontempo-
rarytouch.
ToaprovinciallikeyoungAugustine,theMediterraneanwouldhave
seemedlikethegatewaytothelargerworldofRome.Afterall,hewas
averyambitiousman,andinhistime,asinours,eminenceasaman
oflettersorasanacademiccouldleadtopositionsofgreatpowerand
responsibility.
Also,Ithink,hewantedtoescapefromthewatchfuleyeofhismoth-
er,Monica,andindulgefreelyinwhatPascalwouldlatercalllicking
theearth,andAugustinehimself,afterhisconversion,woulddescribe
asscratchingtheitchingsoreoflust.So,toavoidthepainandembar-
rassmentofsayinggoodbyetohismother,onenightheslippedaway
acrossthesea,takingwithhimhismistressandtheirson,Adeodatus.
It was on any showing a very unkind thing to do and afterwards his
contritionforitwasgreat.
InRomeheeasilyconsortedwithsomeofthemostfamousgures
of the time, and was appointed to the Chair of Rhetoric in Milan.
TheappointmentbroughthimintocontactwiththeImperialCourt,
andevenmoreimportant,fromthepointofviewofhissubsequent
careerwiththefamousandsaintlyBishopAmbrose.So,attheageof
thirty,hehadreachedthesummitofacareerwithadazzlingprospect
beforehim.Butsomehow,heremainedtotallyunsatised.Hecalled
hisuniversityappointmenthischairoflies,knowinginhisheartthat
God had some other purpose for him and that, try as he might, he
wouldneverbeabletoescapehistruecalling.
Romangamesandtheatreweregivenovertowildlyexpensivespec-
taclesofviolenceanderoticism,likelmsand,increasingly,television
today.TojudgebythewaythatafterhisconversionAugustinenever
lostanopportunityofthunderingagainstsuchspectacles,itisreason-
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abletoassumethathewasbynomeansimmunetotheirappeal.There
isalsothetouchingstoryinAugustinesautobiography,theConfessions,
ofafriendwho,withgreateffort,hadmanagedtobreakanaddiction
tothegames,wastrickedintogoingtothem,venturedtoopenjustone
eye,andwashookedagain.
The pagan temples still functioned, but few attended or heeded
them.The Christian churches, now under state patronage, were not
strong enough to counteract, or even always to resist, the prevailing
atmosphere of luxury, violence and self-indulgence.With his sensual
dispositionandinquiringmind,Augustinewaslittledisposedtohold
aloof,thoughacertainintellectualandphysicalfastidiousnessprevent-
edhimfromsuccumbingwhollytoawayoflifewhichwouldassuredly
havedestroyedhim.
ItiseasierforustogetinsideAugustinesunregenerateskinthanper-
hapsitwouldbeforanyoftheinterveninggenerations.Thesimilarity
betweenhiscircumstancesandoursisstriking,ifnottosayalarming.
Thereisthesamemoralvacuity,leadingtothesameinsensatepassion
fornewsensationsandexperiences;thesamefatuouscredulityopen-
ing the way to every kind of charlatanry and quackery from fortune
tellingtopsychoanalysis;thesamesinistercombinationofgreatwealth
andpointlessostentationwithappallingpovertyandunheededafic-
tion.AsAugustinewrote,Ogreedymen,whatwillsatisfyyouifGod
Himselfwillnot?
Weknowwhatitislike.Wealsoknowthattoatemperamentassen-
sualandimaginativeasAugustines,sexualindulgencemakesthegreat-
estappealpreciselybecauseitoffersakindoffraudulentecstasyjoys
thatexpirewhentheneonlightsgoout.
Theres nothing so powerful, he said when he was a Bishop, in
drawingthespiritofmandownwardsasthecaressesofawoman.He
was speaking from experience and I, for what its worth, endorse his
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opinion.
AugustinesConfessionsisreallytherstautobiography,inthemod-
ernsenseoftheterm.Forthatreasonweknowmoreabouthimthan
aboutanyothergureinantiquity.Ofcourse,itisnotjustanaccount
ofhislife,itisalsoanaccountofhisquestfortruth.Sotheculminat-
ing point in it, from his point of view at any rate, is his conversion.
Henaturallythought,asdidSaintPaul,thatthisconversionhappened
ataparticularmoment,butactuallyitwastheresultofalongprocess
whichhadbegunevenbeforehewasawareofit.
Knowinghisnature,MonicahadhurriedafterhersontoMilanto
watch over him, and pray for his souls redemption. Moreover, some
ofthefriendshehadmadeamongtheamusing,thecultivatedandthe
well-bornturnedouttobeChristians,afactwhichcameassomething
ofasurprisetoAugustine,whoinNorthAfricahadassociatedChristi-
anitywiththepoorandthelowly.InMilanagreatRomanadministra-
tor,likeAmbrose,mightrenouncehiscareertobecomeabishop,and
richheiressesdisposeofalltheirpropertytotheChurch.
ItwasunderAmbrosesinuencethatAugustinebegantostudythe
scriptures,notingparticularlythespiritualmeaningofOldTestament
stories,whichhadformerlymadelittleimpressiononhim.Thisplayed
an important part in his nal deliverance from the heresy of Mani-
cheismandhisultimateconversion.
TheclimaxofAugustinesconversionoccurredinagardeninMilan
anditsfulllmentinanothergardeninthecountry.Ithinkhemusthave
loved gardens, where for him the truth stood out most clearly. First,
however,therewasoneepisodeintheprocessleadinguptohisconver-
sionwhichreceivedspecialmentioninhisConfessions:
MymiserywascompleteandIrememberhowonedayYoumademereal-
izehowutterlywretchedIwas.Iwaspreparingaspeechinpraiseofthe
Emperor,intendingthatitshouldincludeagreatmanylieswhichwould
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st.augustine 6
certainly be applauded by an audience who knew well enough how far
fromthetruththeywere.Iwasgreatlypreoccupiedbythistask,mymind
wasfeverishlybusywithitsharassingproblems.AsIwalkedalongoneof
thestreetsofMilan,Inoticedapoorbeggarwhomust,Isuppose,havehad
hislloffoodanddrink,sincehewaslaughingandjoking.
Contrastingtheirtwoconditionshisownsotroubled,thebeggarsso
cheerfulhecriedoutindesperation,
WillIneverceasesettingmyheartonshadowsandfollowingalie?
Hisanguishandcontritionarealltooactualtomeaftermorethanforty
yearsinthesamesortofprofession.
Nonetheless Augustines mind continued to be occupied with
thoughtsoffameandsuccess.Hewasplanningtomarryarichwoman,
having callously sent away the mistress he had brought from North
Africa,whohadlivedwithhimforfteenyears,andkeepingtheirson,
Adeodatus, on whom he doted.Then matters came to a head in the
gardenofthehousewherehelived.Ashedescribedit:Inowfound
myselfdrivenbythetumultinmybreasttotakerefugeinthisgarden
where no one could interrupt that erce struggle in which I was my
owncontestant,untilitcametoitsconclusion.
Inthismoodhesuddenlyheardthesing-songvoiceofachildina
nearbyhouse.Whetheritwasthevoiceofaboyoragirl,Icantsaybut
againandagainitrepeatedtherefrain,Takeitandreadit,takeitand
readit.So,herushedtowherehehadleftacopyoftheGospelsopen
atSaintPaulsEpistletotheRomansandread:Notinrevellingand
drunkenness,notinlustandwantonness,notinquarrelsandrivalries,
rather,armyourselfwiththeLordJesusChrist.Spendnomorethought
onnatureandnaturesappetites.
Augustinecontinued:Ihadnowishtoreadmoreandnoneedto
doso,forinaninstantasIcametotheendofthesentence,itwasas
thoughthelightofcondenceoodedintomyheartandallthedark-
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st.augustine 7
nessanddoubtwasdispelled.
Noonemustsupposethatthisgreatconversionwhichhadbefallen
Augustine, this light which had shone into his life and would never
againleaveit,hadturnedhimawayfromthisworld.Onthecontrary,
itmadehimmoreconscioustheneverbeforeofitsjoysandbeauties,
moreawarethaneverbeforeoftheterricprivilegeitwastobeallowed
toexistintime.ThereisapassagethatIloveintheConfessionsinwhich
heaskstheearthitself,thewindsthatblow,andthewholeair,andall
thatlivesinitWhatismyGod?Likewiseheasksthesky,themoon
andthestars:WhatismyGod?NoneofthesewasGod,hewastold.
Hewentontospeaktoallthethingsthatareaboutme,allthatcanbe
admittedbythedoorofthesenses.They,too,hewastold,werenot
God.Thenatlastheunderstood:theirbeautywasalltheanswerthey
couldgive,andtheonlyanswerheneededtohear.
Followinghisconversion,AugustinesetoutwithMonicatoreturn
to North Africa, resolving to dedicate the remaining years of his life
whollytotheserviceofChrist.TheyreachedtheportofOstiaandwere
delayedthere,becausetheMediterraneanwasinfestedwithpiratesand
noboatswouldputtosea.
HowdifferentwastheAugustinewhoreturnedtoNorthAfricafrom
theonewhohadleftforRome!Nowhewasasavidtoleavetheworld
ashehadbeentoplungeintoit;asardentlyinsearchofobscurityashe
hadoncesoughtfame.
ItwaswhiletheywerewaitinginOstiathatAugustineandMonica
had an extraordinary, mystical experience which is described in the
Confessionswithincomparableartistryandskill.Theywerelookingout
ofthewindowofthehouseinwhichtheywerestayingintothecourt-
yardbelow,talkingtogetherserenelyandjoyfullyabouttheeternallife
of the saints, which, they agreed, no bodily pleasure, however great
itmightbeandwhateverearthlylightmightshedlusteruponit,was
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st.augustine 8
worthyofcomparison,orevenmention.Astheytalked,rangingover
thewholecompassofmaterialthingsintheirvariousdegrees,upto
the very heavens themselves, they came to survey the eternal Wis-
dom,longingforitandstrainingforit,Augustinesaid,withallthe
strengthofourhearts.
ThentheyreachedoutandtouchedthiseternalWisdom,whichlike
eternityitselfisneitherinthepastnorthefuture,butjustis.Touched
itonlytoreturn,leaving,Augustinewrites,ourspiritualharvestbound
toit,tothesoundofourownspeech,inwhicheachwordhasabegin-
ning and an end; far, far different from Your Word, our Lord, Who
abidesinHimselfforever,yetnevergrowsoldandgivesnewlifetoall
things.Whoeverhastriedtogiveexpressioninwordswithabeginning
andanend,totheperspectivesandshapeofthiscreationinwhichwe
live,cannotfailtofeelawedthatsogreatawriterasAugustineshould
sufferalikepredicament.
ItwasafterthisexperiencethatMonicatoldAugustineshehadnoth-
inglefttolivefor:Godhadgrantedhereve-rywish,nowthatherson
wasHisservant,andspurnedsuchjoysasthisworldhadtooffer.Nine
dayslatershewasdead,andAugustine,leavinghermortalremainsin
Ostia,returnedtoNorthAfricatoundertakewhatwouldbecomehis
greatlifeswork.Thiswastobenolessataskthantosalvagefroma
worldinruinstheChristianfaith,inorderthatitmightprovidethe
basisforanew,splendidcivilizationwhichwouldgrowgreatandthen
initstime,falterandfailasmen,forgettingtheeternalWisdomthat
MonicaandAugustinehadglimpsedatOstia,thoughttondintheir
ownmortalbodiesthejoyoflivingandintheirownmortalmindsits
meaning.
IntheConfessions,Augustineslastreferencetohismotherasksevery-
onewhoreadsthebooktorememberMonica,yourservant,andwith
her,Patricius,herhusband,whodiedbeforeher,bywhosebodiesIwas
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st.augustine 9
brought into this life.Through the centuries Monica has been duly
remembered.AsforAugustine,therestofhislifewasspentinNorth
Africa.Henevercrossedtheseaagain.
Hisideawastogatherafewsimilarlyinclinedfriendsroundhimand
sharewiththemamonasticlifeonhissmallestateinthehillswherehe
wasborn.Itwasnottobe.Hisgiftsweretoofamousandtooprecious,
andtheneedforleadershipintheChurchtoogreatforhimtobeleftin
peace.Ashetoldhiscongregationmanyyearslater,whenhehadlong
beenabishop,hecametoHippooneofthemanysmallportsalong
theNorthAfricancoasttoseeafriendwhomhehopedtopersuadeto
joinhiminthemonasticlife.BecauseHippohadabishop,Augustine
wenttothecathedralfearingnothreattohisownprivacy,butwasrec-
ognized,grabbed,madeapriest,andinduecourseabishop.
Augustine wept when, almost under compulsion, he was rst or-
dainedapriest.Probablyhewouldhavehaddifcultyinexplainingjust
whatthetearswereabout,butoneofthecauseswascertainlyhislost
dreamofalifeofprayerandmeditationawayfromatroubledworld.
He was forty-three years old when he rst mounted the cathedra as
BishopofHippo.Thenceforth,hewasendlesslyinvolvedintheduties
and responsibilities of his ofce and the often bitter controversies of
histime.
Contemplating Augustiness achievement one stands amazed. By
becomingtheirbishop,hehadintruthbecometheservantofhiscon-
gregationthosevolatileChristiansofNorthAfricawhosefeelingshe
understoodsowell.Preachingtothemoftendaily,spendinghismorn-
ings adjudicating their private disputes, being available constantly to
anyoneoftheminneedofhelporcounsel,andallthewhileconduct-
inganenormouscorrespondencehisadministrativeburdenwasvery
great.Yethewasamanwithdrawnfromthecommotionaroundhim.
Despitehisgreatfameandinvolvementinhistroubledtimes,hewas
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somehowisolated,asthoughinhisowninnersanctityhehadachieved
themonasticlifehesolongedfor.
GatheringsoftheNorthAfricanhierarchybroughtAugustineoften
tothegreatmetropolitanchurchatCarthage,wherehedeliveredmany
ofhisgreatestpolemics,placinghisdazzlinggiftsunreservedlyatthe
serviceofhisChurch.
Hispublicutterancesandwritingsarefullofarresting,challenging
phrases, as fresh and relevant to our ears as to those who rst heard
them.
ThisisthedooroftheLord;therighteousshallenterin,waswrit-
ten on the lintel of a church in Numidia. However, The man who
enters,Augustinewrote:
isboundtoseedrunkards,misers,tricksters,gamblers,adulterers,fornica-
tors, people wearing amulets, assiduous clients of sorcerers, astrologers.
Hemustbewarnedthatthesamecrowdsthatpressintothechurcheson
Christianfestivalsalsollthetheatresonpaganholidays
Whereverthetoweringmassofthetheateriserected,therethefounda-
tions of Christian virtue are undermined, and while this insane expen-
dituregivestothesponsorsagloriousresult,menmockattheworksof
mercy
ItisonlycharitythatdistinguishesthechildrenofGodfromthechil-
drenoftheDevil.TheyallmakethesignoftheCross,andanswerAmen
andsingAlleluia,theyallgotochurchandbuildupthewallsoftheba-
silicas
Take away the barriers afforded by the laws! Mens brazencapacityto
doharm,theirurgetoself-indulgencewouldragetothefull.Nokinginhis
kingdom,nogeneralwithhistroopsnohusbandwithhiswife,nofather
withhisson,couldhopetostop,byanythreatorpunishment,thelicense
thatwouldfollowthesheersweettasteofsinning
Givemeamaninlove;heknowswhatImean.Givemeonewhoyearns;
give me one who is hungry; give me one far away in this desert, who is
thirstyandsighsforthespringoftheEternalCountry.Givemethatsortof
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11 st.augustine
man;heknowswhatImean.ButifIspeaktoacoldman,hejustdoesnt
knowwhatIamtalkingabout
You are surprised that the world is losing its grip?That the world is
grownold?Dontholdontotheoldman,theworld;dontrefusetoregain
your youth in Christ, who says to you: The world is passing away; the
worldislosingitsgrip,theworldisshortofbreath.Dontfear,thyyouth
shallberenewedasaneagle.
Though no one has ever been more insistent on the need for purity,
equallynoonehaseverbeenlessofaPuritaninthepejorativesense.
EverythingincreationdelightedAugustine.Hespoketohiscongrega-
tionofthegloriouslychangingcolorsoftheMediterranean,whichhe
hadsooftenobserved.Allcreatedthingsshouldbeloved,he insisted,
because God made them.The sea, the creatures, everything that is,
speaksofGod.
ItwasbecauseAugustinewassoawareoftheuniversalityofGods
loveandpresencethathecouldeasilycommunicatewithallsortsand
conditions of men. For instance, he once told the shermen at Hip-
po:
Itwillnotbeheldagainstyouthatyouareignorantagainstyourwill,but
thatyouneglecttoseekoutwhatitisthatmakesyouignorant;notthat
youcannotbringtogetheryourwoundedlimbs,butthatyourejectHim
thatwouldhealthem.
Again,likehisMaster,liketheGospelsthemselves,heusedeveryday
imagerytomakehispoints.AswhenhecomparedGodsgiftstousto
amangivinghisgirlabracelet.
Ifshesodelightsinthebraceletastoforgetthegiver,thatisaninsultto
him,butifshesodelightsinthebraceletastolovethegivermore,thatwas
whatthebraceletwasfor
Wetakeforgrantedtheslowmiraclewherebywaterintheirrigationof
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st.augustine 12
avineyardbecomeswine.ItisonlywhenChristturnswaterintowine,in
quickmotion,asitwere,thatwestandamazed.
AndtherewasalwaystheNorthAfricancountryside:
Whenallissaidanddone,isthereanymoremarvelloussight,anyoccasion
whenhumanreasonisnearertosomesortofconversewiththenatureof
things,thanthesowingofseeds,theplantingofcuttings,thetransplant-
ingofshrubs,thegraftingofslips?Itisasthoughyoucouldquestionthe
vital force in each root and bud on what it can do, and what it cannot,
andwhy.
So,thisscintillatingmindlivesoninhiswords.Wordswhichtakeac-
countofthetimesinwhichtheywerespokenorwrittenandthefears
andanxietiesthesetimesgenerated,butwhichbrushasideemptyhopes
offashioningabetterworldoutofmeremortalhopesforone.
Inolongerwishedforabetterworld,becauseIwasthinkingofthewhole
ofcreation,andinthelightofthisclearerdiscernmentIhavecometosee
that, though the higher things are better than the lower, the sum of all
creationisbetterthanthehigherthingsalone.
Augustine was fty-six years old and in Carthage when, in the year
410,someonecameandtoldhimthatRomehadbeensacked.Itmust
havebeenadramaticmomentinhislife.Ofcourseheknewthatsome-
thingofthekindwasliabletohappenandhadpreparedhimselfand
hisock,asfarashecould,forit.Dontloseheart,brothers,hetold
them, there will be an end to every earthly kingdom, and if this is
actuallytheendnow,Godsees.Evenso,hecontinuedtonourishthe
hope,aspeopledowhengreatdisastersloom,thatsomehowitwouldnt
happen.
InourtimeasinAugustineswehavewitnessedgreatdisasters,and
weknowhowtheameofhopeburnson.Irememberwellabright
AugustSundayafternoonin1940whenIstoodonCamdenHilland
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13 st.augustine
heardtheroaroftherstwaveoftheGermanLuftwaffecomingover
London,andthought,No,itcanthappen!
Like manyofmy generationI felt thatthe citiesofWesterncivi-
lizationhadbeenmorallybombedbeforetheactualbombsbeganto
fall.ButAugustinelovedandreveredRome.Hesawitnotjustasthe
symbolofagreatempirebutascivilizationitselfeverythingthathe
hadadmiredandafterwhichhehadaspiredwhenhewasgrowingup
andasastudentinthegreatmetropolis.Romewas art, literature, all
thethingshewantedtoachieve;itwasallthattheFrenchstatesman
Talleyrandwoulddescribecenturieslater,whenhewitnessedwhathe
thoughttobetheruinofFrenchcivilization,asdouceurdevivre,the
sweetnessoflife.
Augustinesrstdutywastoheartenhisockandpreventthepanic
and demoralization which the ood of refugees already beginning to
arriveinNorthAfricafromRomemightwellhavebroughtabout.In
asermondeliveredatthetime,hecomparedthecaptureofRomeby
Alaric,kingoftheVisigoths,withthedestructionofSodom,reminding
hislistenersthatinthelatter,biblicalcase,everyonehadperishedand
thecityhadbeeneradicatedbyre,nevertoexistagain.InRome,there
weremanysurvivors,includingallwhohadtakenrefugeinthechurch-
es,AlarichimselfbeinganArianChristian.Therehadbeenagreatdeal
ofdestruction,ofcourse,butasAugustinepointedout,citiesconsistof
men,notwalls.Romehadbeenchastisedbutnotdestroyed.
The world, he said reels under crushing blows, the old man is
shakenout,theeshispressed,thespiritturnstoclearowingoil.
Then he turned to the deeper question of the relations between
earthlycities,likeRome,whichhavetheirday,risingandfallinglike
everything in time, and the Heavenly City or City of God, which is
everlasting.Thisquestionoccupied him for the next seventeen years,
almosttotheendofhislife,andresultedinhisgreatworkofgenius,
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TheCityofGod,whichdirectlyorindirectlyinuencedthethoughtof
ChristiansonwhattheyowedtoGodandwhattoCaesarthroughthe
succeedingfteencenturies.
We live perforce, and always must, in earthly cities.They are our
location,ourset,withhistoryforourscript.Atthesametime,inall
creationweareuniqueinbeingcapableofenvisagingaHeavenlyCity
notsusceptibletotheravagesoftime,existingbeyondthedarkjungle
ofthehumanwill.AsSaintPaulsaid,andAugustineechoed:Herewe
havenocontinuingcity,butweseekonetocome.
Pursuinghistheme,Augustinerangedoverthewholeofhumanhis-
toryasthenunderstood.Hisconclusionshavelostnoneoftheirforce
inthelightofwhateverhasbeeninvented,concludedandspeculated
uponinthesubsequentfteencenturies:
ThecenturiesofpasthistorywouldhaverolledbylikeemptyjarsifChrist
hadnotbeenforetoldbythem
ThesewerethetwomotiveswhichdrovetheRomanstotheirwonderful
achievements:liberty,andthepassionforthepraiseofmen
Whatelsewasthereforthemtolovesaveglory?For,throughglory,they
desiredtohaveakindoflifeafterdeathonthelipsofthosewhopraised
them
TheHeavenlyCityoutshinesRome,beyondcompar-ison. There, in-
steadofvictory,istruth;insteadofhighrank,holiness;insteadofpeace,
felicity;insteadoflife,eternity
TakeAristotle,puthimneartotheRockofChrist,andhefadesaway
into nothingness. Who is Aristotle? When he hears the words, Christ
said,thenheshakesinhell.Pythagorassaidthis.Platosaidthat.Put
them near the Rock and compare these arrogant people with Him who
wascrucied!
In our fallen state, our imperfection, we can conceive perfection.
ThroughtheIncarnation,thepresenceofGodamongusinthelinea-
mentsofMan,wehaveawindowinthewallsoftimewhichlooksout
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onthis HeavenlyCity.ThiswasAugustines profoundestconclusion,
andinhisgreatworkheenshrineditimperishably,tobeacomfortand
alightinthedarkdaysthatlayahead,whenintheyear430,thetri-
umphantVandalswouldcrossintoAfrica,reachingthewallsofHippo
itself,ashelaydyingthere.
Today,theearthlycitylookseverlarger,tothepointwhereitmay
besaidtohavetakenovertheheavenlyone.TurningawayfromGod,
blown up with the arrogance generated by their fabulous success in
exploring and harnessing the mechanism of life, men believe them-
selves to be at last in charge of their own destiny. As we survey the
disastrousconsequencesofsuchanattitude,thechaosanddestruction
ithasbrought,asAugustinedidthefallofRomeanditsaftermath,his
words on that other occasion still stand applicable, as he says, to all
circumstancesandconditionsofmen:
Initssojournhere,theHeavenlyCitymakesuseofthepeaceprovidedby
theearthlycity.Inallthatrelatestothemortalnatureofmanitpreserves
and indeed seeks the concordance of human wills. It refers the earthly
peacetotheheavenlypeace,whichistrulysuchpeacethatitalonecanbe
describedaspeace,foritisthehighestdegreeoforderedandharmonious
fellowship in the enjoyment of God and of another in God.When this
stageisreachedthentherewillbelife,notlifesubjecttodeathbutlifethat
isclearlyandassuredlylifegiving.Therewillbeabody,notabodywhich
isanimal,weighingdownthesoulasitdecays,butaspiritualbodyexperi-
encingnoneedandsubordinatedineveryparttothewill.Thisisthepeace
thattheHeavenlyCityhaswhileitsojournshereinfaith,andinthisfaith
itlivesalifeofrighteousness.Totheestablishingofthatpeaceitrefersall
itsgoodactions,whethertheybetowardsGodortowardsonesneighbor,
forthelifeofthisCityisutterlyandentirelyalifeoffellowship.
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16231662
S
ometencenturiesafterAugustinewascalledontosalvagethe
ChristianChurchfromtheruinsoftheRomanEmpire,Blaise
Pascal,intheFranceoftheBourbonkings,tookuponhimself
the task of defending the Christian faith against the arrogance and
prideofthosewhobelievedtheycouldlivewithoutGodormoldHis
purposestotheirown.
Manisonlyareed,thefeeblestthinginnature,butheisathinkingreed.
Itisnotnecessaryfortheentireuniversetotakeuparmsinordertocrush
him.Avapor,adropofwater,issufcienttokillhim.Butiftheuniverse
crusheshim,manwouldstillbenoblerthanthethingwhichdestroyshim,
becauseheknowsthatheisdying,andtheuniversewhichhashimatits
mercyisunawareofit.
ThusdidPascaldenemanssuperioritytonatureinhisgreatwork,the
Penses,morethanthreecenturiesago.Ifevertherewasathinkingreed,
itwasPascalhimself.Inhisshortlifehediedwhenhewasthirty-nine
yearsoldheestablishedhimselfasanoutstandingmathematician,sci-
entistandinventortothepointthatitwasconsideredbynomeansodd
tocomparehimwithAristotle.
UnderPascalsdirection,forinstance,anexperimentwasconducted
whichestablishedtheexistenceofatmosphericpressure,therebylaying
blaisepascal 17
thefoundationsofthemodernscienceofhydraulics.InClermont-Fer-
rand,wherePascalwasborn,isdisplayedamechanicalcalculatoror,as
hecalledit,amachinearithmetiquedesignedonthesameessentiallines
astodayscomputer.Intheeldofpuremathematicsheisalsooneof
thegreatnames.Anastonishingyieldforoneabbreviatedlife,anyitem
ofwhichwouldhavebeenenoughtoinsurethatPascalwouldcontinue
toberemembered.
Itisnot,however,foranyoralloftheseachievementsthathisfame
has grown through the centuries since his death, but for something
thatI,likemanyothersbeforemeconsiderimmeasurablygreaterhis
sublime defense of faith as the one sure guide to reality, and of the
ChristianreligionasshowingWesternmanthewayoutofthecul-de-
sacintowhichsciencemustinevitablyleadhim.
Thiscul-de-sacofsciencehasonlybecomethemoreevidentduring
thetwentiethcentury,inwhichsciencehasadvancedfurthertowards
exploringandexplainingthenatureandmechanismsofmatterthanin
alltherestofrecordedtime.
The spectacle which Pascal imagined (and we have actually seen)
of our earth as a tiny revolving ball in the immensity of space, one
among innumerable others great andsmall,hasfarfromturningusto
God,asPascalhopedservedrathertosharpenandintensifytheidiot
conceitoftechnologicallyadvancednations.Thisiswellillustratedby
thewordswithwhichU.S.PresidentRichardNixongreetedtherst
astronautsontheirreturnfromthemoonin1969:
Letmecloseoffwithjustonething.Iwasthinking,youknow,asyoucame
downithadonlybeeneightdays,justaweek,alongweek,thatthiswas
thegreatestweekinthehistoryoftheworldsincetheCreation.
As Pascal foresaw, science, like the old pagan gods, has come to be-
longtomansquestforpower,nottruth.Manathinkingreed,yes,but
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hisverythoughtprocesses,properlypursued,inducehimtorealizethe
limitationsofthought.
Forthesamereason,Pascal,themostbrilliantscientistofhistime,
denounced not the methods but the vaingloriouspretensionsofsci-
ence anincomparableintellectdevotedtoshowinghowverylittlethe
intellectcando.
Knowthen,proudman,whataparadoxyouaretoyourself.Humbleyour-
self, impotent reason. Be silent, dull-witted nature, and learn from your
Masteryourtruecondition,whichyoudonotunderstand.ListentoGod!
SeetheEarthasapointcomparedwiththevastcirclesitdescribes.Stand
amazedthatthiscircleitselfisonlyatinypointinrelationtothecourse
tracedbythestarsrevolvinginthermament;thatthewholevisibleworld
isnomorethananimperceptiblespeckintheamplebosomofnature.
Havingthuslosthimselfincreationsvastperspectives,manmaynd
himself again in a God who cannot see a sparrow fall to the ground
withoutconcern,Pascalinsisted.Incontrasttohisgreatcontemporary,
Descartes, who pursued an abstract, intellectual truth, Pascal set the
personaldramaofindividualmenseekingGod.InsteadofDescartes,
Ithink,thereforeIam,Pascalsaid,IlookforGod,thereforeIhave
foundHim.
Howfewthingstherearewhichcanbeproved!Proofsonlyconvincethe
mind.Whohaseverbeenabletoprovethattomorrowwillcome,andthat
weshalldie?Andwhatcouldbemoregenerallybelieved?Inshort,we
mustrelyonfaithwhenthemindhasonceperceivedwheretruthlies,in
ordertoquenchourthirstandcolorourmindswithafaiththateludesus
ateverymomentoftheday.
Man,heconcludedinthePenses,isgreatinsofarasherealizesthat
heiswretched.Atreedoesnotknowitsownwretchedness.
OverFranceinPascalstimeloomedtheformidablegureofCardi-
nalRichelieuexercisingboththepoweroftheChurchandtheState.
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No doubt the author of the Penses had Richelieu in mind when he
wrotesoscathinglyofthepretensionsofearthlyauthority,whileatthe
sametimebeingfullyawareofitsnecessityiflawsweretobeenforced
and order to be maintained. Like all mystics, Pascal was at heart an
anarchistwhononethelessrealizedthataslongasmenneededrulesto
livetogether,theywouldalsoneedpowertoenforcethem.LikeSaint
Augustine,helongedforcitizenshipintheCityofGod,butmeanwhile
wascontenttoaccepttheconditionsoflivingintheearthlycity.
ItwastoRichelieuthatPascalsfather,EtiennePascal,owedhisap-
pointmenttohighadministrativepositionsintheserviceoftheState,
and when for a while Etienne fell out of favor and had to stay away
from Paris for fear of being arrested, it was his youngest daughter,
twelve-year-oldJacqueline,whosuccessfullypleadedforherfatherwith
theCardinal.
ThechildrenneverwenttoschoolandEtiennePascal,atruemanof
theRenaissance,educatedthemhimselfathome,accordingtocarefully
thought-outprinciples.WhenEtiennewasentrustedwiththethankless
taskofcollectinginNormandytheexorbitanttaxeswhichRichelieuwas
boundtoimposetopayfortheKingswars,hisson,verytouchingly,
workedwithhimnightafternightonhisdesolateaccounts.Itwasthis
experiencewhichrstturnedBlaisePascalsattentiontothepossibility
ofinventingacalculatingmachine.
Whenthroughachancemeetingwithapriestthefamilycameinto
contactwiththeevangelicalJansenistmovementwithinwhathadbe-
come, under Richelieus dominance, a corrupt and worldly Church,
theyallresponded.EtiennePascaldidnotlivetoseethefullinvolve-
ment of his children in Jansenism, but all three of themJacqueline
most ardently, her brother Blaise trailing along behind her, and her
sisterGilberte,moresedatelyremainedfaithfultoitshigherstandards
ofpiety,charityanddevotion.
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The Jansenist movementnamed after Cornelius Jansen, a Dutch
theologianandBishopofYpreswasstronglysupportedattheAbbey
ofPortRoyal,whoseMotherSuperior,MreAnglique,belongedto
the Arnault family, all ardent followers of Jansen. The movement at-
tractedsuchgifted,piouspeople,aswellasaristocratsliketheDucde
Roanne,agreatfriendofPascal.SomeofthesearistocraticJansenists
becameknownasthegentlemen-hermits.
AtPortRoyalsomeofthemostdramaticanddecisiveexchangesof
PascalslifetookplacewithhisdearlylovedsisterJacqueline,whohad
insistedonbecominganunatthisfamousconventafterthedeathof
theirfather.
Pascals feelings about her renunciation of the world were mixed.
Atrstheapproved,thenheopposed,andthenhesourlyacquiesced.
At one point they were involved in a sordid row, which had Pascal
shouting angrily that under no circumstances would he agree to his
sistersshareoftheirinheritancebeinghandedovertotheconventas
herdowrywhenshetookhernalvows.
ThisparticularrowendedinPascalhandingovermoretothecon-
vent than was required, thereby considerably reducing his income.
Suchrows,inmyexperience,areneveraboutwhattheyareabout,and
Idoubtverymuchwhethereitherofthemreallycaredmuchaboutthe
moneyassucheitherway.Jacquelinewhowasagirlofquiteexcep-
tionalgifts,insomewayssurpassingthoseofherbrother,andwhose
dazzling attractiveness shines out across the three intervening centu-
rieswenttotheheartofthematterwhensheupbraidedherbrotherby
saying:Ifyoudonotpossessthestrengthtofollowme,atleastdonot
holdmeback.DonotshowyourselfungratefultoGodforthegracehe
hasgiventoapersonwhomyoulove.
Inotherwords,itwasenvyandpridethatweregnawingawayatPas-
cal,notcupidityatall.Itriledhimdeeplythatheshouldgoonbeing
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heldaprisoneroftheworldthatshehadsogracefullyandthankfully
castoffaservitudehefoundincreasinglyburdensome.Intheevent,
ofcourse,PascaldidturnupwhenJacquelinetookhernalvows.She
could see him through the grill in silhouette: on his knees, but still
lookingcross.
Actually,asIamsureshecorrectlydivined,hewasontherun,and
sheresolvedthenandtheretopresshimhard,tomakeofhimaChris-
tiansaintinsteadofmerelyabrilliantscientistandcelebrity.
Thenceforth,intheirnowalmostdailyexchangesacrossthegrill,it
wasJacquelinewhomadethegoing.Until,asshewrotetoGilbertein
September,1654:
Heopenedhishearttomeinawaythatcouldnotbutllmewithpity.
Headmittedthatinthemidstofhismanyoccupationsandthepleasures
ofthefashionableworld,bywhichheseemedtosetsomuchstore,hewas
consciousofanoverwhelmingurgetoabandoneverything.
Itwasanimportantadmission,butstill,thoughhefeltthisextremedis-
tasteforthefolliesanddistractionsofsociety,therewasnocorrespond-
inginclinationtoturntoGod.Howtrulyattachedtoworldlythingshe
musthavebeen,Jacquelinereected,thustoresistthegracesthatGod
wassendinghimandtoturnadeafeartoHisappeal!
TheybrokeofftoattendVespers:Pascalunderthesmallvisitorscu-
pola,andJacquelinebehindthegrill,prayingasIamsureshehadnever
prayedbefore,thatthegracesovisiblygrowinginherfamousbrother
wouldleadhimtotakethelastremainingstepintoGodsarms.
Someveweekslater,onthenightofNovember23,hetookthat
step.Pascalsfamousmemorialtothisexperience,writteninhisown
hand,wasfoundsewnintohisclothingatthetimeofhisdeath.Hehad
treasureditandhadkeptitonhispersonalways.HissisterGilbertepi-
ouslypreservedit,crumpledandfadedamonghispapers.Itisaunique
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blaisepascal 22
andintenselymovingdocumentwhichlikesomespiritualseismograph
reectsinitsverystrokesandourishestheuctuationsofhisstateof
mindashewaswritingit.
Wemayimaginehimsittingathomeintheevening.Heopenshis
NewTestamentattheaccountofthePassion,andhiseyefastenson
Peters thrice-repeated denial that he was an associate of Jesus. As he
reads the cock crowsnot for Peter, but for him, Pascal. Peter, con-
frontedwithhisdisloyalty,weptandsodoesPascal,realizingthathe
toohasseparatedhimselffromChrist.Whatdesolation,whatdarkness!
Thensuddenlydeliverancecomes,andheunderstandsthathetoocan
beforgiven;thatheisforgiven.
Helooksathisclockandseesitishalfpastten.Seatedathisdesk,he
beginshismemorial.First,atinycrossatthetopofthepaper,followed
bythedateYearofGrace1654,Monday,23November,FeastofSt.
Clement,popeandmartyr,andothersbelongingtothemartyrology.
Then the word Fire, signifying the God of Abraham, the God of
Isaac, the God of Jacob, but not, he adds to rub in the point, the
Godofthephilosophersandscholarsthis,Iamsure,withaneyeon
Descartes.
Nowcomethetriumphantwords:Certainty,certainty,emotion,
joy, peace, God of Jesus Christ. Deum meum et Deum vestrum, Thy
GodshallbemyGod.Oblivionoftheworldandofeverythingexcept
God. His ecstasy is in his pen; the slanting letters proclaim it, like
steeplesreachingintothesky:Joy,joy,joy,tearsofjoy!
Now, like the saints Paul and Augustine in similar circumstances,
Pascalhadacravingforsolitude,whichhefoundatPortRoyalssister
foundation,PortRoyaldesChamps.
Contrary to what is often suggested, the conversion that Pascal so
ecstaticallydescribedinthememorialdidnotresultinhisabandoning
all his worldly interests. For instance, he continued with his scientic
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studiesandresearches,andevenaslateasthelastyearofhislifehewas
responsibleforstartingwhatwas,ineffect,therstpublictransporta-
tionsysteminParis.Moreover,themostmundaneofhiswritings,the
famousLettresprovinciales(ProvincialLetters)wereundertaken,almost
bychance,afterhisconversionandinvolvedhimasoneoftheprinci-
palsinthebittercontroversythenragingbetweentheJesuitsandthe
Jansenists.
The Jesuits favored tempering the severities of Christian doctrine
and practice in order to make them more palatable; the Jansenists
wereinsistentthattheserviceofChriststillrequiredtherenunciation
of worldlypleasuresand prizes.Pascal,in anycase, wouldhavebeen
temperamentallyontheJansenistside.Helovedthepleasuresandthe
prizes much too much to tolerate any mitigation of their ill-repute.
Asithappened,PortRoyalwasineffecttheheadquartersofmilitant
Jansenism, and his beloved Jacqueline one of the most ardent of the
militants;hesoonbecametheiranonymousandenormouslyimpressive
spokesman.
Usingtothefullhissplendidgiftofirony,whichhedeployed in a
lucid,exiblestylemorereminiscentofJonathanSwiftthanThomas
Aquinas,PascalmercilesslylambastedtheJesuits.Itwasasuperbper-
formance, greatly admired by the reading public, who ocked to get
thelettersastheycameout.Despiteorperhapsbecauseoftheletters
greatpopularity,someofthemorestaidJansenistsfoundthemashade
disconcerting.TheJesuitsofcourseabominatedthem.
ThecontroversywhichgaverisetotheLettresprovincialesistheev-
erlastingonebetweenthosewhothinkthatasfaraspossibleweshould
beallowedtodowhatwelikeinthisworld,andthosewho,likePas-
cal, conceiveitto betheglory and thegreatnessof mantolook up-
wards from what he called licking the earth, to survey the destiny
thatawaitshimbeyondthetickingoftheclock.Todaythecontroversy
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rangesroundtheconceptofwhatiscalledsituational ethics, whereby
anactisrightorwrong,notintrinsically,butinrelationtoitscircum-
stances.AsPascalhimselfputit,nothingisjustinitselfmerelyaccord-
ingtoreason;everythingvariesaccordingtotheweather.Now,asin
Pascalstime,someindividualJesuitswouldagree.
WhowoninthecontroversybetweentheJesuitsandtheJansenists?
Thisiswhateveryonealwayswantstoknow;butofcourse,intrulyfun-
damentaldisputesliketheonebetweentheJesuitsandtheJansenists,
betweentheworldlyandtheother-worldly,therearenoclear-cutwin-
nersandlosers.ItisperfectlytruethatJansenismassuchhasceasedto
exist. Persecution followed the appearance of the Lettres provinciales,
andthereligiousatPortRoyalwererequiredtoadheretoanequivocal
statementoforthodoxyanexerciseincasuistrythatkilledpoorJac-
queline,oratanyratehastenedherearlydeath.Later,ontheordersof
LouisXIV,thePortRoyalofMreAngliqueandthegentlemen-hermits
wasdestroyed.AsfortheSocietyofJesuits,theycanbesaidtobegoing
strong,oratanyrategoing.
Likewise,thePalaceofVersailles,whichLouisXIVtooksuchpains
to have built at the same time as he was destroying Port Royal, still
stands thoughitisnolongertheresidenceofkings,butatouristat-
traction.AsfortheLettresprovinciales,theyholdtheirplaceinPascals
oeuvre,butasliterature(orperhapsbetter,asanearly,brilliantessayin
journalism)ratherthanasanapologiaforJansenism.
Howthendotheaccountsworkout?Theansweristhattheyare
stillnotclosed,andnevercanbe.Versailles,standing,isessentiallyas
mucharuinasPortRoyalruined.
WhatPascaldefendedcannotbelost.WhattheJesuitsstilldefend
islostalready.TheybuildthewallsofJerichowhichhavetobebuilt,
butonlytofallwheneveraPascalblowshistrumpet.WhiletheJesuits
wereconcernedwithtactics,Pascalsmindwasonstrategy.
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blaisepascal 25
In Pascals time as in ours, the Churchs continued existence was
threatenedfromwithoutandfromwithin.TheReformation,likethe
discoveries and pretensions of science today, had challenged its basic
premises,andinsidetheChurchtherewerethoseagain,asthereare
today,ineachcasewiththeJesuitswelltotheforeeagertofallinwith
thenew,trendyintellectualandmoralattitudes.
Pascalwasreadytousehisdialecticalskillinopposingtheinnova-
tors,andconsideredhimselftotheendofhisdaysaloyalsonofthe
Church,eventhoughhewasopentoachargeofheresy,andonlyjust
missedbeingexcommunicated.
Atthesametime,whatPascalwasconcernedwithessentiallywasnot
aninstitutionalChurchoratemporalState,butmanhimself:thatfugi-
tivefromrealitywhomustsomehowbepersuadedtoconfronthisown
imperfectionanddespair,andseethroughthemintothebrightlightof
eternity,histruehabitat.Sincemenareunabletocuredeath,misery,
ignorance,theyimaginetheycanndhappinessbynotthinkingabout
suchthings.Well,Pascalwouldsetthemthinking.
Pascal was endlessly fascinated by the ingenuity with which we
human beings evade reality. What an extraordinary thing it is, Pas-
calobservedinthePenses,thatamanwhohassufferedsometerrible
bereavementorhasbecomeinvolvedinsomedesperateplotcanforget
histroublessoeasily.Borntoknowtheuniverse,tositinjudgmentand
torule,heiswhollyconcernedwithtrivialities.Andifhetriestorise
abovethem,hewillonlybedepartingfromhisnaturalstate,neither
angelnorbeast,butjustman.
Then there are the larger evasions of reality: for example, those
mountedincourtsofjusticeandofkings,onbattleeldsandinleg-
islatures,inlaboratoriesanduniversities.ThusPascalanatomizedour
humanconditioninhisgreatwork,thePenses.
Itisthenatureofself-esteemandofthehumanselftoloveonlyoneselfand
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toconsideroneselfalone.Butwhatcanamando?Hewantstobegreatand
ndsthatheissmall;hewantstobehappyandndsthatheisunhappy;
he wants to be perfect and nds that he is riddled with imperfections;
hewantstobetheobjectofmensaffectionandesteemandseesthathis
faultsdeserveonlytheirdislikeandcontempt.Theembarrassingposition
inwhichhendshimselfproducesinhimthemostunjustandcriminal
passionthatcanpossiblybeimagined;heconceivesamortalhatredofthe
truth which brings him down to earth and convinces him of his faults.
Hewouldliketobeabletoannihilateit,and,notbeingabletodestroyit
inhimself,hedestroysitinthemindsofotherpeople.Thatistosay,he
concentratesallhiseffortsonconcealinghisfaultsbothfromothersand
fromhimself,andcannotstandbeingmadetoseethemortheirbeingseen
byotherpeople.
Inthehightideofhisnew-foundfaith,Pascaltookuponhimselfthe
stupendoustaskofproducingnolessthanadefenseoftheChristian
religion.Itwasanaudaciousundertaking:totake,asitwere,thecon-
temporary atheist by the scruff of the neck and make him see how
mistakenhewasinrejectingwhatalonecouldsavehimfromboredom
anddespair.
Asthingsturnedout,henevergotbeyondpreparingthenotes,and
hissisterGilberte,inhercharmingmemoirofhim,bemoansthefact
thatallhislaborsshouldthushavebeenfruitless.Sheneednothave
worried.Thenotes,calledPenses,haveenchanted,infuriated,uplifted,
depressed,enlightened,mystied,butalwaysenthralledcountlessread-
ersfromgenerationtogenerationandaretodayassparklingaswhen
theywerewrittenand,ifanything,morerelevant.
Indeed, I consider that it was a benecent, if not miraculous, cir-
cumstancethatPascalwasunabletoproceedbeyondthenotes.Thefull
work,hadhelivedtocompleteit,mightwellhavebeentoomassive,
toodenitive,toodogmaticeveninitsnalconclusions,toappeal,as
thePenseshave,toallthestragglersandvagrants,likemyself,similarly
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questing.ItmightalsohavelackedsomethingofthequalityIndmost
delectable:abeautifulskepticismthatcontrastsjoyouslywiththesen-
timentalityandcredulityofscientichumanism,whichactuallytakes
seriouslymansridiculouspretensiontoshapehisowndestiny,pursue
hisownhappiness,andconstructhisownwell-being.
Theredrobesofourjudges,Pascalinsisted,theermineinwhich
theyswaddlethemselveslikefurrycats,thecourtswheretheysit,the
eurs-de-lis,alltheaugustdisplayisverynecessary.Likewise,ifphy-
sicians did not have cassocks and mules and professors did not have
squarehatsandrobesfoursizestoolarge,theywouldneverhavebeen
abletofoolpeople.Kingsandprelatesandstatesmenareunderasimilar
necessitytodressupintheirpreposterousrobesandgownsanddecora-
tions.Otherwise,weshouldseethemforwhattheyare:hamactorsin
aninterminablesoapoperacalledHistory,inwhichamightyRoman
Empire stands or falls on Cleopatras nose, and whole continents are
devastated by wars and revolutions purporting to uphold liberty and
enlargehappiness,andinevitablydestroyingboth.
Like a sublime kaleidoscope, Pascal presents us with thought after
thought,allshiningwithtruthastheycomeinmintconditionfrom
hisbrilliantmind:
Thereisnothingwhichissomuchinconformitywithreasonastherejec-
tionofreason
Natureconfoundstheskeptics,andreasonconfoundsthedogmatists.
What,then,willbecomeofyou,Omen,whoseektodiscoveryourtrue
conditionthroughyournaturalreason?Youcannotavoidoneortheother
ofthesesects,orlivewithanyofthem
JesusChristdidnothingbutteachmenthattheyonlylovedthemselves;
thattheywereslaves,blind,sick,unhappyandsinful;thathehadcome
todeliverthem,bringthemlight,sanctifyandhealthem;thatthiswould
comeaboutthroughtheirhatingthemselvesandfollowinghimtomisery
anddeathontheCross
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Wedonotgrowtiredofeatingandsleepingdayafterday,becausehun-
gerandfatiguereturn;withoutthem,weshouldbebored.Itwouldbethe
samewithouthungerforspiritualthings;weshouldbebored.Hungerfor
justiceistheeighthbeatitude
ThehearthasitsreasonswhichareunknowntoreasonItistheheart
whichisawareofGodandnotreason.Thatiswhatfaithis:Godperceived
intuitivelybytheheart,notbyreason
What a vast distance there is between knowing God and loving
Him
Since your reason inclines you to believe and yet you cannot believe,
yourinabilitytobelievecomesfromyourpassions.Try,then,nottocon-
vinceyourselfbymultiplyingtheproofsoftheexistenceofGod,butby
diminishingyourpassions
WhenPlatoandAristotlewroteaboutpolitics,theyweredrawingup
plansforamadhousewhoseinmates mankindwouldbecompelled
toinventendlessdiversionstoavoidconfrontingthecircumstancesof
theirexistence,whichwouldplungethemintodespair,andtoghtoff
theennuiwhichwouldotherwiseafictthem.
Thereisnothingsoabsurdthatithasnotbeensaidbyonephiloso-
pheroranother,PascalquotedCiceroashavingsaid.Thesubsequent
centurieshavecertainlynotdetractedfromtheforceofthisobserva-
tionleastofall,ourown.
ToPascal,whatsortofcreaturewasthismonsterman?Whatanov-
elty,whataportent,whatachaos,whatamassofcontradictions,what
aprodigy!Judgeofallthings.Aridiculousearthwormwhoisnonethe-
lesstherepositoryoftruth.Asinkofuncertaintyanderror.Theglory
andthescumoftheworld.Achaossuspendedoveranabyss.
Manisgreatonlyinthatheknowsheiswretched.Theveryreason
onwhichhesoprideshimselfleadshimtoconcludethattherearean
innitenumberofthingsbeyondit.PrideseparateshimfromGod,
andinduceshimtobelievethatheisagodhimself.Whenhelicks
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blaisepascal 29
theearthheiscastintotheotherabyssandseekshisgoodinsensu-
ality,whichisthelotoftheanimals.Egomaniaanderotomania,the
twosicknessesofthegodless,aficthim.
InthePenses,attheverymomentofthebirthofscienceasweknow
it today, Pascal prophesied its downfall which we are witnessing. As
mencametograspthevastextentandcomplexityofcreation,ranging
betweentheminutenessoftheatomandtheimmensityoftheuniverse,
theywouldbecome,ashepredicted,terriedbytheeternalsilenceof
theseinnitespaces.Achoicewouldconfrontthembetweenseeing
thewholefutureofmanlockedupimmutablyinhisphysicalbeing,
in his genes, or accepting with humility and contrition a role in the
mysteriouspurposesofalovingGod.
With passionate intensity, and with the clarity of an evening star
shininginadarkeningsky,Pascalplumpedforthelatterchoice.Ifit
wasawager,hewouldbetonit;ifavigil,hewouldwatchforit;ifa
martyrdom,hewoulddieforit.ThealternativetoGodwasnothing-
ness.ThewaytoGodwasrevealedbyJesusChrist,whoisbyHisglory
allthatisgreat,beingGod,andisbyHismortallifeallthatisstunted
andabject.HeassumedHiswretchedconditioninorderthatHemight
beinallpeopleandserveasamodelforallconditionsofmen.
SoPascaltakesusalongwithhimonhisownarduousmentaland
spiritualpilgrimage,deliveringusathisdestination,wherewendthe
intersectionoftimeandeternityinaCrossonwhichGoddiesinthe
personofaman,andamanrisesfromthedeadinthepersonofGod.
PascalsfuneralandburialtookplaceinthechurchofSaintEtienne-
du-MontonAugust21,1662,atteninthemorning.Someftyofhis
friends and relatives, including, of course, his sister Gilberte Perrier,
gatheredtherefortheceremony.Pascalhadexpressedawishtobebur-
iedinacommonpaupersgrave,sothathemightlienearthepoorest
ofthepoor,whohadbecomesoverydeartohim,andonwhosebehalf
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30 blaisepascal
in the last year of his life he had sold all his possessions, keeping of
allhisbooksonlytheBibleandSaintAugustinessConfessionsavery
wise choice. The Christian faith performs this miracle of humbling
thegreatestmindsandproudestspiritsandwhenwasthereagreater
mindorprouderspiritthanPascals?sothattheymayexperienceeven
beforedyingthejoyoflosingthemselvesinthegreatthronggathered
roundGodsthrone.
Later,controversiesaroseastotheattitudePascalhadtotheChurch
onhisdeathbed,andabouthismentalandphysicalcondition.Icannot
myselfseethateitherpointwasparticularlymaterial.Weknowthathe
ardentlysoughttheconsolationstheChurchhastooffertothedying,
andthattheeminentdoctorswhoattendedhimmorethanlivedupto
thereputationforincompetencethatPascalscontemporary,theFrench
writerMolire,wastogivetheminhiscomedies.Surely,thissufces.
WhatPascalbequeathedusasapermanentpossessionis,inAbbStein-
mannswords,theinvaluableinventoryoftheeternalproblemsthat
he drew up. Also, his incomparable picture of manourselvescon-
fronting an empty, silent and illimitable universe, in which the only
choices before man are this emptiness and the crucied Christ.This
beingso,perhapsitisttingthattheonlycertainlikenesswehaveof
Pascalishisdeathmask.
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williamblake
17571827
W
eareallendlesslylookingforrealityevenwhenwetry
notto,orthinkwearenot.Thisappliesparticularly,of
course,topoets,artists,mystics even,intheirownway,
tophilosophersandscientists.Thoughwepursuefantasy,nevermoreso
thantoday,thesoulsonlytruesustenanceisreality,whicheveninthe
mostadversecircumstanceitsomehownds,justasaseedfallingona
rockfacesomehowndsthetinycrackwhereitcangrow.
Of no English poet and artist is this more true than of William
Blake. Born as the Renaissance world was coming to an end, he was
profoundlydistrustfuloftheintellectasameansofndingtruth,and
ofscienceasameansofexploringit.Thoughhewastherst,andper-
hapsthegreatest,oftheromanticpoets,helivedtoabominatethespirit
ofromanticismandallthelicenseanddisorderitinvolved.
Iamwrappedinmortality,myeshisaprison,mybonesthebarsofdeath.
Whatismortalitybutthethingsrelatedtothebody,whichdies?Whatis
immortalitybutthethingsrelatedtothespirit,whichliveseternally?What
isthejoyofheavenbutimprovementofthethingsofthespirit?Whatare
thepainsofhellbutignoranceandbodilylust,idlenessanddevastationof
thethingsofthespirit?Theimaginationisnotastate,itishumanexistence
itself.
williamblake 32
ItwasthisspiritualrealitythatBlakepaintedinhispicturesandwrote
about in his poetic compositions. He had no use for any other kind
ofreality,tothepointthathecouldneverbeartopaintfromwhatis
calledlife,asexpressedineshorsubstanceortime,butonlylifesin-
wardreality,ortruth.Thecamera,representingtheoppositeprinciple,
wouldhavebeenanathematohim.Indeed,inmyopinion,inasense
he prophesied its coming and pointed to its dangers when he wrote
ofhowWeevermustbelievealie/Whenweseewith,notthrough,
theeye.Hiswarninghaspassedunnoticed,butwhatamultitudeand
diversityoflieshave,inconsequence,cometobebelievedin!
IhavenodoubtmyselfthatBlakewasright,andthattheonlyreal-
ityinlifehasbeenfromthebeginningoftime,andwillbetilltheend
oftime,aspiritualonecalledGod.Blakesworkis,tome,oneofthe
greatexpressionsofsanitythatexist.Nordoesitintheleastsurpriseme
that,forthisveryreason,hewasinhistimeconsideredmad,andwould
today certainly be subjected to psychiatric treatment, with a view to
drugging or psychoanalyzing and shocking him into what passes for
sanity.
The faculty whereby Blake saw into the reality of things he called
Imagination,andthisiswhatheremainedtrueto,fromthebeginning
totheend,despiteneglect,failure,penury,andotherearthlyillsthat
mightwellhavedeectedhimfromhiscentralpurpose.
Mymothergroand,myfatherwept;
IntothedangerousworldIleapt,
Helpless,naked,pipingloud;
Likeaendhidinacloud.
ThiswasBlakeswayofsayinghewasborn.Actually,hewasbornon
November28,1757,thethirdsonofaLondonhosier,andchristened
WilliaminthechurchofSt.James,Piccadilly.
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33 williamblake
Fromthebeginning,BlakewasawareofGoodandEvilas the two
poles between which the current of life passes, generating the divine
sparkwhichexistsineveryone.
EveryNightandeveryMorn
SometoMiseryareBorn;
EveryMornandeveryNight,
SomeareborntoSweetDelight;
SomeareborntoSweetDelight,
SomeareborntoEndlessNight.
Likethemedievalartists,BlakepersoniedGoodandEvilasgoodand
badangels,notsomuchopposedtooneanotherascomplementary.
Blakeinstinctivelyrebelledagainstallformsofearthlyauthority,pa-
rentalorecclesiastical.Nonetheless,itwasfromtheestablishedAngli-
canChurchthathederivedmuchofhisimagery,thoughforatimewith
theadditional,somewhateccentricinuenceoftheSwedishtheologian
andmystic,Swedenborg,towhoseteachinghisparentsadhered.
Blakesparentswereinmodestcircumstance,andtherewouldhave
been no possibility of his setting up as an artist, like, say, Sir Joshua
Reynoldsoneofhisfavoritebutts.Sohewasapprenticedtoanen-
graver, an excellent discipline for someone as ebulliently creative as
Blake.
Itgavehimalife-longrespectfornedrawing.Asheputithimself
inthelightofhisexperienceasanengraver:
Thegreatandgoldenruleofart,aswellasoflife,isthis:thatthemore
distinct,sharpandwirytheboundingline,themoreperfecttheworkof
art,andthelesskeenandsharp,thegreateristheevidenceofweakimita-
tion,plagiarismandbungling.Whatisitthatdistinguisheshonestyfrom
knavery,butthehardlineofrectitudeandcertaintyintheactionsandin-
tentions?Leaveoutthislineandyouleaveoutlifeitself;allischaosagain,
and the line of the Almighty must be drawn out upon it before man or
beastcanexist.
A Third Testament
34 williamblake
BygoodfortunehewassenttocopyguresinWestminsterAbbeya
wonderful opportunity to develop his burgeoning genius at a time
whentherewerenoneofthepublicgalleries,collectionsandreproduc-
tionsofthegreatmasterpiecesavailabletostudentstoday.
WecaneasilyimaginetheyoungBlakeasared-hairedboyspending
his days in the Abbey in blissful absorption. Breathing in history in
theveryair;seeingitallaroundhim,writteninmonuments,someof
whichitwashisbusinesstostudyandtodraw;sometimes,inhiseager-
ness,climbingupontopofthemsothathecouldlookdown,aswell
as up, at their gothic splendor. How incomparably more stimulating
forhimthanhelpinghismaster,Basire,withotherengravings!Basire,
asamatteroffact,deservesawordofgratitudeforhavingrealizedthat
withthisparticularapprentice,theonlythingtodowastosethimfree
withpencilandpapertofollowhisownfanciesintheAbbeyaperfect
placeforthispurpose.
Happily,theAbbeyhadnotyetbecomeatouristshrine,aplaceto
stareratherthantokneel.FortheyoungBlakeitwasaplaceofworship,
ahouseofGod.Becauseofthishewasneveralonethere,evenwhenhe
wasalone.Laterinhislifehewasfondofrecountingthatwhilehewas
workingintheAbbeyhesawChristandhisApostlesatthealtar,and
agreatprocessionofmonksandpriests,choristersandcenser-bearers,
andheardthemchanting.
FromtheseearlydaysintheAbbeytotheveryendofhislife,when
he lay dying and burst out singing of the things he saw in Heaven,
Blakewasessentially,andinallmatters,areligiousman.Idenethisas
meaningsomeonewho,asBlakeputithimself,hasthecapacity
ToseeaWorldinaGrainofSand
AndaHeaveninaWildFlower,
HoldInnityinthepalmofyourhand
AndEternityinanhour.
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35 williamblake
WhatisoftenoverlookednowadaysisthatBlakewasalsoaChristian,
eventhoughhesaidandwrotethingscalculatedtooutrageanddiscon-
certfellowChristians.Forinstance,priestsandmoralityseemedtohim
theenemies,ratherthanthepromoters,oftrueworshipandvirtue;and
inBlakesnotionofthemarriageofHeavenandHell,angelsanddevils
areliabletochangeplaces,andaJehovah-likeGodseemstheenemy,
ratherthantheFather,ofabeaticJesus.Yetwhohasmorebeautifully
statedthebasicChristianneedforthedestructionoftheego,andthe
joyandliberationitssubjectionbrings?
Hewhobindstohimselfajoy
Doesthewingedlifedestroy;
Buthewhokissesthejoyasities
LivesinEternityssunrise.
Againandagain,especiallytowardstheendofhislife,Blakesawinthe
LambofGodtheonlytruesalvationformankind,andinthesubduing
ofeshlypassions,orrootinguptheInfernalGrove,mankindsonly
truefreedom.ToseeinthisworldtheultimateofHeaven,heinsisted,
wasthemostDamnableFalsehoodofSatanandhisAntichrist.One
ofhissomewhatmysteriouspoems,likesomuchofwhathewrites,to
meseemstoexpressperfectlythefaithofthisextraordinaryman:
WhateerisBornofMortalBirth
MustbeconsumedwiththeEarth
TorisefromGenerationfree:
ThenwhathaveItodowiththee?
TheSexessprungfromShame&Pride,
Blowdinthemorn;ineveningdied;
ButMercychangdDeathintoSleep;
TheSexesrosetowork&weep.
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williamblake 36
Thou,MotherofmyMortalpart,
WithcrueltydidstmouldmyHeart;
Andwithfalseself-deceivingtears
DidstbindmyNostrils,Eyes&Ears:
DidstclosemyTongueinsenselessclay,
AndmetoMortalLifebetray.
TheDeathofJesussetmefree:
ThenwhathaveItodowiththee?
SettinguponhisownasanengraverinLondon,Blakewasnotalways
abletochoosehissubjectsbuthadtotakeonsuchcommissionsascame
hiswayratherinthesamewaythatafree-lancecommercialphotogra-
phermusttoday.Thuswendhimengravingadvertisements,cartoons,
the equivalent of travel brochures, and drawings of social comment
relating, for instance, to the explosive subject of slavery. It was work
hemustoftenhavefounddistasteful,andhemusthavepinedtolive
whollyinthegoldengloryofhisimagination.Evenso,itenabledhim
tomaketheacquaintanceofmanyofhisfellowartists,someofwhom
becamehislifelongfriends.
One of the great blessings of his life was his marriage to his wife
Catherine, the daughter of a market gardener, whom he met on the
reboundfromanothercourtshipandto whom he told his woes. Her
sympathy was so lively that he fell in love with her on the spot. She
laterrecalledthatwhensherstseteyesonBlake,theconvictionthat
thiswasthemanshemustmarrysooverwhelmedherthatshenearly
fainted.Herintuitionprovedcorrect.
ItwasjustabouttwocenturiesagothatWilliamBlakeandCatherine
BoucherweremarriedinBatterseaParishChurch.Aswasquitecom-
monatthattimeandthewaythingsaregoingitislikelytobequite
commonagainCatherinewasilliterate,andsoshesignedhername
intheregisterwithacross.
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williamblake 37
Inthecourseoftheirlongandhappymarriage,BlaketaughtCath-
erinetoreadandwriteandalsotodraw,andshebecameaskilleden-
graver.FromcontemporaryaccountsandfromBlakesowndrawingsof
her,itappearsthatshewasawomanofveryconsiderablebeauty,with
large,darkeyesandafacewithagreatdealofcharacterinit.Theyrst
setuphousetogetherinGreenStreet,inwhatisnowLeicesterSquare.
Theywerepoorthenandremainedpooralltheirlives,soshehadtobe
averycarefulhousewife.
IfBlakeinthecourseofhismarriagewentthroughmoodsinwhich
hefeltthatmarriageitselfwasakindofbondage,itisonlywhathas
happenedtoeveryonewhohasbeenmarried,whetherwifeorhusband.
Whatisabsolutelycertainisthattheiruniongrewdeeperwiththeyears,
becominganintegralpartofBlakesvisionsandsenseofeternity.
AsBlakecametoseeveryclearly,andthisiscertainlymyownview
fromexperience,marriageisonlypossibleinacontinuinghumanre-
lationshipwhenitisdirectedintherstplacetowardstheprocreation
of children, and nds in its ultimate fulllment a spiritual union of
whichthebodilyoneisbutapremonition.AstheEnglishpoetJohn
Donneputit:
Lovesmysteriesinsoulsdogrow
AndyetthebodyisHisbook.
Blakesmarriage,asithappens,wasnotblessedwithchildren;thismust
havebeenasoredisappointmenttohim,since,ashisSongsofInnocence
soenchantinglyshow,heunderstoodchildrenwonderfullyandloved
themdearly.Indeed,theycropupasthemesthroughouthiswork.
Catherinesloveanddevotionwerewonderfulandbeautiful.Accord-
ingtoBlakesbiographer,AlexanderGilchrist,shewouldgetupinthe
night,whenhewasunderhisveryerceinspirations,whichwereasif
theywouldhavetornhimasundersittingmotionlessandsilent,to
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williamblake 38
stayhimmentally,withoutmovinghandorfoot;thisforhours,and
nightafternight.
Everyonewho,likeBlake,hasapassionforgoodnesscannotbutin
somedegreehatemorality;justasloversoffreedomhatelaws,andlov-
ersoftruthhatedogma.Therearemanybrilliantphrasesandlinesin
Blakeswritingsinthissense.Forinstance:
IwenttotheGardenofLove,
AndsawwhatIneverhadseen;
AChapelwasbuiltinthemidst,
WhereIusedtoplayonthegreen.
AndthegatesofthisChapelwereshut,
AndThoushaltnotwritoverthedoor;
SoIturndtotheGardenofLove
Thatsomanysweetowersbore;
AndIsawitwaslledwithgraves,
Andtomb-stoneswhereowersshouldbe;
AndPriestsinblackgownswerewalkingtheirrounds,
Andbindingwithbriarsmyjoys&desires.
Or in The Voice of the Devil from The Marriage of Heaven and
HellandrememberitistheDevilwhoisspeaking:
Energyistheonlylife,andisfromtheBody
Those who restrain desire, do so because theirs is weak enough to be
restrained
Theroadofexcessleadstothepalaceofwisdom,wasanotherproverb
ofHell.
OnthestrengthofsuchobservationsastheseBlakehasbeentakenas
asortofpatronsaintofpermissiveness.Nothingcouldbemorefalse.
Hesawasclearlyasanyonewhoeverlivedthattoabandonhimselfto
hissensualappetiteswouldbetocuthimselfoffirretrievablyfromhis
visions:
A Third Testament
williamblake 39
TillIturnfromFemaleLove,
AndrootuptheInfernalGrove,
Ishallneverworthybe
TostepintoEternity.
Thetruthisthatinourimperfect,mortalexistence,moralityisacondi-
tionofgoodness,aslawisoffreedom,andasdogmahasbeenofthe
survivalofourChristianfaith.
London was Blakes world. How often, pacing its streets, have I
foundhiswordsechoinginmymind:
Iwanderthroeachcharterdstreet,
NearwherethecharterdThamesdoesow,
AndmarkineveryfaceImeet
Marksofweakness,marksofwoe.
IneverycryofeveryMan,
IneveryInfantscryoffear,
Ineveryvoice,ineveryban,
Themind-forgdmanaclesIhear.
HowtheChimney-sweeperscry
EveryblackningChurchappalls;
AndthehaplessSoldierssigh
RunsinblooddownPalacewalls.
ButmostthromidnightstreetsIhear
HowtheyouthfulHarlotscurse
BlaststhenewbornInfantstear,
AndblightswithplaguestheMarriagehearse.
ThoughBlake belongedintime tothe eighteenthcentury, he foresawwith
remarkablepresciencetheindustrialrevolutionthatlayahead,andhow
inimicalitwouldprovetothelifeoftheimaginationthathesoprized.
Alreadyinhislifetimethemachinewasdestroyingcraftsmen,notjust
engraverslikehimself,butallwhoexercisedsuchskillsandcrafts.
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40 williamblake
OnthetitlepageofFrancisBaconsEssays,Blakescribbledbywayof
comment:GoodadviceforSatansKingdom.Ilikethisverymuch.
Heavenknowswhathedhavewrittenonotherworksinthesamevein,
likeDarwinsOriginofSpeciesandHuxleysScienceandEducation.
Thenotionofprogressandtheperfectibilityofman,asexpressedby
Shellysfather-in-law,Godwin,hadnomoreferociousopponentthan
Blake, who rightly saw in it all the dreadful potentialities of human
arroganceanddestructivenesswhosefulllmentwehavewitnessedin
ourtime.
WhatsomesawastheEnlightenment,Blakesawasasortofaplague
spreading over the Western World. He saw in Newton, thefather of
modernphysics,thesymbolofthiscomingageofhumanself-sufciency,
allofwhosebegetterswereanathematohim:
Mockon,MockonVoltaire,Rousseau;
Mockon,Mockon:tisallinvain!
Youthrowthesandagainstthewind,
Andthewindblowsitbackagain.
In the most widely known of Blakes poems (that is, the lines in the
prefacetohisMilton,beginning:Anddidthosefeetinancienttime
/ Walk upon Englands mountainsgreen?),thephrasedarkSatanic
MillsisgenerallytakenasreferringtotheabominationsoftheIndus-
trialRevolution.Asaresult,thepoemhasbecomeasortofpolitical
hymntobeusedatthemoresolemn,revivalisticLaborpartyoccasions,
suchasthefuneralofaleader,ortheclosingsessionofapartyconfer-
ence. Actually, of course, it was much more the Loom of Locke that
BlakehadinmindthananyLancashiremill.Blakesimaginationtold
himthatallevilthingsbeginwithliesandfalseteachingandleadto
conagration,conictanddespair.Thefeetthatinhispoemwalked
uponEnglandsmountainsgreentheCountenanceDivinethatshone
forthuponourcloudedhillsdidnotbelongtoKarlMarx,buttothe
risenChrist.
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41 williamblake
With his imaginative insight, however, Blake also understood that
thewholenatureofmansproductiveprocessformeetinghisneedswas
changing:
AndalltheArtsofLifetheychangdintotheArts
ofDeathinAlbion.
Thehour-glasscontemndbecauseitssimple
workmanship
Wasliketheworkmanshipoftheplowman,
&thewaterwheel
Thatraiseswaterintocisterns,broken&burndwithre
Becauseitsworkmanshipwasliketheworkmanship
oftheshepherd;
Andintheirstead,intricatewheelsinvented,wheel
withoutwheel,
Toperplexyouthintheiroutgoings&tobindto
laborsinAlbion
Ofday&nightthemyriadsofeternity:thatthey
maygrind
Andpolishbrass&ironhourafterhour,laborioustask,
Keptignorantofitsuse:thattheymightspendthe
daysofwisdom
Insorrowfuldrudgerytoobtainascantypittance
ofbread,
Inignorancetoviewasmallportion&thinkthatAll,
AndcallitDemonstration,blindtoallthesimple
rulesoflife.
SobeginningwithBacon,agreattransformationwastakingplacein
thehumancondition.Themachine,rstseeminglyaservant,would
infallibly become a demonic master, poisoning our air, polluting our
rivers and lakes, attening our landscape, destroying our handicrafts
andourart,andsmotheringtheimaginationwherebymanscreativity
couldrelateitselftoGod.
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williamblake 42
ThetwogreatupheavalsofBlakestime,theAmericanand French
revolutions,werepartofthissameapocalypticvision,andweretreated
accordingly.Theputtingdownoftyrants,thefreeingofslaves,theex-
posingofthemoralChristianandhisLawstoallthisBlakeexuber-
antly responded; but then, he also saw that Caesars poisoned crown
wouldjustadornanotherbrow:
ThehandofvengeancefoundtheBed
TowhichthePurpleTyranted;
TheironhandcrushedtheTyrantshead
Andbecameatyrantinhisstead.
In the end Blake came to see that the only true freedom is spiritual,
achievedthroughtheimagination,andthatthenotionofprogressin
theworldofspaceandtimeisanillusionthatbeguilesmankindwith
falsehopes.
In his prophetic books so difcult to understand and yetwithaglow-
ingcoreofmeaningheconveyedhissenseofthedoomthatwould
befallmeniftheycametobelievetheycouldshapeanddominatetheir
own destiny.Their god, Urizen, was seen as drowning in the waters
of materialism.Today, Blake, if he were in a position to observe the
contemporaryscene,wouldseewesternmanlikewisedrowninginhis
ownafuence.
Foroneshortperiodofhislife,BlakedidmoveoutofLondonand
intothecountry,onthepersuasionofhisfriendandpatronWilliam
Haley,whoprovidedhimwithapicturesquelittlecottagenearthesea
atFelphaminSussex.Inthelongrunthearrangementdidnotwork
and resulted in bitter reproaches and quarrels. Haley quite failed to
appreciatethequalityofBlakeswork,andBlakefoundHaleysrequire-
mentsatediousservitude.ItwasduringthisperiodthatBlakewasar-
restedonatrumped-upchargeofsedition.Hewasaccusedbyaprivate
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43 williamblake
inthedragoonsofhavingsaidDamntheKing,andthathewould
helpNapoleonBonaparteifhecametoEngland.Thisledtoatrialof
seditiononJanuary11,1804.Hewasnallyacquittedamidst,accord-
ingtotheSussexAdvertiser,uproariousapplause.
Thisexperiencepreyeduponhimtoanabnormaldegreeandleftits
markinhisPropheticBooks.Evenso,hissojournatFelphamgaveBlake
someenchantedmoments,revivinginhimthemoodofhisexquisite
SongsofInnocence.
Pipingdownthevalleyswild,
Pipingsongsofpleasantglee,
OnacloudIsawachild,
Andhelaughingsaidtome:
PipeasongaboutaLamb!
SoIpipedwithmerrycheer.
Piper,pipethatsongagain;
SoIpiped:hewepttohear.
Dropthypipe,thyhappypipe;
Singthysongsofhappycheer:
SoIsungthesameagain,
Whileheweptwithjoytohear.
Piper,sittheedownandwrite
Inabook,thatallmayread,
Sohevanishdfrommysight,
AndIpluckdahollowreed,
AndImadearuralpen,
AndIstaindthewaterclear,
AndIwrotemyhappysongs
Everychildmayjoytohear.
And:
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44 williamblake
LittleLamb,whomadethee?
Dostthouknowwhomadethee?
Gavetheelife,&bidtheefeed
Bythestream&oerthemead;
Gavetheeclothingofdelight,
Softestclothing,woolly,bright;
Gavetheesuchatendervoice,
Makingallthevalesrejoice?
LittleLamb,whomadethee?
Dostthouknowwhomadethee?
LittleLamb,Illtellthee,
LittleLamb,Illtellthee:
Heiscalledbythyname,
ForhecallshimselfaLamb.
Heismeek,&heismild;
Hebecamealittlechild.
Iachild,&thoualamb,
Wearecalledbyhisname.
LittleLamb,Godblessthee!
LittleLamb,Godblessthee!
And:
TheSundoesarise,
Andmakehappytheskies;
Themerrybellsring
TowelcometheSpring;
Theskylarkandthrush,
Thebirdsofthebush,
Singlouderaround
Tothebellscheerfulsound,
Whileoursportsshallbeseen
OntheEchoingGreen.
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45 williamblake
OldJohn,withwhitehair,
Doeslaughawaycare,
Sittingundertheoak,
Amongtheoldfolk,
Theylaughatourplay,
Andsoontheyallsay:
Such,suchwerethejoys
Whenweall,girls&boys,
Inouryouthtimewereseen
OntheEchoingGreen.
Such moments, like childhood itself, could not last. After innocence
comesexperience;theowersandthefragrancegiveplacetothetigers
fearfulsymmetry,andnightmaregureslieinwaitintheforestsof
thenight.
Whenthestarsthrewdowntheirspears,
Andwaterdheavenwiththeirtears,
Didhesmilehisworktosee?
DidhewhomadetheLambmakethee?
BlakereturnedtoLondon,morethaneverfeelingthathewasanIsh-
mael,asheputit,bornwithadifferentface.Misfortunes,oftenbrought
on by his own odd disposition and whimsical ways, multiplied, and
madehimattimesfeelthathewastheparticulartargetoftheworlds
buffetings.Yethemanagedtoavoidtheself-pitytowhichhiscontem-
poraryRousseauwassogiven.Rather,BlakesawhimselfasJob,who
wouldbethesubjectofoneofhisgreatestmasterpieces.LikeJob,he
accepted Gods chastisement as something to be endured, something
thatwouldintheendpurifyandenlighten:Thoughheslayme,yet
willItrustinhim.
So,evercheerful,neverlackingfriends,Blakecontinuedtotheend,
lookingassiduouslyintothemysteryofthings,andprovidingthereby
uniqueilluminationforgenerationstocome.
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williamblake 46
ImustconfessthatwhenIrstsawBlakeslifemask,andthatwas
quiteanumberofyearsago,Iwasalittledisappointedandsurprised.
Itdidnotseemlikethefaceofapoetandvisionary.Morelikeaman
ofaction,Ithought.Asamatteroffactitbynomeanstallieswithcon-
temporarydescriptionsofBlake.Forinstance,onebythefriendofhis
lateryears,CrabbRobinson,whosaidthatatagesixty-eighthehad
alargepaleface,afulldarkeye,abenignantexpressionatthesame
timeanairorlanguorexceptwhenhewasexcited,andthenheseemed
fullofinspiration.
Even so, I think there is a lot to be learned about Blake from the
lifemask.Thetoughnessandseverityandtensionitshowsarethein-
timationsofalifefullofworldlyhardshipsanddisappointments,but
elevatedandilluminedbythejoyandlovingnessandbeautywhichhis
eyeofimaginationsawallcreationtobeoverowingwith:
Joyandwoearewovenne,
Aclothingforthesouldivine,
Undereverygriefandpine
Runsajoywithsilkentwine.
Itisrightitshouldbeso;
Manwasmadeforjoyandwoe;
Andwhenthiswerightlyknow,
Throughtheworldwesafelygo.
So Blake expressed it.There are few lines I have said over to myself
moreoftenthanthese,alwaysderivingcomfortfromthem.
Blakes reputation for eccentricity, if not madness, was much pro-
motedbythecasualmatter-of-factwayhespokeabouthisencounters
withspiritsfromthepast.Thus,hewouldsay,asthoughitwasthemost
naturalthingintheworld,thathehadbeenchattingwithSocratesor
Milton. When Crabb Robinson asked him what language he talked
withVoltaire, he answered: To my sensations it was English. It was
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williamblake 47
likethetouchofamusicalkey;hetoucheditprobablyinFrench,but
tomyearitbecameEnglish.Itwasashrewdanswer.Itisanillusion
tosupposethatthosewholookintoeternityaresimpletonswhenthe
childrenoftimeseektotripthemup.ThePhariseesdiscoveredthis.
QuiteoftenBlakemadedrawingsofhisspiritualvisitors.Theseare
the famous visionary heads, at which he would sometimes work all
night long.Various of his friends have left accounts of him thus en-
gaged;seatedwithhispaintsandlookingintentlyatwhatappearedto
theonlookertobeaninvisiblemodel.Oncewhenhewasworkingon
WilliamWallace,hehadtobreakoffbecause,hesaid,EdwardIhas
steppedinbetweenhimandme.HethereuponpolishedofftheKing
beforereturningtoWallace.
Onanotheroccasion,hetoldavisitorhehadagreatraritytoshow
him.Thisturnedouttobeanakedgurewithastrongbodyandshort
neckwithburningeyeswhichlongformoisture,andafaceworthyof
amurderer,holdingabloodycupinitsclawedhands,outofwhichit
seemseagertodrink.Butwhatintheworldisit?hisvisitorasked.
Itisaghost,sir,Blakereplied.Theghostofaeaaspiritualization
ofthething!
Wasallthis,then,justhallucinations?WasBlakeinthissensemad?
Thereweresomewhothoughtso,whilerecognizingthehighqualityof
hisworkamongthem,menof letters like Wordsworth, Hazlitt and
Lamb.Others,liketheyoungfriendsandadmirerswhogatheredround
him at the end of his life, were convinced of his sanity. Of all men
whomIeverknew,afriendwrote,hewasthemostpracticallysane,
steady,frugalandindustrious.
Ipersonallyinclinetothelatterview.Inamaterialistagelikeours
nothing is real except what is false. People believe in money, for in-
stance, but not in God, whereas money is a fantasy, but God is the
living truth.When the disciples saw Jesus after the Resurrection, his
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williamblake 48
presencewasmorerealtothemthanithadbeenduringhislifetimeso
realthattheyfoundedareligiononitwhichhaslastedfortwothou-
sandyears.SimilarlywithBlakesspiritualvisitants.Evensomeoneas
spirituallyobtuseasIamhasseeninafacefullofgoodnessabeautyfar
moredazzlingandmemorablethananyintheeshcanshow.
SeekloveinthePityofothersWoe,
Inthegentlereliefofanotherscare,
Inthedarknessofnightandwinterssnow,
Inthenakedandoutcast.SeekLovethere!
Mad?Ishouldsaysanetothepointofsublimity.
Blakes worldly circumstances did not improve with the years. He
grewpoorerandpoorer,andprofessionallyspeakingwasalmosttotally
forgotten. Crabb Robinson described the little bedroom he worked
in, looking onto the river and just a few yards away from the noisy
Strand,assqualidandpovertystricken.Nonetheless,Blakereceived
hisfriendthereasthoughithadbeenapalace.BlakeswifeCatherine,
Robinsonsaid,seemedtobetheverywomantomakehimhappy,She
hadbeenformedbyhimindeedotherwiseshecouldnothavelived
withhim.
Through these years of poverty and neglect Blake only grew more
serene. No one need doubt his sincerity when he offered prayers of
thankfulnesstoGodthatrichesandfamehadnotcometohimtoblur,
distort and obscure his vision. On the day of his death, August 12,
1827,somethreemonthsbeforehisseventiethbirthday,Blakelayin
bed,afriendwhowasthererecalled,singingsongssodivinely,sobeau-
tifully,thatCatherinegotuptolistenbetter,andthenheturnedtoher
andsaid,Theyrenotmineyouknowandrepeateditmoreemphati-
cally,Theyrenotmine.Thenhewentontotellherthattheywould
neverbeparted,andthatafterhewasdead,hewouldcontinuetowatch
overherjustashehadduringtheyearsoftheirlongcompanionship.
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williamblake 49
Blake had said before that to him death would be no more than
movingfromoneroomtoanother,andsoitprovedtobe.Hewenton
singinginhisbedinthe samedivine way untilaboutsix intheeve-
ning,andthenashesaidinoneofhispoemssilently,invisibly,the
humanspiritlefthim,becomingpartoftheeternityonwhichhiseyes
hadbeensofaithfullysetduringhismortalyears.Aneighbor,asimple
personwhohadcomeintositwithMrs.Blake,saidthattheyhadbeen
presentatthedeathnotofamanbutofanangel,andIagree.
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srenkierkegaard
18131855
T
heprophets,whentheyappearonourearthlyscene,arerarely
asexpected.Akingisawaited,andthereisabirthinamanger.
Thevenerable,thebearded,theportentousareusuallyspuri-
ous.
OneoftheoddestprophetseverwasSrenKierkegaardamelan-
cholic Dane, a kind of clipperty-clop, ribald Hamlet who from the
middleofthelastcenturypeeredquizzicallyintothisone,drylynoting,
beforetheyhappened,suchtragicomicphenomenaofourtimeasuni-
versalsuffrage,massmediaandafuenceabounding.
Kierkegaardwasinsistentthattheonlywayoutofthesegathering
clouds of fantasy was to climb doggedly upwards to the rocky peak
abovethem,whereGoddwells.
The greatest single inuence on Sren Kierkegaard was undoubt-
edlythatofhisfather,whowasaharsh,dour,guilt-riddenman,deeply
religiousinhisownway,andcertainlyadutifulparentyetsomehow
stricken. Sren was his youngest child and his favorite, and the inti-
macybetweenthemwasverygreat.
Thenoneday,somesecretwasdisclosed.Wedonotknowexactly
whatitwas,butSrenwrotethattheeffectuponhimwasasthough
hehadbeeninanearthquake.Thenceforththeirintimacywasbroken.
51 srenkierkegaard
Anidolhadbeenoverturned,andSrenKierkegaardstoodamongthe
broken pieces, needing to look for another father.This quest was to
take him far beyond the narrow moral connes of his earthly father;
farbeyondtherigidcreedandaustereliturgyofthechurch.Aquest
moreinkeeping,perhaps,withthecountrysideofJutland,withitswild
storms and furious winds, but reaching beyond them, tooreaching
beyondtimeitself,andintoeternity.
KierkegaardsfatherleftJutlandasaboytoseekhisfortuneinCo-
penhagen, where he throve. Besides becoming very rich, he acquired
thereputationasamanofwidereadingandintellectualattainments.
Nonetheless,thereremainedacloudoverhislife.Asapoorshepherd
boyhehadcursedGodforthehardnessandfrustrationofhislifeand
had,inconsequence,sufferedeverafterfromasenseofhavingsinned.
Anothersourceofremorsewashisseductionofawomanworkingin
hishouse.Withinayearofhisrstwifesdeathhemarriedtheother
woman to legalize a daughter she bore him four months after their
wedding.
Kierkegaard and his father were particularly intimate. The father
watchedoverSrensstudiesandtriedtoprotecthissonfromthesins
hewassomorbidlyconsciousofhavingcommitted,especiallythoseof
theesh.
Kierkegaardsmother,whoappearstohaveremainedalmostaser-
vant in the house, is ignored in all of his subsequent reminiscences
abouthischildhood.WhenKierkegaard,asachild,askedtobetaken
forawalk,hisfatherwouldsuggestthatinsteadtheyremaininsideand
travelintheirimagination.Thus,thetwoofthemwouldwalktogether,
poundingroundandroundtheroom.Someofthefatherscongenital
melancholyundoubtedlyinfectedandstayedwiththeson.Inoneof
his stories Kierkegaard described a young boy turning over pictures
of men the world considers to be heroes, among them the crucied
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srenkierkegaard 52
Christ.Kierkegaardaskedhisreaderstoconsidertheeffectofsuchan
experienceonachild.TheeffectonKierkegaard,undoubtedlytheboy
inthestory,wastomakehimquestionthenatureofaworldthatcould
thuspunishvirtueandtruth.
OneofKierkegaardsfavoriteplaceswasGilbjerg,ahighspotwhose
viewfascinatedhim.
FromthisspotIhaveseenthesearippledbyasoftbreeze,seenitplaywith
thepebbles.FromhereIhaveseenitssurfacetransformedintoapassive
cloudofseasprayandheardthefalsettonoteswhichcomebeforethelow
bassofthestorm.HereIhaveseen,sotospeak,theemergenceoftheworld
anditsdestructionasightwhichtrulycallsforsilence.I,ofcourse,would
rathernotspeakofthosewhoseenothingbiggerinnaturethanmatter:
peoplewhoreallyregardheavenasacheesedishcoverandmenasmaggots
wholiveinsideit.
In1835,whenhewastwenty-two,Kierkegaardexperiencedoneofthe
recurringcrisesinhislifeajuncturehewouldhavecalledanEither/
Or situation. His theological studies, unlike his brother Peters, were
goingbadlyandhewaswastingtimeonotherpursuits,someofthem
disreputable.Therewasalwaysthisgregarious,dissolutesideofKierke-
gaardscharactertobeconsidered:hisloveofcompany,aglassofwine,
aprettygirl.Thetrouble,ofcourse,aroseintheother,thedarkside,
the seat of his angst, where the clouds of his congenital melancholy
wouldgather.
His mood had been intensied by a whole series of deaths in the
family:threeofhissisters,thentwoofhisbrothers,andthenhismother
haddiedinrapidsuccession.AshisbrotherPeterremarked,thesurvi-
vors seemed to be spending all their time at the grave-side. It all ap-
pearedtoconrmhisfathersconvictionthatacursehadbeenlaidon
himandhisoffspring.LikeFausthisfatherhadturnedawayfromGod,
and the Devil had rewarded him by making him rich and respected.
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53 srenkierkegaard
Nowthetimehadcomeforthepricetobepaid,andSren,aspartof
thatprice,wassurethathetoowoulddieyoung.Howwashetoshape
uptosobriefasojournhereonthisearth?Whowashesupposedtobe
andwhatwashesupposedtodo?
What I really need, he wrote at the time, is to get clear what I
mustdo,notwhatImustknow.Whatmattersistondapurpose;to
seewhatreallyisGodswillthatIshalldo;thecrucialthingisto
ndatruthwhichistruthforme.
Thisiswhathewasaskinghimself.Howtoestablishcontactwiththe
realityhehadalreadysensedintheuniverse,thequestforwhichmade
allothersseemtrivialandaimless?Howtodistinguishitfromallthe
differentsortsoffantasyscientic,technical,political,erotic which
Westernmanwaseventhensobusyconstructingtoevadethisreality?
Howtogetridofallhisownpersonalimpedimentstheegoliftingits
cobrahead,theappetitesreachingoutgreedilylikeoctopustentacles?
How to strip himself down until there was nothing, nothing at all,
otherthanasenseofhisownworthlessness?Perhapsatthatpointhe
mightcatchaeetingglimpseofwhathesought,andincatchingthat
glimpse,ndthattherewasaplaceforhimafterallinthegreatdrama
whichChristslife,death,andresurrectionhadunfoldedtouplift,il-
luminateandredeemmankind.
Inhiswritings(whichhesignedwithmorepseudonymsthanalmost
anyotherwriter)Kierkegaardrecordedeverythoughtandmoodofhis
shortlife.
We shall not be so arrogant as to do anything on a grand scale. Rath-
er let us speak of a single individual human life and of the way it can
be lived out here on earth. If one can see God in history, one can see
him also in the life of the individual; to suppose otherwise is to de-
lude oneself by yielding to the brutish imbecility which sees God
only in the observations of nature; being taught, say, that Sirius
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54 srenkierkegaard
is180,000millionmilesawayfromtheearth.Thematerialisticmanisas-
toundedbysuchlargedata.Ifeverysinglemanisnotanindividual,simply
bybeinghuman,theneverythingislostanditisnotworthhearingabout
greatworld-shakinghistoricalevents.Buttheworldwantstobedeceived.
KierkegaardsrstbrushwiththeDanishestablishmentcamenotwith
the King (surprisingly enough, he and Christian VIII were on very
friendlyterms),norwiththeChurch(thatwastocomelater),butwith
theClown,inthepersonofacertainGoldschmidt,editorofasatirical
magazinecalledtheCorsair.Contrarytowhatiscommonlysupposed,
theClownisverymuchapartoftheestablishmentapparatasIdis-
coveredmyselfwhenIwaseditorofPunch.Thereoughtreallytobe
aClownLaureate,asthereisaPoetLaureate.Asamatteroffact,in
practice,thoughnotofcially,thereusuallyisone.Anditsometimes
happensthatthesamepersoncombinesthetworoles.
GoldschmidtbeganbybeingagreatadmirerofKierkegaard,andin
fact described Either/Or as an immortal work.The two men had a
slightacquaintancewithoneanotherandmetfromtimetotimeinthe
course of Kierkegaards street ramblings.The cause of the row was a
mannamedMller,anoccasionalclandestinecontributortotheCor-
sair, whom Kierkegaard had known in his student days as an attrac-
tive, amusing, wild young man. Possibly he took him as the model
for Johannes, the hero of The Seducers Diary, which was the nearest
Kierkegaardcametowritinganeroticbook.Inthecourseofanarticle
publishedinaliteraryreview,Mllermadesomedisagreeable,personal
remarksaboutKierkegaard,whomuchresentedthemandrathercad-
dishlyretaliatedbylettingoutthatMllercontributedtotheCorsaira
disclosurewhichpreventedMllerfromgettingaChairofAesthetics
thathehadsethishearton.
There the matter might well have rested; a typical episode in the
notoriously backbiting literary circles in any capital city. However,
KierkegaardfeltboundtowritetoGoldschmidt,insomewhatpomp-
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55 srenkierkegaard
ous terms, telling the editor that he did not expect the friendly rela-
tionsbetweenthemtoprotecthimfrombeingattackedbytheCorsair.
Whereuponthemagazinewenttoitwithawill.Incartoons,lampoons
andsatiricalarticlestheyridiculedKierkegaard,especiallyhispersonal
appearance hisspindlylegs,histrouserlegsofdifferentsizes,hislarge
nose,andthewayheworehishatdownonhisears.Theyparodiedthe
intensityofhisstyleandhismanypseudonyms,madefunofhisbelief
thathewasavoicecryinginthewilderness,andevenaccusedhimof
hypocrisyindenouncingluxuriouslivingwhenhehimselfwasarich
manandalavishspender.
Theattackwasmountedsoeffectivelyandsustainedsolongthatit
succeededinmakingofpoorKierkegaardapublicgureoffun.When-
everhesettledintohisplaceinchurchhewasboundtohearsomeone
muttering: Either/Or. He felt that all his peculiarities were under
constantscrutiny,includinghistrouserlegs.
However much Kierkegaard may have disliked the consequences,
the row over the Corsair was deliberately precipitated by him.Why?
Itseemstomethathisspiritualdevelopmentmadehim,bytempera-
ment,inclinationandnecessity,anoutsider.Evenaninvolvementlike
marriagetoawomanheundoubtedlyloved,Regine,hadtoberejected.
Even the money he inherited from his father, his only defense of his
freedomandhisprivacy,wastobespentasrecklesslyandspeedilyas
possible,justtogetridofit.
Likealltemperamentaloutsiders,Kierkegaardwasgiventoroaming
thestreets,ndingtherebyanonymouscompanionship,andwatching
facesastheydriftedbyintimateswithwhomthereisnointimacy,be-
lovedbutrequiringnowordsortouchoflove,knownandyetforever
unknown.
OneofthebestdescriptionsofKierkegaardisbyaScotsmannamed
Hamilton,who,thoughtheynevermet,observedhimclosely.
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srenkierkegaard 56
ThereisamanwhomitisimpossibletoomitinanyaccountofDenmark,
ImeanSrenKierkegaard.HeisaphilosophicalChristianwriter,evermore
dwelling,onemayalmostsayharping,onthethemeofthehumanheart.
There is no Danish writer more earnest than he, yet there is no one in
whosewaystandmorethingstopreventhisbecomingpopular.Hewrites
attimeswithanunearthlybeauty,buttoooftenwithanexaggerateddis-
playoflogicthatdisguststhepublic.
Ihavereceivedthehighestdelightfromsomeofhisbooks.Butnoone
ofthemcouldIreadwithpleasureallthrough.
Kierkegaardshabitsoflifearesingularenoughtolenda,perhapsfalse,
interesttohisproceedings.Hegoesintonocompany,andseesnobodyin
hisownhouse,whichmightaswellbeaninvisibledwelling.Icouldnever
learnthatanyonehadbeeninsideofit.Yethisonegreatstudyishuman
nature. No one knows more people than he.The fact is he walks about
townallday,andgenerallyinsomepersonscompany.
Kierkegaardhimselfdiscussedhissingularityandunpopularity.
Nodoubt,whatmakesmeunpopularisnotsomuchthedifcultyofmy
booksasitismypersonallife,thefactthatevenwithallmyendeavorsI
donotamounttoanything,donotmakemoney,donotgetappointedto
ajob,donotbecomeaKnightofDenmark,butineverywayamountto
nothingandontopofthatamderided.
Kierkegaard was a kind of mystical schizophrenic.The two sides of
hisnaturewereatwar,theimaginativeandthepolemical.Inthelat-
tercapacity,likeSwift,hewasgiventolaceratinghimselfwithfurious
indignation and getting involved in the intellectual, moral and even
politicalcontroversiesofhistime.
In 1848, a time of great turmoil in Europe, two signicant voices
were raised, both, at the time, obscure and little heeded. One, Karl
Marxs,proclaimedtheultimateandinevitabletriumphoftheprole-
tariatinaworld-wideclasswar,tobefollowedbythecreationofaclass-
less,socialistutopia,inwhichallgovernment,alllaw,allexploitation
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srenkierkegaard 57
ofmanbyman,wouldwitheraway,andthehumanracelivehappily
everafter.
Theothervoice,Kierkegaards,scornfullydismissedsuchcollectivist
hopesformankindasinfalliblyleadingtoanewandmorecomprehen-
siveformofservitude.Thedivinerightofkingshadbeenabolished,
butthedivinerightofthepeoplewhichhadreplaceditwouldprove,
Kierkegaardinsisted,anevenworsedeception,andwouldgiveriseto
regimesthatexceededanyhithertoknownintheirbrutalityandclaims
toomniscience.IamthepeopleLepeuple,cestmoiwasanevenmore
insanelyarrogantclaimthanthefamousoneofLouisXIVs,LEtat,cest
moiIamthestate.
Novoicecouldhaverunmorecountertothespiritoftheage,the
Zeitgeist, than Kierkegaards. When freedom was seen in terms of
counting heads, he spoke contemptuously of the fallacy of numbers,
andofhow,seenasacollectivity,humanlifemustinevitablysinkintoa
conditionofbrutishnessandmindlessness.Whentruthconquerswith
thehelpof10,000yellingmen,evensupposingthatwhatisvictorious
istrue,afargreateruntruthisinculculatedbyvirtueofthemannerof
theirvictory.
Againstthenewleviathan,whetherintheguiseofuniversalsuffrage,
democracy,orofanequallyfraudulenttriumphantproletariat,hepit-
tedtheindividualhumansoulmadeintheimageofaGodwhowas
concernedaboutthefateofeverylivingcreature.Incontrastwiththe
notionofsalvationthroughpower,heheldoutthehopeofsalvation
through suffering.The Cross against the ballot box or the clenched
st; the solitary pilgrim against the slogan-shouting mob; the cruci-
ed Christ against the demagogue-dictators promising a kingdom of
heavenonearth,whetherachievedthroughendlesslyexpandingwealth
andmaterialwell-being,orthroughtheevergreaterconcentrationof
poweranditsevermoreruthlessexercise.
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srenkierkegaard 58
MarxandKierkegaard,thetwokeyvoicesofthetwentiethcentury.
ThecuriousthingisthatthoughMarxpurportedtohaveaninfallible
scientickeytohistory,almostallhisprophesieshavefailedtohappen.
On the other hand, Kierkegaards forecasts, which were based purely
onhisimaginativeintuition,havebeenfullledtoaremarkabledegree.
Take,forinstance,hisprofoundsensethatifmenlostthesolitudeor
separatenessthatanawarenessofthepresence of God alone can give,
theywouldsoonndthemselvesirretrievablypartofacollectivitywith
onlymasscommunicationstoshapetheirhopes,formulatetheirvalues
andarrangetheirthinking.
Supposesomeoneinventedaninstrument,aconvenientlittletalkingtube
which, say, could be heard over the whole landI wonder if the police
wouldnotforbidit,fearingthatthewholecountrywouldbecomemen-
tallyderangedifitwereused.
Onthewholetheevilinthedailypressconsistsinitsbeingcalculated
tomake,ifpossible,thepassingmomentathousandortenthousandtimes
moreinatedandimportantthanitreallyis.Butallmoralelevationcon-
sistsrstandforemostinbeingweanedfromthemomentary.
IfChristianityisreallytobeproclaimed,itwillbecomeapparentthat
itisthedailypresswhichwill,ifpossible,makeitimpossible.Therehas
neverbeenapowersodiametricallyopposedtoChristianityasthedaily
press. Day in and day out the daily press does nothing but delude men
withthesupremeaxiomofthislie,thatnumbersaredecisive.Christianity,
ontheotherhand,isbasedonthethoughtthatthetruthliesinthesingle
individual.
If someone adopts the opinion of the public today and tomorrow is
hissedandbooed,heishissedandbooedbythepublic.Anation,anas-
sembly,ahumanbeingcanchangeinsuchawaythattheyareseentobe
nolongerthesame;butthepubliccanbecometheveryoppositeandis
stillthesame,thepublic.
Itisverydoubtful,then,thattheagewillbesavedthroughthenotion
ofsocialorganization,ofassociation.Inouragetheprincipleofassociation
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srenkierkegaard 59
(whichmayatbesthavevaliditywithrespectonlytomaterialinterests)is
anevasion,adissipation,anillusion,whosedialecticisthatasitstrengthens
individuals,soitweakensthem.Itstrengthensbynumbers,bysolidarity,
butfromtheethicalpointofviewthisisaweakening.Notuntilthesingle
individualhasestablishedanethicalstanceinspiteofthewholeworld,not
untilthencantherebeanyquestionofgenuinelyuniting.Otherwiseitgets
tobeaunionofpeoplewhoseparatelyareweak;aunionasunbeautiful
anddepravedasachild-marriage.
Allthismightseemakindofhopelessness.ButtoKierkegaarditalone
offeredhope.Theacmeofhopelessnesswouldbetohopethatsoaim-
less, so unilluminated, so mindless a way of life as life without God
could possibly work, or breed in those subjected to it anything but
boredomanddespair.Inhiswords,
Thefollowingchangeswillalsooccur.Whenthepresentgeneration,which
hassoughttoleveleveryoneandeverything,tobeemancipated,torevolt,
and to demolish authority, has eliminated individualities and all that is
organicandconcrete,andhassubstitutedsuchconceptsashumanityand
numericalequalityamongmen,thenindividualswillbeimpelledtohelp
themselves,eachoneindividually.Andthenitwillbesaid:Look,every-
thingisready;look,thecrueltyoftheseabstractionsexposestheillusions
ofthenite;look,theabyssoftheinniteisopeningup;look,thesharp
scytheoflevelingpermitsall,everysingleindividual,toleapovertheblade;
look,Godiswaiting!Leap,then,leapintothearmsofGod.
If that is being hopeless, may I never know hope! Kierkegaard also
wrote:
Ioncecontemplatedthepossibilityofnotlettingmyselfbetakenoverby
Christianity,todonothingelsebutexpoundandinterpretit,myselfnota
Christianinthenalandmostdecisivesenseoftheword,yetleadingothers
toChristianity.
Andonlynow,withthehelpofheavysufferingsandthebitternessof
repentance, have I perhaps learned enough about dying away from the
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srenkierkegaard 60
worldsothatIcanrightlyspeakofndingmywholelifeandmysalvation
throughfaithintheforgivenessofsins.
To those who caught a glimpse of him when, as often happened, he
wasmeditatingbyhimselfinsomelonelyplace,Kierkegaardmusthave
seemedabizarrelittlegureakindofcomicalmonk.Or,betterper-
haps,agargoylelookingdownfromtheheightsofhisownaudacious
speculation at a world whose very imperfections and absurdities, by
contrast,revealedGodspresenceandproclaimedhisname.
Kierkegaardreectedmuchaboutreection:
Reection is in truth a benevolent helper which discovers and assists in
nding where the absolute object of faith and worship isnamely, there
where the difference between knowledge and ignorance collapses into a
consciousnessofignorance,therewheretheresistanceofanobjectiveun-
certainty tortures forth the passionate certainty of faith, there where the
conict of right and wrong collapses in absolute worship with absolute
subjection. Reection itself does not see the absolute, but it leadsthe
individualuptoit,andsays:Here,Iguarantee,whenyouworshiphere,
youworshipGod.
When reection is completely exhausted, then faith begins. Every-
thingwhichreectioncanhitupon,faithhasalreadyseenthroughand
thoughtthroughandmergedontheotherside.
Thosewhoseedeeplyintothenatureoflifeareabletoprojectthis
knowledgeintothefuture,andsoinsomedegreetoforetellit.Thus
wendKierkegaardagainandagaindiagnosingwithuncannypreci-
sion the ills that would befall a materialistic society, especially when
Christianity,theonlypossiblecorrective,partookofthesamespiritso
thatnotonlydidscienceinsistthatmencouldlivebybreadalone,but
thespiritofChristwasinvokedtosaythattheyshould.Kierkegaard
warned:
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srenkierkegaard 61
Inourtime,thegreatestmenacecomesfromthenaturalsciences.Psychol-
ogywillultimatelyencompassethics.Andalreadythereareintimationsof
atendencytotreatethicsasabrandofphysicstobecalculatedstatistically,
workingoveraveragesasincalculatingvibrationsinlawsofnature.
Foreseeing the obsessive interest to come in a social morality only
vaguelyrelatedtopersonalbehavior,Kierkegaardsaid,
Wehavetotallyabolishedthenotionofimitationandatbestholdtothe
paltriness called social morality. In this way men cannot become truly
humbledsothattheygenuinelyfeeltheneedofGrace.Whatisrequiredof
themisnomorethansocialmorality,whichtheyfullltolerablywell.
Is not the truth of the matter really this, that man is just like a child
whowouldratherbefreefrombeingunderhisparentseyes?Isnotthis
what men want? To be free from being under the eyes of God? When
ChristresolvestobecometheSavioroftheworld,alamentgoesthrough
allhumanity.Sighinggrievouslytheyask:Whydoyoudothis?Youwill
makeusallunhappy.SimplybecausetobecomeaChristianisthegreat-
esthumansuffering.Christ,beinganabsolute,explodesalltherelativity
wherebywehumanslive.Inordertoliveinthespiritratherthantheesh,
asherequires,onemustgothroughcrisisaftercrisis,beingmadethereby,
fromahumanpointofview,asunhappyasitispossibletobe.
AsKierkegaardbecameincreasinglygrippedbythegreatdramaofthe
Christian faith, in his own terms moving into the third, or religious
phaseofhisspiritualpilgrimage,itwasalmostinevitablethatheshould
falloutwiththeChurch.Thisnearlyalwayshappens,asaWesleycould
ndnoplaceforhimselfintheAnglicanestablishmentacenturyear-
lier,andaTolstoywastodiscoverwhenhewasexcommunicatedbythe
RussianOrthodoxChurch.
Itwouldbehardtodetectasaintinatemperamentascantanker-
ousasKierkegaards;evenhisundoubtedmysticalinsightswereoften
laced heavily with irony. Yet without any question, as his short life
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drewtowardsitsclose,hissightswerexedevermorermlyonwhatis
transcendentalandeternalinourmortallife.Itwasforthisreasonthat
theDanishChurchwasparticularlyabhorrenttohimsuchagenial,
worldly church, even the salaries of its clergy and bishops were paid
forbythesecularstate.Norisitinanywaysurprisingthathisvenom
was concentrated on the person of the celebrated, mundane Bishop
Mynster,giftedandsociallysoughtafter,andhisfathershonoredand
respectedspiritualadviser.
Nodoubtoutoflialpiety,KierkegaardheldhisretillBishopMyn-
sterdiedinJanuaryof1854andH.L.Martensen,hisoldtheologytu-
tor,hadbeenappointedasthenewbishop.Martensenhadenragedhim
byreferringtoMynster,inafuneraloration,asoneofthewholeline
ofwitnessestothetruthwhich,likeaholychain,stretchedthrough
theagesfromthedaysoftheApostles.IfIapplythisobservationto
anyoftheholdersoftheSeesofCanterburyandYorkduringmylife-
time, I have no difculty whatsoever in understanding Kierkegaards
indignation.
Anyway,therstarticlewasfollowedbytenothersinthesamestrain,
andtheserieswassubsequentlycontinuedinsomepamphletshewrote
calledTheInstant.
Inessence,KierkegaardwasmakingexactlythesamepointasPascal
intheLettresprovinciales,which,incidentally,hehadreadaboutthis
timewithgreatdelight.Eachonewasinsisting,inadifferentidiomand
inquitedifferentsocialcircumstances,withalltheironyandemphasis
athiscommand,thattheonesurewaytoabolishChristsKingdom,
irretrievablyandforever,wastomakeitofthisworld.Pascalsshots
wereredatthehair-splittingJesuits,KierkegaardsattheDanishcler-
gy,whichheinsistedshould,atallcosts,beshunned:
Parsonslivebypresentingthesufferingsofothers,andthatisregardedas
religion,uncommonlydeepreligioneven,forthereligionofthecongre-
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gationisnothingbuthearingthispresented.Asareligionjustaboutas
genuineasteamadefromabitofpaperwhichoncelayinadrawerbeside
anotherbitofpaperwhichhadoncebeenusedtowrapupafewdriedtea
leavesfromwhichteahadalreadybeenmadethreetimes.
Kierkegaardsscornforchurchdignitariesappliedequallytoevangelistic
socialreformers.Here,too,Kierkegaardprovedtobeanuncannilyac-
curateprophet.Acenturylaterwendchurchesofalldenominations
preoccupiedwithwhatiscalledthesocialgospelandoftenfallingover
oneanotherastheystruggletogetontotherevolutionaryband-wag-
oneven though it is moving at top speed away from Golgotha and
intothekingdomsoftheearththatChristsocontemptuouslyrejected
whentheDevilofferedthemtoHim.Itwasinmakingthisprophetic
andprofoundlyimportantpointthatKierkegaardfeltable,atlast,to
putasideallpseudonymsandmysticationsandwriteashimself,fac-
ingwhateverconsequencesmightensue.
KierkegaardswordswerelittlenoticedoutsideCopenhagen,andeven
theresoonforgotten,buttheyhaveprovedtobeuncannilyprescient,to
thepointthateverywheretodaypeopleareaskingthemselveswhether
perhapsthisweirdlittleDanewiththemanypseudonymsmightnot,
afterall,havehadtheheartofthematterinhim.Hehadhoped
Through my writingsto leave behind me so accurate an account of
Christianityintheworldthatanenthusiastic,high-mindedyoungperson
willbeabletondinthem,asitwere,amapofChristianrelationships.
IvenothadanyassistanceinthisformtheearlyChurchFatherswhomI
foundfailedinoneessentialqualicationtheydidnotknowtheworld.
Kierkegaard modestly called himself a Christian auditor An apos-
tle proclaims the truth, an auditor is responsible for discovering
counterfeitsand therefore has to have been in his time a bit of a
counterfeiterhimself.Kierkegaard,however,achievedmuchmorethan
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justbeinganauditorortopographerofChristianity,healsocharteda
newcourseforotherstofollow:threestages,fromtheaesthetic,tothe
ethical,tothereligious.Hewentthrougheachofthestageshimself,as
herecountedinhisbooks.Inthem,hewaswritinghisownspiritualau-
tobiography,whichwaswhyheusedpseudonyms,eachofwhich,even
Johannestheseducer,representedsomeselfhehadexploredandshed.
Theaestheticstagewastheequivalentofpaganism,seekingsatisfac-
tionthroughthesenses,physicalbeauty,eroticexcitement;satisfaction
throughtheexerciseofartisticskills,celebrityorriches,orsuccessin
anyofitsguises.
Asfortheethicalstage,itrepresentedanawarenessofGod,though
notanawarenessofmanslimitations.Butwhatcouldbemoreridicu-
lousthanmansupposinghecouldmakelawswhichwerejust,achieve
brotherlinessbymeansofanequitabledistributionofwealthandop-
portunity,sustainareligiousfaithwithonlyearthlyends,inshortes-
tablish a Kingdom of Heaven on earth, with the clock ticking away
eternityandelectedparliamentsexercisingdivineauthority.
Sohefoundhimselfrelentlesslypushedintothethirdstage,there-
ligiousstage.Thisiswhereallthepseudonymswereputaside,andhe
becamejustSrenKierkegaard,apoorsinnerwhoknewnothingexcept
thatheexistednow,withtimeasaneternalpresent,andthatwhatever
fatemightlieinstoreformankind,theywouldneverseeinthisearth
theironlyhabitat,orinhistorytheironlydestiny.
In the aesthetic phase, life is an experience; in the ethical one, a
process;butinthereligiousphaseitisadramaforKierkegaard,anex-
istentialdrama,inthatitscentralcharacter,thecruciedChrist,exists
now,therebymakingnowalways.
AqualitywhichIparticularlyadmireinKierkegaardishiscourage,
thecourageofamanbynaturetimidandevencowardly.Havingde-
cidedthathislifemustbededicatedtolookingforreality,orGod,he
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pursuedthisaimundeviatinglytotheend,inspiteofphysicalfrailty
and ill health, ridicule, loneliness, every sort of discouragement. His
chosen mode of expression was the written word; a whole stream of
books,articles,everysortofprosecompositioncamefromhispen.In
thecaseofhisbooks,heuseduphisinheritancetopayfortheirpub-
lication,sothatonthedayofhisdeath,notonepennyremained.His
lifeandhismoneyexpiredtogether.
Byhisforty-thirdyear,Kierkegaardslifewasexhausted,andinNo-
vemberof1855hedied.Hisnephewthusdescribedhisend:
NeverhaveIseenthespiritbreakthroughtheearthlyhuskandimpartto
itagloryasoftheTransguredBodyontheresurrectionmorning.
He took my hand in both of hishow small they were and thin and
palelytransparentandsaidonly,Thanksforcoming,andnowfarewell,
butthesesimplewordswereaccompaniedbyalookthematchofwhichI
haveneverseen.Itshoneoutfromasublimeandblessedsplendorwhich
seemedtometomakethewholeworldlight.Everythingwasconcentrated
in those eyes as the source of light, heartfelt love, blissful dissolution of
sadness,penetratingclearnessofmind,andajestingsmile.
These were some of Kierkegaards last written words, expressing very
beautifullythemoodinwhichhedied:
Ihavenothingmoretoadd.Butletmemerelysaythis,whichinawayis
mylife,istomethecontentofmylife,itsfullness,itsbliss,itspeaceand
satisfaction.Letmeexpressthis,aviewoflifewhichcomprehendstheidea
ofhumanityandofhumanequality:Christianityimplies,unconditionally,
thateveryman,everysingleindividual,isequallyclosetoGodHowclose
andequallyclose?BecauseLovedbyHim.Consequentlythereisequality,
theequalityofinnity,betweenmanandman.Ifthereisanydistinction,
itisthatonepersonbearsinmindthatheisloved,perhapsdayafterday,
perhapsdayafterdayforseventyyears,perhapswithonlyonelonging,a
longingforeternitysothathereallycangraspthisthoughtandgothrough
lifewithit,concerninghimselfwiththeblessedoccupationofmeditating
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onhowheislovedandnot,alas,becauseofhisvirtue.Anotherperson
perhaps does not remember that he is loved, perhaps goes on year after
year,dayafterday,anddoesnotthinkofhisbeingloved;orperhapsheis
gladandgratefultobelovedbyhiswife,byhischildren,byhisfriends,by
hiscontemporaries,buthedoesnotthinkofhisbeinglovedbyGod.Or
perhapshelamentsnotbeinglovedbyanyoneanddoesnotthinkofbe-
inglovedbyGod.Innite,divinelove;itmakesnodistinction!Butwhat
ofhumaningratitude?Ifthereisanequalityamongusmeninwhichwe
completelyresembleeachother,itisthatnotoneofustrulythinksabout
beingloved!
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fyodordostoevsky
18211881
W
hentheBolsheviksseizedpowerinRussiaintheOctober
Revolutionof1917,oneoftherstadministrativeacts
ofthenewrevolutionarygovernmentwastotransferthe
capitalfromSt.Petersburg,whosespirit,likeitselegantarchitecture,
belongedtoWesternEurope,toMoscow,attheheartofRussiaandof
Russianhistory.Atthetimetherewaseveryreasonstrategic,econom-
icandpoliticalfordoingthis,butitalsosettledacontroversythathad
agitatedanddividedtheRussianintelligentsiaforyearspastbetween
theWesternizersandtheSlavophiles.ThoughthetriumphantBolshe-
vikslookedtoaGermanJew,KarlMarx,fortheirideology,andtothe
TwentiethCenturysmostsuccessfulexponentofcapitalism,America,
fortheirtechnology,theirregimewastobe,initsaspirations,itsstrat-
egyanditscharacter,essentiallyandinsistentlyRussian.
InOctober1821,asecondchildwasborntotheresidentdoctorofa
MoscowhospitalthenknownastheMariinskayaHospitalforthePoor.
Thebabywhothuscameintotheworldinanobscureenoughwaywas
destinedtobecomeoneofthemostfamouswritersofhistime,notjust
inRussiabutthroughouttheworld.ThedoctorsnamewasDostoev-
sky,andhechristenedhisnewsonFyodor.
Likesomanyofmygeneration,IrstreadDostoevskysnovel,Crime
fyodordostoevsky 68
andPunishment,whenIwasveryyoung.Ireaditlikeathriller,with
mountingexcitement.Later,whenIcametoreadDostoevskysother
works,especiallyhisgreatmasterpiece,TheBrothersKaramazov,Ireal-
izedthathewasnotjustawriterwithasuperlativegiftforstorytelling,
butthathehadaspecialinsightintowhatlifeisabout,andintomans
relationship with his Creator, making him a prophetic voice looking
intoandilluminingthefuture.Icametoseethattheessentialtheme
ofallhiswritingisGoodandEvil,thetwopointsaroundwhichthe
dramaofourmortalexistenceisenacted.
The Dostoevsky familys own circumstances were decidedly som-
ber.Hisfatherseemstohavehadaharshandirascibletemperament,
madeworsebyagrowingtendencytodrinktoomuch;andhismother,
naturallyacheerfulsoul,succumbedtotuberculosisduringherninth
pregnancy,whenFyodorwasfteen.Itwastheendoffamilylifefor
Dostoevsky;alongwithhisbrotherMichael,hewassentofftoSt.Pe-
tersburgtoprepareforearlyentryintotheMilitaryEngineeringCol-
legethere.
WhenDostoevskyhadbeenonlysomesixmonthsattheEngineer-
ingAcademy,heheardthathisfatherhaddied,allegedlymurderedby
someserfsonhisestateinrevengeforhisadmittedlydrunken,incalcu-
lableandlecherousways.Forobviousreasonsthefamilykeptthede-
tailstothemselvesevenassumingtheyknewthemwithanycertitude;
theauthorities,too,wereanxiousthatsuchmurdersapparentlyrather
common at the time should not be widely publicized.The death of
hisfather,incircumstancessomysteriousandsosinister,cannotbut
haveaffectedDostoevskyprofoundly.Ithasevenbeensuggestedthat
itbroughtontheepileptictsthatweretoaficthimfortherestof
hislife.
DostoevskyssixyearsattheEngineeringAcademyseemtohaveleft
littlemarkuponhim.In1844,whenhewastwenty-three,hetookthe
plunge, resigned his commission and set up as a writer in St. Peters-
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fyodordostoevsky 69
burgahazardousenterprise,butalmostimmediatelysuccessful.Poor
Folk, his rst published work, a study in the Gogol-Dickens style of
thepoorofSt.Petersburg,wasrapturouslyreceivedby,amongothers,
Belinsky,thefamouscriticinwhomDostoevskywaslatertoseeamis-
guidedWesternizer.Fewwritershavegottenofftosopromisingastart;
everythingseemedtobesetfairforadazzlingcareer.
The Belinsky circle, like the Bloomsbury one and all such circles,
wasnodoubtagreatbore,andDostoevskyfoundmoreexciting(and,
asitturnedout,dangerous)companyinthePetrashevskycircle.This
wasagroupofrevolutionaries,allbentonoverthrowingtheexistingso-
cialorder.Inevitably,thePetrashevsky-iteswereinltratedbythesecret
police,andsomethirty-fourofthemDostoevsky among themwere
arrested and sent off for examination. He, like Shatov in The Devils,
hadbeenentrustedwiththeclandestineprintingpress.
Dostoevsky found himself in solitary connement in the Peter
and Paul Fortress where so many revolutionariesBakunin, for in-
stancewere at one time or another incarcerated. For Dostoevsky it
wasthetruebeginningofhisinnerlife,andoftheilluminationoutof
whichhisgreatworksweretocome.Prisons,letitbesaid,havefos-
teredfarmoreartandmysticalinsightthananyArtsCouncil,Ministry
ofCultureorothersucheffortinthewayofgovernmentalencourage-
ment.InthePeterandPaulFortresshewaswilly-nillyintroducedto
thethemeofpunishment,whichhewassuffering,andcrime,towhich
along,elaborateexaminationsoughttorelateit.Thepunishmentwas
tangible, the crime more elusive; in the questions put to him by his
interrogator there is the same insistent repetition, the same cat-and-
mousetacticstakingadvantageofDostoevskysignoranceoftheextent
ofhisquestionersknowledge,asintheinterrogationofRaskolnikovby
PorryinCrimeandPunishment.
Dostoevsky had been eight months in the Peter and Paul Fortress
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fyodordostoevsky 70
whentheverdictwasatlastannounced.Twenty-threeoftheprisoners,
includingDostoevsky,werecondemnedtodeath,withasecretproviso
bytheCzarthatinviewoftheiryouth,attheverylastmoment,the
sentenceshouldbecommutedtoamorelenientone.Sothetwenty-
threecondemnedmenweretakenbeforeanexecutionsquad.Theguns
were actually lifted, the order to shoot was actually given, when one
oftheCzarsaides-de-camprodedramaticallyupandannouncedare-
prieve.InTheIdiot,PrinceMyshkin,onhisrstvisittotheYepanchins,
describesasimilarexperienceashappeningtoafriendofhis:
Threepostsweredugintothegroundabouttwentypacesfromthescaf-
fold,whichwassurroundedbyacrowdofpeopleandsoldiers,forthere
were several criminals.The rst three were led to the posts and tied to
them; the death vestments (long white smocks) were put on them, and
whitecapsweredrawnovertheireyessothattheyshouldntseetheries;
nexta companyofsoldierswas drawn up againsteach postThe priest
wenttoeachofthemwiththecross.Itseemedtomyfriendthathehad
onlyvemoreminutestolive.Hetoldmethatthoseveminuteswere
likeaneternitytohim;richesbeyondthedreamsofavarice;hecalculated
theexacttimeheneededtotakeleaveofhiscomrades,anddecidedthathe
coulddothatintwominutes,thenhewouldspendanothertwominutes
inthinkingofhimselfforthelasttime,and,nally,oneminuteforalast
lookaroundTherewasachurchnotfaroff,itsgiltroofshininginthe
brightsunshine.Herememberedstaringwithawfulintensityatthatroof
andthesunbeamsashingfromit;hecouldnottearhiseyesoffthoserays
oflight;thoseraysseemedtohimtobehisnewnature,andhefeltthatin
threeminuteshewouldsomehowmergewiththem.Theuncertaintyand
thefeelingofdisgustwiththatnewthingwhichwasboundtocomeany
minutewasdreadful;buthesaidthatthethingthatwasmosthorribleto
himwastheconstantthought:WhatifIhadnottodie!WhatifIcould
returntolifeoh,whataneternity!Andallthatwouldbemine!Ishould
turneveryminuteintoanage,Ishouldlosenothing,Ishouldcountevery
minuteseparatelyandwastenone!Hesaidthatthisreectionnallylled
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himwithsuchbitternessthatheprayedtobeshotasquicklyaspossible.
Dostoevskyssentencewasfouryearspenalservitude,tobeservedin
fortresses and then as a common soldier. At midnight he was tted
withten-poundironsonhisfeet,andthentakeninanopensledgeto
Siberia.
ThefouryearshespentintheOmskpenalsettlement,fetteredand
intheharshestconditionsofconnementimaginable,wereseemingly
lostyears;hewrotenothingandsufferedmuch.Yetitmightbedoubt-
edwhether,withoutthem,hewouldeverhavebeenmorethanagifted
writerandmanofhistime.Hisownsubsequentaccount,inTheHouse
oftheDead,isnomorethanthebarebonesoftheexperience;thegreat
works that follow probe and expound it. In Crime and Punishment,
Raskolnikov is similarly sent to Siberia and, like Dostoevsky, begins
bybeingproudandaloofwithhisfellowprisoners.Thenhecomesto
seethattheyarebrothers,tooManyofthemhaveprofound,strong,
beautifulnaturesSomeyoucannothelprespecting,othersaredown-
rightbeautiful.HemakesRaskolnikovemergefromtheterriblesqua-
lorandmonotonyandcrueltyofprisonlifewithaconvictionthatthe
experienceoflivingissomehowmorethandialectics.
Military service was a decided improvementfor instance, Dosto-
evskycouldget lettersandbooks, andanelementof excitementwas
added by a frenzied love affair with a ladyMaria Dmitrievna Isae-
vawho,aftermanyturbulentmeetingsandpartings,atlastbecame
hiswife.
IttookveyearsofmaneuveringofonesortoranotherforDosto-
evskytobereleasedfrommilitaryserviceandgetpermissiontoreturn
toSt.Petersburg.FinallyhearrivedthereinDecember1859,almost
exactlytenyearssinceheleftinthatopensleighforOmsk.Atrsthe
occupied himself largely with journalistic work in collaboration with
hisbrotherMichael,overjoyedtobebackintheswim,tohavenews-
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fyodordostoevsky 72
papers to read and polemics to engage in and friends to see. When,
threemonthsafterthedeathofhiswife,Maria,Dostoevskysbrother
Michaeldiedsuddenly,hewasleftwithnancialresponsibilityforthe
magazine,Epokha,theyhadbeenjointlyrunning.Thisinvolvedhim
inchronicinsolvencyforyearstocome,butinducedhimtoreturnto
histruework,therstfruitbeingtheappearancein1866ofCrimeand
Punishmentinserialpublication.
The scene had to be St. Petersburg, one of those seedy neighbor-
hoods where his long perambulations often took himtall, shabby
apartmentblocksteemingwithpeoplecomingandgoing,darkdoor-
waysandstairways.Asforthecrime,hewasanavidreaderofcrime
reportsandfoundinthenewspapersonethatwouldsuitperfectly.An
agedmoneylender,widowofatitularcouncilor,anoldcronewholent
grudginglyandcollectedavidly,had,alongwithhersister,beenstruck
downwithanaxeinherownapartment.Timeswerehard,andthere
weremanysuchmoneylenders-cum-pawnbrokersinthedistrict.Un-
derthecircumstancesacertainamountofsympathyforherassailant
mightbeexpected.
HewasRaskolnikov,oneofDostoevskysgreatcreations;hisCan-
dide(hehadlongprojectedaRussiannineteenth-centuryversion),or
perhaps his Faust or his Rastignac; an aspiring Hero of HisTime as
characteristicasLermontovs;adown-in-the-mouthstudentwhonever
studied; slothful and penniless, a half-baked intellectual with all the
fashionable,currentideologiesrattlingaboutinhismind,moodyand
vainandgiventoviolenceinthoughtifnotinwordanddeed.
AtnopointdoesRaskolnikovfeelorexpressanypityforthemur-
deredwomen,orremorseathavingkilledthem.Nordoesheseekto
justifyhavingmurderedthembyhisneedformoney.Infact,hedoesnt
somuchaslookoverhisbooty,butjusthidesitawayonabuildingsite
wherehecanrecoveritifeverhehasamindto.Inthedaysafterthe
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murderthathespendsbroodingonit,heexperiencesnoregretsand
knowsnopenitence;onlyfear,notsomuchthathewillbefoundout,
asthathewillweakenandconfess.
Asitturnsout,thereisnooccasionforhimtoconfess.Heisinthe
clear as far as the police are concerned, and yet he does confessto
Sonia,apatheticgirlwhohastakentoprostitutiontohelpsupportthe
indigenthouseholdofherdrunkenfather.Hehadcometorealize,he
tellsher,thatpowerisgivenonlytohimwhodarestostoopandtake
it Thats why I killed the old woman. His only regret now is, he
almostwhimpers,thathehasprovedunequaltothishighendeavor;he
hascometoSoniatoaskwhatheoughttodo.
In the character of Raskolnikov, Dostoevsky takes us to the very
ultimateinhumangodlessness,tothepointatwhichmanworshipshis
ownwillandtherebyndshisonlysancticationinitsexerciseulti-
matelyinviolenceforviolencesownsake.Violenceinartandinlitera-
tureandinentertainment,violenceinthoughtandindeed,violence
onthestreetsandoncampuses,violenceinfootballstadiumsandinthe
cinemaandonthetelevisionscreen,violenceinpoliticsandinideolo-
giesandeveninreligion.Ikill,thereforeIam!saysRaskolnikov,and
evenashesaysitherealizesthatitwasnottheoldhaghemurdered,
buthimself.Ididmyselfinatoneblowandforgood,hetellsSonia.
Soitwillbe,Dostoevskysaystous,forallwhofollowthisdevilsway,
whethersinglyorcollectively.
ItisinSoniasmouththatDostoevskyputstheanswer:
Getup!Sheseizedhimbytheshoulderandheraisedhimself,looking
atheralmostinastonishment.Goatonce,thisveryminute,andstandat
thecrossroad,bowdown,rstkisstheearthwhichyouhavedeledand
saytoallmenaloud:Iamamurderer!ThenGodwillsendyoulifeagain.
Acceptsufferingandberedeemedbyit thatswhatyoumustdo.
Atrstherejectsit,butatlast,afterhistrialandforcedexiletoSiberia,
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fyodordostoevsky 74
whereSoniafollowshim,heseesinherloveanddevotionthepossibili-
tyofarebirthofagradualregeneration,ofbecomingacquaintedwith
anewandhithertounknownreality.Acceptsufferingandberedeemed
byitthiswasDostoevskysmessagetoaworldhurryingfrenziedlyin
theoppositedirection,seekingtoabolishsufferingandndhappiness.
SinceDostoevskystime,theworldhasknownmuchtroubleandfound
littlehappiness,andsomaybethebetterdisposedtoheedhiswords.
TheseverenancialdifcultiesinwhichhisbrotherMichaelsdeath
involvedDostoevskygothimintothehabitofretreatingabroadwhen
the pressure of his creditors became insupportable. This resulted in
frequentstaysatGermanspas suchasWiesbadenwhereacasinowas
providedtorelievethetediumofimbibinglargequantitiesofdistaste-
fulmedicinalwaters.Onewonderswhattheblamelessbourgeoisdys-
peptics going to and from the Kurhaus, or listening to the orchestra
inthegardens,madeofthecrazed-lookingbeardedRussianwhohad
comeamongthem.
Inhisshort,brilliantnovel,TheGambler,Wiesbadenandtheother
spasappearasRoulettenburg,andthehero,AlexisIvanovich,isdrawn
asirresistiblytothetablesasDostoevskywas.Itwasnot,however,as
Alexis Ivanovitch explains, just the plays excitement; he wanted the
money,wanteditdesperately,andwantedittocometohiminthispar-
ticularwaybysheerchanceratherthanbyworkorstratagemorcal-
culation.Howstrangeitistothinkofthisinspiredwritersittinghour
afterhour,eveningafterevening,utterlyabsorbedinthemonotonous
repetitionoffaitesvosjeux,riennevaplus,withtheplayersfrenziedly
stakingtheirmoney,attheverylastmomentchangingtheirmindsand
pullingsomebackorpilingsomemoreon;thentheannouncementof
theinexorablenumberatwhichthelittleballhascometorest,andthe
agonizedcalculationsofwinningsandlosses.
Dostoevskysaidofhimselfthathecarriedeverythingtoexcesslove
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andhate,hopeanddespair,ecstasyandsentimentality;gamblingwas,
forhim,thereductioadabsurdumofmoney.Justtogetitandloseiton
theturnofawheel!Toacquirerichesbychance,andthenlosethem
assuddenlyandunaccountably!Thebanker,thespeculator,eventhe
prospectorforgoldmightpersuadehimselfthathiscupidityperformed
some useful service, but gamblers are the monks of greed, dedicated
whollytoitsservice,withthegreenbaizetablesforanaltaronwhichto
setoutthesacricialofferingsofcoinsandbanknotes.Asmoneyloses
itsvalue,willthecultgoon?ItisapossibilitythatDostoevskywould
haveenjoyedexploring.
SomeofDostoevskysmostfreneticgamblingexcesseswereassociat-
edwiththemostphysicalofhisloveaffairswithApollinariaSuslova,
astudentwhoapproachedDostoevskyinitiallyinamoodofaweathis
greatness,andthenfoundhim(acommoncampusdrama)disappoint-
inginbed.SheappearsinTheGamblerasawillfulfemmefatale.
WritingTheGamblerprovedineverysensetherapeutic.Fornancial
reasonsithadtobecompletedintwenty-sixdays,andtoachievethis
Dostoevskyprocuredtheservicesofastenographer,AnnaGrigoryevna
Snitkina,whoturnedouttobeexceptionablycompetentandsensible,
andinduecoursebecamehissecondandlastwife.Ontheirtravelsin
Europeshehadtoendureonenalgamblingdebauch,andwritesinher
diarytheappallingstraitstowhichitreducedthemthepawningofev-
erythingtheyhad,includingherweddingring,attimestheactualstar-
vationtowhichtheyweresubjected,allmadeworseforAnnabecause
shewasgoingthroughherrstpregnancy.Then,againatWiesbaden,
themaniaspentitselfasmysteriouslyasithadbegun,andforthelast
decadeofhislife,thankstoAnnasquietcompetence,steadyaffection
and careful management, Dostoevsky had the peace of mind to pro-
ducehisgreatworksinrelativeeaseandsecurity.
Dostoevsky,whonormallystayedasfarawayaspossiblefrommu-
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seums and art galleries, paid a special visit to the Museum of Art in
Baseltoseeapainting,ChristTakenDownfromtheCross,byHans
Holbein theYounger. He had heard about this picture, and what he
hadheardhadgreatlyimpressedhim.HiswifeAnnadescribedinher
diaryDostoevskysreactiontoseeingtheoriginal:
ThepaintingoverwhelmedFyodorMikhailovich,andhestoppedinfront
ofitasifstrickenOnhisagitatedfacewasthesortoffrightenedexpres-
sionIhadoftennotedduringtherstmomentsofanepilepticseizure.I
quietlytookmyhusbandsarm,ledhimtoanotherroomandmadehim
sitdownonabench,expectinghimtohaveaseizureanyminute.Fortu-
nately,itdidntcome.LittlebylittleFyodorMikhailovitchcalmeddown,
andwhenwewereleavingheinsistedongoingtotakeanotherlookatthe
paintingthathadmadesuchanimpressiononhim.
Annasownreactionwasoneofrevulsion.Shewritesofthepainting
that,contrarytotradition,Christisdepictedwithanemaciatedbody,
the bones and ribs showing, the hands and feet pierced by wounds,
swollenandveryblue,asinacorpsethatisbeginningtorot.Thefaceis
agonized,andtheeyesarehalfopen,butunseeingandexpressionless.
Thenose,mouthandchinhaveturnedblue.InTheBrothersKaram-
azov,whenthesaintlyFatherZossimadies,themonksaredeeplydis-
turbed because the body soon begins to stink, when, as a potential
saint, it should have remained intact.This superstition was exposed
intheearlydaysoftheSovietregimeintheanti-Godmuseumsfor
instance, in the one set up in the ornate St. Basils Cathedral in Red
Squareby showing the fossilized remains of buried saints dug out of
their graves. How ironic that opposite St. Basils was the mausoleum
in which the carefully preserved body of Lenin was on display, thus
promotingarevivaloftheselfsamesuperstitiontheanti-Godmuseums
weresupposedtohaveabolished.
ThereasonAnnawassohorriedwasthatHolbeinspictureshows
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fyodordostoevsky 77
the body of Christ in a state of decomposition. On the other hand,
asfarasDostoevskywasconcerned,thepicturesfascinationwaspre-
ciselythatitdidshowChristsbodydecomposing.IfHisbodywasnot
subjecttodecaylikeotherbodies,thenthesacriceontheCrosswas
quitemeaningless;Christhadtobeamanlikeothermeninorderto
dieformen.Inotherwords,attheIncarnation,Goddidtrulybecome
aman.
Dostoevskys wanderings outside Russia brought him, in 1867, to
Geneva,wheresomanywanderersofonesortoranotherhavecome.
OntheshoresofLakeGeneva,itissafetosay,moreexplosivewords
havebeenutteredandmoreexplosiveideasentertainedthananywhere
elseinmoderntimes;fromRousseautoLenin,ithasbeentheseed-bed
of revolution. As though to redress the imbalance, the city itself has
remainedoneofthebastionsofbourgeoisorthodoxywhensomanyof
itscitadelselsewherehavebeenfalling.Anideologicaladventurermay
stilldeposithissavingsinGenevawithareasonableassurancethatthey
willremainintact,whatevertheconsequencesofthepropagationofhis
ideaselsewhere.
Harassedbyhisusualmoneytroublesandoverthelatedeliveryof
hisworkinthiscaseTheIdiot,whichhewasstrugglingtonishDos-
toevsky took a sour view of both the revolutionary ideas and their
bourgeois cushioning. In his letters he complains equally of the aw-
fulnessof life in Geneva, on Sundaysparticularly, and ofthevarious
enragsassembledforaninternationalcongressundertheauspicesofa
LeagueforPeaceandFreedom,someofwhomHerzenandBakunin,
for instancewere known to him. How many such congresses there
weretobeinGeneva,culminatinginthelargest,longest,mostpubli-
cizedandmostfutile,theLeagueofNations,whosenenewPalaisdes
Nationswascompletedjustwhentheorganizationitself,toallintents
andpurposes,hadbecomeanirrelevance.
For the title of his next novel, written in Geneva, Dostoevsky
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fyodordostoevsky 78
chose The Devils;* his theme is that, just as the devils entered into
theGadareneswine,thesubversiveideasoftheagewereenteringinto
peoplesmindsandwouldsimilarlydestroythem.Raskolnikovsinsis-
tencethathehadarighttokill,translatedintopolitics,ledstraightto
Bakuninsdictumthatdestructionisinitselfcreative,andsotorevolu-
tionforrevolutionsownsake.Thus,todaysRaskolnikovistomorrows
NechaevtheyoungstudentrevolutionaryterroristonwhomDostoev-
skybasedthecharacter,PyotrVechovensky.Byinducingtheyoungto
followRaskolnikovandthrowasideallrestraintintheirpersonalbe-
havior,thewayispreparedforacorrespondinglackofrestraintinthe
exerciseofpower.Agenerationortwoofdebauchery,PyotrVecho-
venskysays,followedbyalittledropofnicefreshbloodlettingjustto
accustompeople,andthentheturmoilwillbegin.Today,acentury
later,itiswellunderway.
What Dostoevsky understood with such wonderful clarity is that
the romantic notions of old Vechovensky are the inevitable prelude
tothedevilishonesofhissonPyotr,andthatbothderivefromoneof
Genevasfavoritesons,Jean-JacquesRousseau,whoinsistedthatmen
canonlybefreewhentheydowhattheylike,andthatdoingwhatthey
like is conducive to their individual and collective happiness, peace
andsecurity.Exactlytheopposite,Dostoevskyinsists,isthecase;when
menaredominatedbytheirowndesires,theyfallintothemostterrible
of all servitudes.YoungVechovensky is simply oldVechovensky writ
large.Theoldoneisseriousandfoolish,theyoungoneisfrivolousand
merciless, and after them both comes inexorably the Gadarene rush
overthecliff.
OldVechovenskyisamarvelouspieceofcharacterization,immense-
*InConstanceGarnettsfamoustranslation,thetitleisgivenasThePossessed,possiblyanunconsciousef-
forttotonedownDostoevskyssavagelysatiricalpresentationoftherageanddestructivenessinnateinthe
liberalmind.
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fyodordostoevsky 79
ly funny, and in his own way, immensely touching. How often such
voicesashishavebeenheardinGeneva,callingforpeace,forliberty,
for democracy. HeisEleanorRoosevelt,heis BertrandRussell,he is
eve-rysirenvoiceurgingustofollowPyotrVechovensky,whosepur-
pose is to hand us over to the sloganeers, the brainwashers, the dog-
matists,fromwhomtherecanbenoescape.Andhavewenotseenthe
fulllmentoftheirplansin,forinstance,GermanysBaader-Meinhof
Gang,withSartreasspokesmanfortheintelligentsia,throwinginhis
blessing?
WithTheDevilsoutoftheway,Dostoevskyknewthatthebookhe
projectednextcouldbewrittenonlyinRussia,anditwaswithinnite
reliefanddelightthatheandAnnamadearrangementstoreturnthere
aftertheirlongandtroubledexile.TheyarrivedbackinSt.Petersburg
inthesummerof1871,withtenyears,themostfruitfulandsereneof
hislife,beforethem.ThankstoAnnascarefulmanagement,theywere
abletoacquireahouseinStarayaRussa,anancienttowninNovgorod
Province,andinitstranquilityhewroteARawYouth,workedonThe
BrothersKaramazovandpreparedhisPushkinMemorialspeech.There
isadescriptionofthetowninTheBrothersKaramazov,andheimag-
inedthatfromhiswindowhecouldseetheoldwhitemonasterywhere
AlyoshawasamonkandFatherZossimadied.
Before starting work seriously on The Brothers Karamazov in the
spring of 1878, Dostoevsky paid a visit to Optina Pustin monastery
in the neighborhood of Tula and the family estate where his father
had been murdered by the serfs. He stayed there two days and had
several conversations with the saintly Father Ambrosius, the original
forFatherZossimainTheBrothersKaramazov.ManyyearslaterTol-
stoy visited Optina Pustin on his last tragic journey, which ended in
thestationmastershouseatAstapova.BothTolstoyandDostoevsky,in
theirdifferentways,werefascinatedbymonasticism,whichhasnow,
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fyodordostoevsky 80
intheoldtraditionalsense,beenendedinRussia,thoughmanyofthe
monasteriesthemselvesforinstance,Novo-Devichy,ontheoutskirts
ofMoscowhavebeenpainstakinglypreservedandrestoredasnational
monuments,tobestaredatbytourists,andperhapsoneday,asChris-
tiansmaydream,toreceivebacktheirmonks.
Dostoevsky was a God-possessed man if there ever was one, as is
clearineverythinghewroteandineverycharacterhecreated.Allhis
life he was questing for God, and found Himif indeed he ever did
otherthantfullyonlyattheendofhisdays,afterpassingthrough
what he called the hell-re of doubt. Freedom to choose between
Good andEvilhesawastheveryessence ofearthlyexistence;better
eventochooseEvilthantohavenochoice.TheDevil,heinsists,hasa
necessaryroleinourhumandrama,thoughwithouthimtherecanbe
contentmentandwell-beingofakind,amountingtoTolstoysdream
ofhappinessinearthly,mortalterms,whichwastoDostoevskydeeply
abhorrent.Thisisthedream,too,ofallauthoritarians,temporaland
ecclesiastical,especiallythelatter,asDostoevskyexplainsinoneofhis
mostfamouspassagesIvanKaramazovsaccounttohisbrotherAlyo-
shaofanimaginaryencounterbetweentheGrandInquisitorandthe
returnedChristinsixteenth-centurySeville.
Christ has reappeared among the people and been recognized; he
hasperformedmiraclesashedidinGalilee
Inhisinnitemercyheoncemorewalkedamongmeninthesemblanceof
man.Thepeoplearedrawntohimbyanirresistibleforce,theysurround
him,theythrongabouthim,theyfollowhim.Hewalksamongthemin
silencewithagentlesmileofinnitecompassion.Thesunofloveburns
inhisheart,raysoflight,ofenlightenment,andofpowerstreamfromhis
eyes,and,pouringoverthepeople,stirtheirheartswithresponsivelove.
Hestretchesforthhishands tothem, blesses them,and ahealingvirtue
comesfromcontactwithhim,evenfromhisgarments
Then, intheCathedralofSeville, he raises from the deada small girl
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fyodordostoevsky 81
whohasbeenbroughtinforburial.Justassheissittingupinhercofn
andlookingaroundherwith surprise inher smiling eyes just atthat
moment
theCardinal himself, the Grand Inquisitor, passes by the cathedral in
thesquare.Heisanoldmanofnearlyninety,tallanderect,withashriv-
eledfaceandsunkeneyesfromwhich,though,alightlikeaerysparkstill
gleamsHestopsinfrontofthecrowdandwatchesfromadistance.He
seeseverythingandhisfacedarkens.Heknitshisgraybeetlingbrowsand
hiseyesashwithanominousre.Hestretchesforthhisngerandcom-
mandstheguardtoseizehimTheguardstaketheprisonertothedark,
narrow,vaultedprisonintheoldbuildingoftheSacredCourtandlock
himinthere.Thedaypassesandnightfalls,thedark,hotandbreathless
Sevillenight.Theairisheavywiththescentoflaurelandlemons.Amid
theprofounddarknesstheirondooroftheprisonissuddenlyopenedand
theoldGrandInquisitorhimselfslowlyenterstheprisonwithalightin
hishand.Heisaloneandthedooratonceclosesbehindhim.Hestopsin
thedoorwayandgazesforalongtime,formorethanaminute,intohis
face.Atlastheapproacheshimslowly,putsthelamponthetableandsays
tohim:Isityou?You?
TheterribleburdenthatChristhadlaidonmankind,theGrandIn-
quisitorexplains,wasfreedom.WheninthewildernesstheDevilof-
fered deliverance from this burden, the offer was recklessly rejected.
Thus,Christrefusedtoturnstonesintobread,therebyabolishinghun-
ger;refusedalsotojumpfromahighpinnacleintheTempletocreate
wonderandawe,therebyattractingpeopletohimandhiscause;and-
nallyrefusedtotakeoverthekingdomsoftheearth,whichwouldhave
puthiminapositiontocreateearthlyparadiseseverywhere.Heeven,
forthesakeoffreedom,insistedondyinghimself.However,quitesoon
afterhisdeathhisChurchdecidedtoclosewiththeDevilsoffer,and
inplaceoffreedomprovidedmiracles,mysteryandauthorityincon-
temporaryterms,afuence,themarvelsofscienceandanall-powerful
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fyodordostoevsky 82
state to the very great betterment of the human condition. If now
Christ remained in the world, he would upset everything again with
this terrible, devastating, sublime freedom of his. So again he must
die.
AllthetimetheGrandInquisitorhasbeenspeaking,Christhasre-
mainedquitesilent,asonapreviousoccasionbeforeCaiaphas,saying
notaword.
TheGrandInquisitorsawthatthePrisonerhadbeenlisteningintentlyto
himallthetime,lookinggentlyintohisfaceandevidentlynotwishingto
sayanythinginreply.Theoldmanwouldhavelikedhimtosaysomething,
howeverbitterandterrible.Buthesuddenlyapproachedtheoldmanand
kissedhimgentlyonhisbloodless,agedlips.Thatwasallhisanswer.The
oldmangaveastart.Therewasanimperceptiblemovementatthecorners
ofhismouth;hewenttothedoorandopeneditandsaidtohim:Go,and
comenomoredontcomeatallnever,never!Andhelethimoutinto
thedarkstreetsandlanesofthecity.
ThePrisonerwentaway,leavingtheoldmanwiththatkissglowingin
hisheart.Andsoitglowsstill.
The statue in Moscow of Russias national poet, Pushkin, was un-
veiled in June 1880, providing Dostoevsky with the opportunity he
had long sought to speak to his fellow countrymento exhort them
liketheprophetsofold;towarnthemofthedangersthatlayahead,
andoftheruinousconsequencesthatwouldsurelyensueiftheyfol-
lowedtheWesternizerswiththeirfraudulentpromisesofprogressand
freedom.Now,seemingly,everythingthatDostoevskymostabhorred
hascometopassinRussia.Theinstitutionsonwhichhepinnedhis
hopes themonarchyandtheChurchhavecollapsed,theoneabol-
ished and the other a shadow of itself; the Revolution he so dreaded
hashappened,andtheWesternersmaybesaidtohavetriumphedin
the sense that industrialization, science and agnosticism are now the
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fyodordostoevsky 83
orderoftheday.
Dostoevskys great moment came on the third day of the Pushkin
celebrations.HedeliveredhisaddressintheHallofColumns,which
waslargelyusedinthosedaysbythenobilityforsocialoccasionsandto
receivetheImperialFamily.Forty-fouryearslater,itsnamechangedto
theHouseofTradeUnions;Leninsbodywastolieinstatethere.One
mayimaginethesceneDostoevsky,atrulypropheticgure,bearded,
wild-eyed,hisbrowfurrowed,andspeaking(thoughfromaprepared
text)withgreatforceandeloquence,andleadinguptohistremendous
climax when he proclaimed the coming of a universal brotherhood
brought about, not by socialism and revolution, but by the full and
perfectrealizationofthisChristianenlightenmentofours.
In the serener circumstances of his last years, Dostoevskys essen-
tialloveoflifeandjoyinallGodscreationfoundasurerexpression
thaneverbefore.Beauty,hemakesDmitriKaramazovperhapshis
favorite of the three brotherssay, is not only a terrible, it is also a
mysteriousthing.ThereGodandtheDevilstriveformastery,andthe
battlegroundistheheartofmen.
Almostexactlyhalfacenturyago,IwaspassingthroughSt.Peters-
burgorLeningrad,asitwascalledthenandsomeimpulseledmeto
seekoutDostoevskysgrave.Ifounditwithsomedifculty,andstood
byitforawhile,thinkingofthisgreatwriter,andoftheextraordinary
rangeofhisgeniusanddepthsofhisinsights,andhowhisworks,far
fromseemingtobelongtoavanishedpast,growevermorerelevantto
thedilemmasanddistractionsthatarepartoftheexperienceofliving
inthisworldatanytimeandinanycircumstances.
I was much younger then, of course, in sight of the beginning of
a life, as now of its ending; in the intervening years a great deal has
happenedtotheworld,toDostoevskysreputation,and,forthatmat-
ter,tome.YetIstillndmyselfmarveling,asIdidonthatoccasion,
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fyodordostoevsky 84
athowonemansgeniuscan,asitwere,pickupallthestrandsofan
age,revealingitspatternallitsabsurdity,allitsdiabolismandallits
splendor.Alltheworldinagrainofsand,Blakesaid;yes,andalloflife
inaword.
On the rst occasion that I visited Dostoevskys grave, it had an
airofneglect.Todaythisisfarfrombeingthecase.Hisreputationin
hisnativeRussia,aftersomeupsanddowns,standshigherthanever.
His books are published in editions, not of tens but of hundreds of
thousands;everywordhewroteispiouslypreserved,studiedandcom-
menteduponsometimes,Idaresay,inwaysthatwouldsurprisehim.
Allthiswouldbeasourceofgreatsatisfactiontohim.Hisloveforhis
nativeRussiawasoneofthefewwhollyconsistentthemesofhislife.
Abroad, he was always homesick, and his faith that somehow Russia
andtheRussianpeoplehadsomespecialroletofulllintheworking
out of the worlds destiny never wavered, and only burnt brighter as
theyearspassed.
Standing beside Dostoevskys grave, it is impossible for me not to
thinkofanotherofwhichIalsohaveveryvividmemories.Imean,of
course,TolstoysatYasnayaPolyana,onaridgeoverlookingtheforest
in which, he was told as a child, a green stick was buried inscribed
with the secret of everlasting happiness. Tolstoy never did nd that
green stick, and Dostoevsky never even looked for it; yet somehow
thesetwogreatRussianwritersseemlinkedtogether.Inlife,asithap-
pened, whether by accident or deliberation, they never actually met.
ButcertainlytheytookgreataccountofoneanothersworksTolstoy
aspiringsoardentlyafterhiskingdomofheavenonearthandarriving
atAstapova;Dostoevskyplungingdownsofrenziedlyintohiskingdom
ofhellonearthandarrivingatGolgothatwoparallellinesthatEuclid
toldusnevermeet,butwhich,ithasnowbeendiscovered,afterall,do.
Itiswheretheymeetthatwemortalsmustlive.
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leotolstoy
18281910
C
ontrary to the expectations of Marx, Engels and other pun-
dits,therstrumblingsofanewageofrevolutionweretobe
heardindistant,backwardRussia.AnditwasthegreatRus-
siannovelistCountLeoTolstoywho,asit turned out, detected and
respondedtothemmostperceptively.
LikeAugustineconfrontedwiththefallofRome,Tolstoysethimself
todefendtheChristianfaithinorderthatitmightsurvivethetroubled
years that lay ahead. Where Augustine shored up a Church,Tolstoy
turnedtotheGospelsthemselves,inhisownwordsandstoriesbeauti-
fullyexpoundingtheirmessageoftheKingdomofHeavenwithinus.
InTolstoyscase,themiracleisclearforalltosee.Aftermorethan
half a century of authoritarian government bent on extirpating the
Christianreligionandallitswork,ChristisaliveinRussiaasnowhere
else.Forthis,theworksofTolstoyareinalargepartresponsible;Alex-
anderSolzhenitsynstandsonhisshoulders.
InNovember1910,alleyeswerexedonthestationmastershouse
inAstapova,atinyplaceineasternRussia,whereTolstoylaydying.He
wasinhiseightiesandinightfromhishomeandhiswife;concerned
tostartanewlifeinthisworld,justatthepointofhisdeparturefrom
it.The wholeTolstoy clan had arrived by special train, including his
leotolstoy 86
abandonedwife,the CountessSonya.Camerasa relativelynewfeature
ofnews-gatheringwereoutinstrength,includingoneformovies.
Inaccordancewithhiswishes,TolstoywasburiedatYasnayaPoly-
ana,hisfamilyestate.Theplacehechoseforhisgravewasontheedge
ofaravineintheZakazforest;aravinewhere,ashisbrotherNicholas
usedtosay,alittlegreenstickwashiddenwiththesecretofuniversal
loveengravedonit.
There could have been no more suitable place.Tolstoy, it is true,
neverfoundthegreenstick,thoughhehuntedassiduouslyforit.He
did,however,ndthesecretofuniversalloveintheNewTestament,
especiallyin the Sermon on the Mount, whose sublime propositions
heextolledandexplainedinhiswritings,andardentlytriedtoliveby
himself,insistingthattheyalonewouldsavemenfromtheconictsand
upheavalswhichotherwiselayahead.
It was this insistence that Christianity was not just a religion but
a way of life which madeTolstoy so revered a gure throughout the
world,whileatthesametimemakinghimseemintheeyesofthecivil
authorities a dangerous revolutionary, andin the eyes of the eccle-
siastical authoritiesa dangerous heretic.The sufferings of the poor,
theafictedandtheoppressed;thefutilityoftryingtondfulllment
throughthesenses,orcelebrity,oranyofthepursuitsofthewillorthe
ego;theinadequacyofpowerasaninstrumentforinstitutingjustice
and brotherlinessallthiswasmadeactualby thelightofhis genius
andtheforceofhissincerity.
IwassevenyearsoldwhenTolstoydiedin1910.Inmyhomehis
namewashonored,andasachildIstayedforawhileinanowdefunct
TolstoyancolonyintheCotswolds,nearStroudinGloucestershire.His
bookswereallinmyfatherslibrary,andIrememberturningovertheir
pagesevenbeforeIcouldproperlyreadthem.
I imagineTolstoy looking across the ravine where the little green
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leotolstoy 87
stick is hidden, whose inscription must forever be sought and yet is
forever known. What is it?That we must love and not persecute or
kill or wreak vengeance upon one another. That, being part of one
Creation,withoneCreator,wemustseekourhappinessinthegoodof
others,therebyrealizingourowngoodandlivinglikebrothersinone
humanfamily.
Tolstoy went on revealing the secret of universal love to his read-
ersuntiltheendofhislife,evenintheverylastwordsthathewrote,
butadding,mostmovingly:ThatiswhatIwantedtosaytoyou,my
brothers,beforeIdied.Heissayingitstill.
Itwasnot,then,justbecauseTolstoywasagreatwriterthatalleyes
werexedontheAstapovarailwaystationwhenhelaydyingthere,nor
wasitjustcuriosityaboutthestrangedepartureofafamousoldman
fromhishomeandwifeinordertobecomeasolitarywanderer.
Therewassomethingelse.Thedramaofhislifewassomehowthatof
theage,andassuchitheldeveryonesattention.Inthissensehisown
lifewashisgreatestproductionmoresoeventhanhissuprememas-
terpieceWarandPeace,orAnnaKareninaandResurrection.Itbegan,as
itended,inYasnayaPolyana.
Tolstoyhaswritten,inglowingterms,hisown,thinlydisguisedac-
count of his childhood, boyhood, and youth.The only comparable
descriptions of growing up that I can think of are Dickenss David
CoppereldandRousseausConfessions,bothbooksknowntohaveim-
pressedTolstoy.Themoodofeachofthemisnostalgic;asongofin-
nocencewritteninthelightofexperience.
Evendiscountingallthis,onecanseethatYasnayaPolyana,asTol-
stoyknewit,musthavebeentheperfectplaceinwhichforhimtogrow
up.Itistruethathismotherdiedbeforehecouldknowher,andhis
fatherwhenhewasonlyeight,buttherewereauntsandagrandmother
tolookafterthechildren,akindly,absurdGermantutortogivethem
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leotolstoy 88
lessons,anarrayofservantstoserveandscoldthem,andanimalsofall
kindstorideandtakeoutforwalksandkeepaspets.
FromaveryearlyageTolstoyseemstohavebeenawarethathewas
an exceptional person. Once and for all, he wrote in his diary, I
mustbecomeaccustomedtothethoughtthatIamanexception,and
that either I am ahead of my age, or one of those incompatible, un-
adaptablenaturesthatareneversatised.Inpointoffact,thoughhe
didnotrealizeitatthetime,andperhapsneverdid,hewasbothahead
ofhisageandneversatised.
Inanycase,hisupbringingwascalculatedtofosterallthatwasorigi-
nalandaudaciousandinspiredinhim:theveryelementsofhisgenius.
Hissubmissiontothedrearytreadmillofeducationthatconspiracyof
dullnessandfutility,ashedescribeditwasminimal.AtKazanUniver-
sity,whichheandhisbrothersattended,hisperformancewasscandal-
ouslydesultoryandheleftwithoutbeinggraduated.
Later,whenhedecidedtotakehisdutiesasalandownerseriously,
heturnedhisattentiontoeducatingthechildrenofhisserfs.Withhis
usualardor,hesetupschoolsontheestatehehadinherited,tookon
teachingduties,andcarefullyexploredalltheneweducationaltheories
and permissive practices, mostly derived from Germany, which have
becomealltoolamentablyfamiliarinourowntime.
Hewas,itshouldbesaid,amarvelousteacher,andproducedanum-
berofhighlyeffectivetextbooks.Allhislifeheadoredchildren,andwas
amasteratdevisingandtellingthemstories.Intheend,however,he
cametoseethateducation,liketheKingdomofHeaven,iswithinus,
and cannot be imposed from without, however ingenious the theory
orenlightenedtheteacher.Whenhetalkedwiththeold,uneducated
muzhiks(peasants),hefoundthattheywereoftenwiser,andmorein
touchwiththerealitiesofourhumanexistencethanweretheirchildren
whohadpassedthroughhisschools.
ItisoftensupposedthatTolstoysdistasteforworldlypursuitsand
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leotolstoy 89
waysonlydevelopedinmiddleage.Thisisnot,infact,so.Fromhis
earliestwritingsandjournalsitisclearthathealternatedbetweenan
ardentdelightinsuchthingsassocialsuccessandfame,andanequally
passionateloathingofhimselfforsocaringaboutthem.Thisapplied
particularly to his love affairs and frequentation of the gypsies; even
moresotosordidepisodeslikevisitstobrothels.Hedescribedonesuch
visitandtherevulsionheexperiencedwithgreatfeeling.
Bythetimehewastwenty-three,hehadalreadytiredofsociallife
inMoscow,andfoundanescapeingoingtotheCaucasuswithhisbe-
lovedbrother,Nicholas,whosebatterywasstationedthere.Hefound
the scenery marvelous, the Cossack women entrancing, and military
lifeverymuchtohistaste.
InmanywaystheprofessionofarmsappealedtoTolstoy.Thequality
itmostdemanded,courage,wasonebywhichhehimselfsetgreatstore,
andthealternationsofdangerandausteritywithwildlivingsuitedhis
temperament.AshedemonstratedinWarandPeace,hehadamasterly
understandingoftheconductofbattlesandcampaigns.Andevenafter
hehadbecomeanout-and-outpacist,hewouldcondetohisdiary
howashamedhewasoftheexcitementandpartisanshipstillstirredup
inhimwhenRussiawasatwar.
Yet eventually this huntsman and soldier who gloried in shedding
bloodbecamepassionatelyconvincedthatkilling,eitherofmenorof
animals,couldneverbejustied.EvenwhenTsarAlexanderIIwasas-
sassinatedbyrevolutionaryterroristsin1881,Tolstoywrotetothenew
tsar,AlexanderIII,pleadingwithhimtosparetheassassins.Theirideas,
Tolstoycontended,couldbeopposedonlybyconfrontingthemwith
forgivenessandlove:Aswaxbeforere,everyrevolutionarystruggle
willmeltawaybeforetheman-TsarwhofulllsthelawofChrist.
Needless to say, the appeal went unheeded. As it turned out, the
Tsarspolicycouldscarcelybesaidtohavebeenparticularlyefcacious.
Thirty-sevenyearslaterhisdynastywasabolished,andtherevolution
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TolstoyhadforeseentriumphedinRussia.Meanwhile,infar-offIndia,
abarristernamedGandhihadnotedTolstoyspoint,andactingonit,
spearheaded a movement of nonviolent civil disobedience that ulti-
matelysucceededinendingBritishruleinIndia.
ItwaswhilehewasintheCaucasusthatTolstoybegantowritein
a serious way. His rst published work, Childhood, was an instanta-
neous success.Yet neither then nor subsequently did his success as a
writerbringhimanylastingsatisfaction.Itmightalmostbesaidthat
forhimwritingwasasortoftherapy.Byrecording,ashedidwithsuch
incomparablebrilliance,hisimpressionsoflife,hewasabletoescape
temporarilyfromhiseverlastingpreoccupationwithitsmeaning.Or,
put another way, he lived so intensely when he wrote that he could
momentarilyforgethemustdie.
EvenintheseearlydaysTolstoyfoundhimselfdriventotheconclu-
sionthattherealityoflifewasessentiallyspiritual,andthatitwasbest
experiencednotegotistically,butthroughabrotherlyrelationshipwith
onesfellowmen.Thusbeganhislifelongbattlewithhisdeeplysensual
natureandwiththehabitsandaptitudesoftheclassintowhichhehad
beenborn.Helongedtoescapefromtheurgesofhiseshandfrom
theprivilegesandtastesthathisbirthhadconferreduponhim.Asa
memberofatinyeliteconcernedwithitsownstatus,itsownnotions
ofart,anditsownluxuriousandself-indulgentwayoflife,hefeltcut
offfromthegreatmassofmankind,symbolizedforhimbyadecidedly
idealizedRussianmuzhik.
ToTolstoysconsiderablechagrin,thefamilyregularlywentincon-
voyfromYasnayaPolyanatoMoscow,forthechildrentogotoschool
there, and for Sonya to taste the pleasures of social life and musical
occasions.Itwasthesortofthingthatproducedafrenzyofirritation
inTolstoy,butSonyawasinherelement.Relationsbetweenthemwere
oftenstrained.ThesortofpeoplewhocametoSonyasreceptionswere,
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forthemostpart,unsympathetictoTolstoy,wholongedforhisrides
andwalksandmeditationsinthewoodsatYasnayaPolyana.TheMos-
cowhouseitselfwasanold,woodonewhichhadescapedthegreatre
sovividlydescribedinWarandPeace.Inhistime,foratownresidence,
itwasrelativelyisolated,whichpleasedTolstoy.
IndwellingonthedarkersideoftheTolstoysmarriage,itisoften
forgotten how idyllically happy it was in its rst years. Despite the
strife and misunderstandings and bitterness, the bond between them
survivedtotheend,andbeyond.SonyalivedontowitnesstheOctober
Revolution.Whenin1919,herdaughterTanyaaskedherifsheoften
thoughtofTolstoy,sheansweredthatsheneverthoughtaboutanything
else.Ihaveneverstoppedlivingbyhisside,shesaid,andItorment
myselfbecauseIwasnotgood.However,Iwasalwaysfaithfultohim,
bodyandsoul.
SonyawasonlyeighteenwhenshemarriedTolstoyin1862;hewas
thirty-four.TheweddingtookplaceintheChurchoftheNativityin
theKremlin,whereSonyasfatherwasresidentdoctortotheadminis-
trativestaff.ForTolstoy,itwastheendofthewomanizingwhichhad
hithertoplayedsolargeandtroublingapartinhislife.Thoughsorely
temptedattimes,heremainedtruetohismarriagevows.
Characteristically, he felt bound to show Sonya his private diary,
whichrecordedhisvariousloveaffairs,includingonehomosexualexpe-
rience.Onayoungandinnocentgirlthiswasboundtohaveadevastat-
ingeffect,whichTolstoyshouldhaveforeseen.Orwasthereperhaps
some unconscious perversity in thus exposing himself? In any case,
diariesofonesortoranotherweretohaunttheirlives.
It was during their rst happy years together, when their children
were being born and growing up, thatTolstoys powers as a novelist
wereattheirheight.Sonyaparticipatedinhiswork,notjustcopying
andrecopyinghisnumerousdrafts,butmakingusefulsuggestionsand
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correctionsonherown.Sherejoicedinhisgrowingfameandsuccess,
and,humanly,inthegreaterafuenceitprovidedforthefamily.
Serious troubles between them only began afterTolstoys spiritual
crisis. His Franciscan passion to live like the very poor and abstain
fromalleshlyindulgencewentillwiththeupper-classstyleofliv-
ingSonyahadcometoexpectasherdue;asitdidwithnormalmarital
relations.Anoccasionalreluctantsurrender,followedbyanguishedre-
morse,wasunlikelytoappealtoanywife,leastofalloneasdemanding
andfullofself-esteemasSonya.
Thingsweremadeworsebysomeofthedisciplesandacolyteswho
ockedtoTolstoyinhisnewroleasmoralistandevangelist.Notably,
VladimirChertkov,whoachievedanascendancyoverTolstoyandtook
overthepublicationofhisworksadomainwhichSonyaconsidered
peculiarlyherown.
Chertkov seems to have been a pedantic, tiresome, boring sort of
person,andSonyahatedhim.Harkingbacktothatrstfatalshowing
ofherhusbandsdiarybeforetheirmarriage,sheevenaccusedTolstoy
of having abnormal relations with Chertkov.The fact that she could
makesopreposterousasuggestionindicatesthemixtureofenvyand
jealousywhichwastopoisontherestoftheirlifetogether.
Tolstoy,itmustbeadmitted,neversucceededinwhollyclarifying,to
himselfortoothers,wherehestoodinthismatterofsexualindulgence,
and it is very easy to pull to pieces the various, extreme positions he
tookasthattheidealthateveryoneshouldpursueistotalabstinence,
orthatanyindulgenceotherthanforprocreativepurposesamountsto
whoring.Yetwewhoarewitnessingtheappallingconsequencesofac-
ceptingpromiscuityasnormalhumanbehaviormaywellpausebefore
dismissingTolstoyasasouredidealistandacrank.Whathehadtosay
on the subject, especially in a masterpiece like Resurrection, I con-
dentlypredict,willberespectfullyregardedlongafterLadyChatterleys
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Loverhasbeendismissedforitsfathomlessimbecility.
InhisgreatnovelsWarandPeaceandAnnaKarenina,Tolstoyalways
drewfromlife,andthusitispossibletoidentifythecharacters,aswell
asthebuildingsandplaces,whereasceneisset.Forinstance,thebuild-
ingwhichnowhousestheheadquartersoftheSovietWritersUnion(a
strongholdofliteraryorthodoxy),wasthemodelfortheRostovsMos-
cowhouseinWarandPeace,justasIlyaAndreyevichRostovhimself
wasbasedonTolstoyspaternalgrandfather,IlyaAndreyevichTolstoy.
Tolstoydidnotbelieveininventioninart.Theauthor,heconsid-
ered,shouldnotegotisticallyimposehimselfonhismaterial.Likewise,
inhisuseofhistory,hediscountstheNietzscheannotionofgreatmen
dominatingandshapingevents.History,asheseesit,isakindofcos-
micsoap-opera,anemanationofthecollectiveconsciousnesswhichis
playedbacktoedify,instructandentertain.
In War and Peace, it is the Russian general Kutusov who, asTol-
stoyportrayshim,allowshimselftobetheinstrument,ratherthanthe
shaper,ofhistoricalforces,whereashisopponent,Napoleon,exempli-
estheegostriving(vainly,asitturnsout)toassertitselfindomination
overmenandevents.Insuchaconict,Tolstoyindicates,Kutusovwas
boundtowinlifebeingstrongerthananyego,howeverpuffedup.
Inotherwords,evenbeforehisspiritualcrisis,Tolstoyinhiswritings
waspursuinganessentiallymoralpurpose.Later,inhisbookWhatis
Art?,heworkedoutinhisownwayward,inimitableway,thetheoryof
whatwasalreadyhispracticethatartshouldbeaparableexpounding
lifesgoodnessandtruthandbeautyintermscomprehensibletoevery-
one,notjusttoaspecializedelite.Afterhisspiritualcrisis,hisparables
becameexplicit(asinbeautifulshortstorieslikeMasterandManand
What Men Live By, and in his play, The Power of Darkness) whereas
beforetheyhadbeenimplicit.
ThusinWarandPeaceheexploredpower,theappetiteofthewill,
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andinAnnaKareninacarnality,theappetiteoftheesh;twopassions
whosedestructiveconsequenceshehadexperiencedhimself,especially
thelatter.AsAnnaKareninaandWarandPeaceconveyedhisownin-
volvementinthesepassions,hewasnotbeinghypocriticalwhenhein-
sistedthathelookedbackonthebookswithdistaste,andevenwished
hehadnotwrittenthem.Atthesametime,hewasperfectlywellaware
thatmerelytohavecontentedhimselfwithwritingamoraltreatiseon
the devastations of power on the collectivity, and of carnality on the
individual,wouldnothaveservedhispurpose.
If, he once remarked in a letter to a friend, he were to be told he
could write a novel in which all his views on what is socially right
andjustweretobeirrefutablyupheld,hewouldnotfeelinclinedto
dedicatetwohourstothetask.If,ontheotherhand,heweretoldthat
whathewrotewouldbereadtwentyyearslaterbythosewhowerenow
children,andthattheywouldweepandlaughoverit,andfallinlove
withthelifeinit,thenhewoulddedicateallhisexistenceandpowers
toproducingsuchawork.
Heneednothaveworried.Thetwentyyearshavelongsincepassed,
andstillweweepandlaughoverhiswritings,andareentrancedbythe
lifeinthemthatshinesanddanceslikesunlight.So,wemaybesure,
itwillcontinue.
In middle ageTolstoy experienced a spiritual crisis which was far
and away the most important thing that ever happened to him, and
whichalteredfundamentallythecourseofhislifeduringhisremaining
thirty-odd years. As a writer he had achieved a position of eminence
whichwouldhaveenabledhim,hadhecaredto,toturnintooneof
thosemenofletterswhobecomepublicgures,appearingcoveredwith
decorations at banquets to deliver respectfully applauded, pontical
addresses.
Insteadhefoundhimselfdesperatelytryingtodiscoverwhat,ifany-
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thing,hislifewasabout.Inthewritingsofphilosophersandmoralists
he could nd no satisfaction. Egotistic and sensual pleasures merely
repelledhim.Thetwosolaceshehadlookedto,ahappyfamilylifeand
artisticcreation,nolongersufced.Asfortheprogressofmankindand
hisachievingfulllmentthroughpromotingittheverynotionstruck
himasderisory.Theonlythingheknewforcertainwasthathemust
soondie.Why,then,wait?
In his Confessiona book that may be put beside Saint Augus-
tineshedescribedhispredicamentthus:
Iwashappy,yetIhidawayacordtoavoidbeingtemptedtohangmyself
byittooneofthepegsbetweenthecupboardsofmystudywhereIun-
dressedaloneeveryevening,andceasedcarryingagunbecauseitoffered
tooeasyawayofgettingridoflife.IknewnotwhatIwanted,Iwasafraid
oflife;Ishrankfromit,andyettherewassomethingIhopedforfromit.
Inthispredicament,Tolstoyobservedthatonlyinhisowntinycircle
oftheeducated,richandmostlyidle,didpeopletakesodespairinga
viewoflife.Theothers,themuzhiks,wentabouttheirwork,gotupin
themorningandlaydownatnightwithasensethatlifewasessentially
good, however arduous and full of hardships it might be for them.
Likewise,whenthetimecameforthemtodie,theywerereadytoclose
theireyesanddepartwithoutfearorrecrimination.They,whohadso
little and knew so little, were at peace with themselves and with the
world;itwastheothers,whohadsomuchandthoughttheyknewso
much,whodespaired.
Wherein,then,heaskedhimself,didthedifferencelie?Clearly,in
thatthemuzhikshadfaith,whichwassomethingquitedifferentfrom
metaphysical conclusions, ethical propositions or epicurean pursuits.
SoTolstoysoughttohavefaithhimself.Therestofhislifewasdedi-
catedtoaquestforit,whichmeant,ashediscovered,aquestforGod.
EverytimehecamewithinsightofGod,hewrote,againlifeashed
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throughmyveins.Allaboutmeseemedtorevive,tohaveanewmean-
ing. When, for one reason or another, he found himself separated
fromGod,allseemedtodiearoundhimandwithinhimandagainhe
wishedtokillhimself.
In his quest for faith,Tolstoy resumed the practice of the Russian
OrthodoxChurch,inwhichhehadbeenbroughtup;heattendedser-
vices in the church where the people from Yasnaya Polyana came to
worshipandwherenumerousmembersofhisfamilyareburied.Ob-
servingfastsandotherdisciplines,makingconfessionstoandreceiving
theministrationsofasimplepriest,hewasoverjoyedtofeelhimselfat
onewiththeworshipers,whoeverandwhatevertheymightbe.
Thendoubtsbegantoassailhim.TheattitudesoftheChurch,par-
ticularly towards war, its sycophantic relations with the government
andacquiescenceinalloftheTsarspolicies,seemedtohimindirect
conictwithChriststeaching.Inconsequence,itsprayers,itsceremo-
nies,themythsandsuperstitionsitfostered,cametoseemincreasingly
hollowandunconvincing.Invoicinghisdoubtshecameintoconict
withtheecclesiasticalauthorities,andintheendanedictoftheHoly
Synodexcommunicatedhim.Thebreakwasnal.
Thenceforth,TolstoysquestforGodwasalonelyandsolitaryone,
and, in the sense of providing him with a sure faith, unrealized. He
struggled on doggedly and bravely, but he never found the enduring
serenityandharmoniousrelationshipwithhisfamilyhesolongedfor.
Cobblingshoesanddressinglikeapeasantdidnotmakehimone,no
morethantransferringhispropertytohischildrenmadehimapauper,
or than the ardent practice of asceticism quenched his inexhaustible
vitalityandzestforliving.
Yethissenseofthefalsedirectiontheworldwastaking,andthefalse
godsitwasenthroning,hasbeenamplyjustiedbyevents.Hesawwith
inspiredclaritythatwithoutasenseofmoralordertherecouldbeno
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orderofanykind,andperformedtheinestimableserviceofwarning
futuregenerationsagainstinvolvementinthecorruptionofpowerand
thesmokecloudsofobscurantism,therebyenablingChristianfaithto
survive when those particular organs of power had been overthrown
andthoseparticularcloudsdispersed.
ThegreatRussianwriterMaximGorkyoncesaidthatTolstoywas
likeagreatsteeplewhosebellisheardthroughouttheworld.Many
of those who responded to the bell, as Gorky went on to point out,
wereratherdeplorableguresscroungers,crackpotsandeccentricsof
allsortsanddescriptionsknowninYasnayaPolyanaastheDarkOnes.
EvenTolstoy was heard to speak disparagingly of theTolstoyans.Yet
hereceivedthem,oneandall,believingthatastheywerehisfollowers,
heowedthemaduty,andalwayshopingthatunderneaththestrange
behaviorandoutlandishclothingofoneofthemhewouldndaJohn
theBaptistorFrancisofAssisi.
Hismaillikewisecamefromallovertheworld.Lettersaskingforad-
vice,arguing,advertisingtheirwriter,scoldingTolstoyorpleadingwith
himtosupportthisorthatproject.These,too,wereallpunctiliously
dealtwith.Thentherewerevisitingcelebrities,someofthemAmeri-
can,whomaywellattheendofthedayhaveprovedmoretediousand
demandingthaneventheDarkOnes.
Itwasanendlessprocession,allequallybentonsatisfyingtheircuri-
osityandpayinghomagetothisextraordinarymanthisaristocratwho
dressedlikeamuzhik;thisfamouswriterwhocobbledshoes;thisardent
huntsmanwhocouldnotendurethethoughtofsheddingblood;this
scholarwhodespisedlearning,envyingpeasantstheirsimplefaith,and
callinguponaworldrushingheadlonginthedirectionoftechnology,
afuenceandtheegotisticalpursuitofhappiness,toreturntoChrists
gospeloflove,recognizingthatonlythespiritgiveslifetomanEvil
doesnotexistforthespirit,foritisbutacounterfeitoflifeHewho
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possessesthelifeofthespirithaseternallife.
Therewerefewwhoheededhiswords,buteveryonelistened,because
theyknewintheirheartsthatwhathesaidwastrue.Hewas,intheold
Russiansense,aStarets,aHolyMan,havingsomespecialrelationship
withlife thetrees,thewind,thetoilandpassionsofmenwherebyhe
understooditstruenature.
SincefamilylifeatYasnayaPolyanashouldhavebeen,inaccordance
withTolstoysideas,harmoniousandhappy,itwasasourceofgriefto
himthatinpracticeitwasoftenfullofstrifeandmisery.Inhislater
yearstherewasarunningquarrelbetweenhimandhiswife,sometimes
aringupintotheatricalscenesandrows,sometimesjustsmoldering,
butonlyrarelyquiescent.
The whole Tolstoy familyfather, mother, children, aunts, un-
cles wereinveteratekeepersofdiaries.Evenvisitorswereinfectedwith
thehabit.Onehasthesensethat,afterlights-outatYasnayaPolyana,
everyonescamperedofftowriteintheirdiaries,ortotakeasurrepti-
tious look at someone elses.Tolstoy himself, besides his own private
journal to which his wife had accessindeed, he sometimes used it
toconveymessagestoherkeptanother,most-secretone,whichitself
becameasourceofmorequarrels.Thiswassurelythebestdocumented
domesticsceneinallhistory!
Tolstoysscathingattacksontheinstitutionofpropertymadeithu-
miliatingforhimtobealandowner,andhisconstantexhortationsin
favor of sexual abstinence embarrassed his wife, especially when she
foundherselfpregnantforthethirteenthtime.
InneithercasewasthereanyelementofhypocrisyonTolstoyspart.
Hegenuinelylongedtogetridofhisproperty,ashedidtobedelivered
fromhissexualappetites,butintheoneinstancehisfamilyresponsi-
bilitiesstoodintheway;andintheotherstoodhissensuality,which
continuedtoassailhimevenasanoldman.LikeKingLearhedidin
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fact divide up his property among his children (which, incidentally,
mayexplainwhyhesoinordinatelydislikedShakespearesplay,seeing
himself,perhaps,inthedistractedoldking),butthisstillleftthevexing
questionofhisimmenselyprotablewritings.Intheend,acompro-
miseofsortswasworkedout,wherebyhiswifehadthecopyrightof
hisearlyworks,andhislaterreligiouswritingswereavailabletoanyone
whocaredtopublishthem.TheroyaltiesofResurrection,whichhadan
enormoussaleallovertheworld,heturnedovertoareligioussect,the
Dukhobors,tohelpthemsettleinCanadainordertoavoidmilitary
conscription,whichtheyconsideredsinful.
Tolstoysanguishovertheseunhappycircumstancesdidnotleadhim
for a single moment to doubt the conclusions he had reached about
thevalidityofChriststeaching.Heknewquitewell,andnevertired
ofsaying(notably,inhisbookTheKingdomof GodIswithinYou)that
theperfectionenvisagedintheGospelsisunattainableinearthlyterms,
whetherthroughgoodworksorrevolutionarychanges.Itisinaspiring
afterthisperfection,asindividualpilgrimspassingthroughtheworld,
thatourintrinsicallyimperfectnaturescanberedeemed,heinsisted,
andtheworldbemadeahappier,morejustandmorebrotherlyplace
tolive.
Tolstoy was such a pilgrim, one of the greatest, and likeBunyans
Pilgrimfoundhimselfdistressedandfearfulrightattheendofhisjour-
ney.
Theincompatibilitybetweenhimselfandhiswife,therowstheyhad
aboutmoney,thepublicationofhisbooks,andhowtheyshouldlive,
madehimfeelmorethaneverthattheirlifetogetherhadbecomeim-
possible.Forhimtheonlynecessitiesweresimpleclothes,abarebed-
room,andfrugalfood,whileshepinedforasociallife.So,attheage
ofeighty-two,onOctober28,1910,hedecidedthathislongstruggle
to reconcile their life together with how he thought they should live
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couldnolongerbecontinuedatYasnayaPolyana.Inafarewellnoteto
hiswifehewrote:Iamdoingwhatpeopleofmyageoftendogiving
uptheworldinordertospendmylastdaysaloneandinsilence.
Then he made off, accompanied only by his Yugoslav friend and
doctor,Makovitskynot,ashehadhoped,tosilenceandsolitude,but
to a glare of publicity. Their strange, nightmarish journey ended at
Astapova,wheretheygotoffthetrainbecauseofTolstoyshightemper-
atureandgenerallysickcondition.Previously,theyhadvisitedTolstoys
sisterMaria,anun,atherconvent,andTolstoyhadevenconsidered
stayingatanearbymonasteryonthecharacteristicconditionthathe
shouldnotberequiredtoattendanyreligiousservices.AtAstapovahe
wasputtobedinthestationmastershouse,thusachievingatlasthis
dreamoflivinglikeapoormanthougheventhenthestationmaster
insistedthatTolstoyhavethebestroom.
AsthenewsofTolstoyswhereaboutsbecameknown,Astapovawas,
for a minute, the focus of the worlds curiosity. Journalists arrived in
hordes.Thetelephoneinthestationmastersofceneverstoppedring-
ing. A special contingent of police were drafted on. Photographers
clickedtheircamerasincessantly.Chertkovarrived,andaspecialtrain
brought a large party ofTolstoyans, led by the Countess. As they all
milled around, peering everywhere, questioning everyone, the trains
cameandwent.
Onlythecenterofalltheinterest,theshrunkenoldmanlyinginthe
stationmastershouse,seemedindifferenttoitall.Forhim,atlast,es-
capefromtheperplexitiesoflifewasnear.Hewasdying,andimagined
himselfbackinthelittlevaultedroomatYasnayaPolyana.Onlythis
time,norustlinggurecamepeeringin.Hiswifewaskeptawayfrom
himuntiltheverylastmoment.Thelastclearwordshewasheardto
utterwere:Toseek,alwaystoseek.OnethinksagainofKingLear:
Vexnothisghost,Olethimpass
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Hehateshimwhowouldupontherack
Ofthistoughworld
Stretchhimoutlonger.
ThebestdescriptionofTolstoythatIeverreadwasbyMaximGorky:
Ioncesawhimas,perhaps,noonehaseverseenhim.Iwaswalkingoverto
himatGaspraalongthecoast,andbehindYessupovsestate,ontheshore
among the stones, I saw his smallish angular gure in a gray, crumpled,
raggedsuitandcrumpledhat.Hewassittingwithhisheadonhishands,
thewindblowingthesilveryhairsofhisbeardthroughhisngers;hewas
lookingintothedistanceouttosea,andthelittlegreenishwavesrolledup
obedientlytohisfeetandfondledthemasthoughtheyweretellingsome-
thingaboutthemselvestotheoldmagician.Itwasadayofsunandcloud,
andtheshadowsofthecloudsglidedoverthestones,andwiththestones
theoldmangrewnowbrightandnowdark.Theboulderswerelarge,riven
by cracks, and covered with smelly seaweed; there had been a high tide.
He,too,seemedtomelikeanoldstonecometolife,whoknowsallthe
beginningsandtheendsofthings,whoconsiderswhenandwhatwillbe
theendofthestones,ofthegrassesoftheearth,ofthewatersofthesea,
andofthewholeuniversefromthepebblestothesun.Andtheseaispart
ofhissoul,andeverythingaroundhimcomesfromhim,outofhim.In
themusingmotionlessnessoftheoldmanIfeltsomethingfateful,magical,
somethingwhichwentdownintothedarknessbeneathhimandstretched
uplikeasearch-light,intotheblueemptinessabovetheearthInmysoul
therewasjoyandfear,andtheneverythingblendedinonehappythought:
Iamnotanorphanontheearthaslongasthismanlivesonit.
Tolstoyssupremegeniushasproducedasurprisingconsequencemore
thanhalfacenturyafterhisdeath,symbolizedbybridalcoupleswho
comecontinuouslyfromthenearbycityofTulatolayowersonhis
grave atYasnaya Polyana as part of their marriage ceremony, thereby
settingaspiritualsealonalegalcompact.
ThroughoutitsexistencetheSovietstatehassoughttoabolishthe
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Christianreligion,usingforthepurposeitstotalcontrolofwhatever
inuencesthemindsandlivesofitscitizens.Yetasitturnsout,allits
efforts have been frustrated by the irresistible presentation of Christ
andhisteachingsinTolstoyswritings,whichcontinuetobeavidlyread
byhiscountrymen.
Tolstoysparablesare,tome,themostartisticallybeautifulandpow-
erfulintheirimpactsincetheoriginalonesintheNewTestament.So,
by some great miracle, the promise in the rst chapter of the fourth
Gospelremainsvalid,eveninthemodernworldsrstovertlyatheistic
state.ThankstoTolstoy,theWordgoesonbecomingesheventhere,
fullofgraceandtruth.
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dietrichbonhoeffer
19061945
O
urbookendswhereitbegan,withanearthlycityinames
andasocialordercollapsing.
InsteadofRome,Berlin;insteadoftheRomanEmpire,
HitlersThirdReich;insteadofaprofessorofrhetoricwhobecamea
bishop,wehaveaLutheranpastorimprisonedonchargesofhelping
toplotamurder;abourgeoisGermanwhofoundfulllmentamong
thelowestofthelow;aneruditetheologianwhoexperiencedthestu-
pendoussimplicationofdyingonascaffoldlikehisMaster.
Theformalitiesofadmissionwerecorrectlycompleted.Fortherstnight
Iwaslockedupinaholdingcell.Theblanketsonthecampbedhadsuch
afoulsmellthatinspiteofthecolditwasimpossibletousethem.Next
morningapieceofbreadwasthrownintomycell;Ihadtopickitupfrom
theoor.Thesoundoftheprisonstaff svileabuseofthemenwhowere
heldforinvestigationpenetratedintomycellforthersttime;sincethen,
Ihavehearditeverydayfrommorningtonight.
TherstnightIcouldsleepverylittlebecauseaprisonerinthenextcell
weptloudlyforseveralhours.Nobodytookanynotice.
InthoserstdaysofcompleteisolationIdidnotseeanythingofthe
actuallifeoftheprison;Ionlyformedapictureofwhatwasgoingonfrom
thealmostuninterruptedshoutingofthewarders.
Aftertwelvedaystheauthoritiesgottoknowofmyfamilyconnections.
104 dietrichbonhoeffer
Whilethiswas,ofcourse,agreatreliefformepersonally,fromanobjec-
tivepointofviewitwasmostembarrassingtoseehoweverythingchanged
fromthatmoment.Iwasputintoamorespaciouscellwhichwascleaned
formedailybyoneofthemen.WhenthefoodcameroundIwasoffered
largerrations.Ialwaysrefused,sincetheywouldhavebeenattheexpense
ofotherprisoners.
ThusDietrichBonhoefferdescribedhisarrivalinTegelPrison,inBer-
lin,wherehewastospendthemonthsfromApril5,1943,toOctober
8,1944.ItwasduringthisperiodthathewrotetheLettersandPapers
from Prison, which I, in common with many others, have found so
helpfulinconfrontingthespiritualdilemmasofourtime.Bonhoeffer
hadbeenarrestedandimprisonedforhisparticipationinaplottoas-
sassinateAdolfHitleraninvolvement deliberately chosen, and arguably
misguided.Inprison,inthecourseofhisvoluminouscorrespondence,
hesortedouthistheologicalviews,viewswhichhisclosestassociates
considertohavebeensubsequentlymisinterpreted.
However,itwasneitherasaconspiratornorasatheologianthathis
memorywashonoredonJuly27,1945byacongregationgatheredin
HolyTrinityChurch,inwar-scarredLondon,butratherasaChristian
martyrwhosesteadfastfaithwasabrightlightinadarktime.
Letuspray.WearegatheredhereinthepresenceofGod,tomake
thankfulremembranceofthelifeandworkofhisservantDietrichBon-
hoeffer
Itwasthesewords,broadcastbytheBBCinamemorialservicefor
Bonhoeffer, that brought to his family in Berlin the rst news of his
deathatthehandsoftheNazis.Amongthecongregationattheme-
morial service were members of the Lutheran church in Sydenham,
London,whereforatimeBonhoefferhadservedaspastor.
Bonhoeffers pastorate in London enabled him to make personal
contactswhichservedhimwellinhisworkfortheresistancemovement
inGermany.WhenhewasrecruitedintotheAbwehr,orGermanintel-
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105 dietrichbonhoeffer
ligenceservice,hehadoccasiontotraveltoSwitzerlandandStockholm,
andtomeetChristianleadersfromenemycountries.Amongthemwas
Bishop Bell of Chichester, who delivered the address at Bonhoeffers
memorialservice:
In this church, hallowed by many memories of Christian fellowship in
wartime,wegathernowinmemoryofDietrichBonhoeffer,ourmostdear
brotherandmartyroftheChurch.
HewasborninBreslauonFebruary4,1906,thesonofafamousphysi-
cian,andbelongedtoafamilywhichclaimednotafeweminentdivines,
judges,andartistsinitsranksinpreviousgenerations.
BonhoeffersancestorscamefromSchwbisch-Hall,onceafreecityof
CharlemagnesHolyRomanEmpire,intheStateofWurtemberg.Inthe
middleofthetownthereisachurchfullofmemorialstotheBonhoeffer
family,whichforthreecenturieswasprominentinitsaffairs.Freecities
suchasthisoneweredoggedlytenaciousoftheirindependence,andit
wouldnotbefancifultosuggestthatDietrichBonhoeffersinstinctive
resistancetoNazitotalitarianismderivedpartlyfromhisancestry.
Bonhoeffergrewupinacomfortablemiddle-classfamilyandmoved
in what now seems a protected, privileged environment, with all the
qualities,prejudicesandvaluessuchanupbringingbestows.
WhenHitlerbecamechancellorin1933,Bonhoefferunderstoodat
oncethethreatthisposedtoallthedecenciesoflife.Hesawthatthe
intensifyingpersecutionoftheJewsundertheNaziregimewasnotjust
abhorrentinhumanterms,butadeliberateattackonChristHimself.
In1933BonhoeffervisitedBethel,afamoussettlementfortheaf-
icted,neartheWestphaliantownofBielefeld.Hismindwasgreatly
troubled by what he considered to be the indecision and confused
thinkingofmanyofhisfellowpastorsabouttheNaziregime.Indeed,
hehadcometoBethelwithaviewtopreparingadenitiveconfession
offaith,whichwasinduecoursedrafted,thoughnottohissatisfaction.
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dietrichbonhoeffer 106
Friedrich von Bodelschwingh, the youngest son of Bethels founder,
wasinchargeandshowedBonhoefferaround.VonBodelschwinghwas
himself closely associated with the Confessional Churchthe break-
away Lutherans who refused to fall in with the requirements of the
Naziregime.
TheexperiencecomfortedandreassuredBonhoeffer.Itbroughthim
intorst-handcontactwiththecentralfactofsufferingintheworld,
andthequestionofhowaChristianshouldrespondtoitsomething
of more fundamental importance to his life even than the abomina-
tionsofNationalSocialism,ortheequivocationsandtimiditiesofthe
LutheranChurchinthefaceofthem.
Here were these broken, stumbling bodies, these wandering, va-
cant minds. Yet under loving care and guidance, they were capable
of making a life together and worshiping together, perhaps with
an enhanced sense of Gods loving kindness, and of the joy of par-
ticipating in His Creation. Bonhoeffer recalled that the Buddha is
saidtohavebeenconvertedbycontactwithasickperson.Maybein
theirtotaldefenselessness,theafictedofBethelhadaclearersenseof
the essential defenselessnessof ourhumancondition thanmany who
were whole and healthyjust as those who looked after them were
broughtnearertoGodthroughtheexperience.
WhilehewasinBethel,Bonhoeffersmindnaturallyturnedtowards
theinfamousNazieuthanasialaws,whichlegalizedtheeliminationof
whatwereconsideredtobeuselesslives.Afterall,theprojectedvictims
were all around him; he could watch them at work, and hear their
songs.Itwasquitecleartohimthatamindsetwherebythesickand
inrmcouldbedisposedofwasfarmorebarbarousasicknessthanany
theyhadtodealwithatBethel.
As it happened, Hitlers euthanasia laws never were applied at
BethelthesingleexceptioninthewholeReich.VonBodelschwingh
resolutelyrefusedtoprovidetherequisiteinformation,and,whenchal-
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dietrichbonhoeffer 107
lenged,demonstratedconclusivelythatatBetheltherewerenouseless
lives. The most stricken inmates could still communicate, if not in
words,theninGodslanguageoflove.Thebodyandthemindmight
bemaimed,butthesoulremainedintact.Bonhoefferwasabletoin-
vokethehelpofhisfather,whoasaneminentneurologist,provided
expertsupportforvonBodelschwinghscontention.
How ironic that now, after defeating the Nazis at so heavy a cost,
similar euthanasia laws are being ardently recommended in the vic-
tornationsonhumanitariangrounds.Ifthisshouldtrulycometo
pass,thenthedarknesswillindeedhavefallenonChristendomstwo
thousandyears.
TheNurembergstadium,nowderelictanddeserted,remainingfull
of sinister memories for people of my generation, was Hitlers favor-
itesetformountingcelebrationsofNazipower.Ashispositiongrew
strongertheralliesdevelopedintomereassertionsofacollectivewill,
with no other justication, no other coherent purpose, than its own
glorication.Itwasasortofcrazyrevivalistmeeting,withallthefamil-
iaraccompanimentsofmasshysteriaandshoutinginunisonnotto
thegloryofGod,butofthePrinceofDarkness.
ThiswaswhatBonhoefferhadtoface.Andashesaid,itwasnota
casejustofadeluded,vaingloriousGermany.Asickmanwasincharge
ofasicknationinasickworld.
FromthebeginningitwasperfectlycleartoBonhoefferthattheLu-
theranChurch,assuch,couldhavenolotorpartinrenderingwhatwas
claimedtobeduetosuchaCaesarasthis.Neverforonemomentdid
he,asaLutheranpastor,countenancethenotionofcomingtoterms
withNazipower.
Hisownpositionwastheclassicpacistone.Aslateas1934,atthe
Fan ecumenical conference, he delivered a powerful address in the
courseofwhichhesaid,Whichofuscansayheknowswhatitmight
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dietrichbonhoeffer 108
mean to the world if one nation should meet the aggressor not with
weapons in hand, but defenseless, praying, and for that very reason
protectedbyabulwarkneverfailing?
NowhehadtoaskhimselfwhetherthisGandhi-likepositioncould
be seriously and honorably maintained, not just against an already
crumblingBritishraj,butagainsttheGreatBeastwhichisunleashed
whenmenturninexorablyawayfromGodandsurrenderthemselves
tothedarkestimpulsesoftheirhumanwills.
It always seems to me that it falls to some men to act out inside
themselvesthedramaofthecollectivity.Theyarenotnecessarilythe
mostsubtleorperceptive,orintelligent,buttheyhavethisspecialdes-
tiny.Bonhoeffer,withhissomewhatponderous,theologicallyoriented
mind,withhisfullequipmentoftheinbornvaluesandloyaltiesofhis
classandupbringing,wasbeingedged,inchbyinch,intosuchaposi-
tion:intobecominganauthenticheroofhistime.
In Bethel the doctors and nurses and the Christian helpers would
goontendingtheepilepticsandthesick.ForBonhoeffernowthiswas
notenough.
Before the mounting hysterical ferocity of that terrible voice, and
oftheevenmoreterribleregimentedroarwhichanswered,sounding
outfromtheNuremburgstadiumthroughGermanyandthroughthe
world,hefeltitwasnotenoughjusttopray,justtofulllhisChristian
dutytocarefortheaficted.Withincreasinginsistence,itwasbeing
presseduponhimthathewouldhavetoact.
Naturally, his chief concern was for his church, whose clergy were
dangerouslysplitbetweenthosewhowerepreparedtomaketheirterms
with the Nazi regime, and the others, like Bonhoeffer, who refused
to accept any doctrinal or other concessions to Hitlers Nietzschean
ideology.Forthatreason,Bonhoefferinstitutedclandestineseminaries
atZingstandFinkenwalde,wherepastorscouldbetrainedcapableof
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dietrichbonhoeffer 109
preachingandupholdingthetruegospelofChristwithoutreferenceto
themoralandspiritualdegradationwhichhadbefallentheircountry.
ItwastherststepinhisinvolvementinactiveoppositiontoHitler,
aninvolvementwhichwastomakeofhimrstaconspiratorandthen
amartyr.
AtthistimeBonhoefferbecamefriendlywithEberhardBethge,one
ofhisseminarians,whowaslatertomarryhisnieceRenateSchleicher
and become his most intimate associate, condante, and his deni-
tivebiographer.WithoutBethgewewouldbewithoutmuchessential
informationaboutBonhoeffer,aswellasthebulkoftheLettersfrom
Prison,whichwereaddressedtoBethge.
DespiteBonhoeffersworkwithhisseminarians,familytiesremained
strong. Next door to the Bonhoeffers house in Berlin lived Renates
parents,andwheneveranopportunityofferedtheyallmetasofold.
Anotherlinkwassoontomanifestitselftheirjointparticipationina
growingresistancemovementagainsttheNaziregime.Herethelead-
ing gures were Bonhoeffers brother-in-law Rdiger Schleicher, his
brotherKlaus,andanotherbrother-in-law,HansvonDohnanyi.Like
Bonhoeffer,allwouldbeexecutedbytheNazis.
In1939,justbeforetheoutbreakofwar,Bonhoefferspenttimein
NewYorkCity.Hewasstronglypressedtostaythere,butallhisown
inclinationsweretheotherway.Imustlivethroughthisdifcultpe-
riod of our national history with the Christian people of Germany,
hewrote.Ishallhavenorighttoparticipateinthereconstructionof
ChristianlifeinGermanyafterthewarifIdonotsharethetrialsofthis
timewithmypeople.Sohereturned.Hadhestayed,Americamight
havegainedatheologian,buttheworldwouldhavelostamartyr.
Inconversationswithme,EberhardBethgepointedoutthatthere
werethreetimesinBonhoefferslifewhenhewantedtoextricatehim-
selffromaparticularsituation,onlytodiscoverthattherebyhewould
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110 dietrichbonhoeffer
havelost,notgained,hisfreedom,andthattheonlywaytokeephis
freedomwastostietheimpulsetomakeoff.Therstoccasionwas
in 1933, when he went to a parish in London, but decided that his
presence was needed with his theological students in Germany; the
second was in 1939, when he made the dramatic decision to return
from America to be with his own people in the tragic times he saw
ahead.Thelastwaswhenhecouldhaveescapedfromprisonwiththe
connivanceoftheguards,butrefrainedbecauseitwouldhaveendan-
geredhisbrotheranduncle,whowerealsoinprison.Inshort,hewas
amanwithastrongdesiretoescape,butinordertokeephisfreedom,
hedeliberatelychosetostayput.
We went on to discuss the question of Bethges and Bonhoeffers
participation in the plot to assassinate Hitler. This must have been
a difcult decision for them both to make, I said. Bethge replied
that curiously enough it wasnt. They didnt even discuss the mat-
ter, but just assumedasamatterofcoursethatasfollowersofChrist,
they could not possibly allow themselves to become accomplices in
the slaughter of Jews and all the other horrible things that were go-
ingoninGermany.AsBethgeputit,theyhadtomakeastand,and
theycouldnotsay,You,HansDohnanyi,andyou,Oster,yougener-
alsdo the really dirty work, and [we, as Christians], will do some-
thing just a little bit dirty. No, there had to be total commitment,
total solidarity and true loyalty to their comrades who were not in a
position to plead that, being ministers, they really did not engage in
suchpractices.Thus,eveninprison,Bonhoefferhadtocontinuewith
thedoublelifewhichhadbegunwhilehewasostensiblyworkingfor
theAbwehrandactuallyfurtheringtheconspiracy.Inordertosafeguard
friends outside prison who were keeping the conspiracy going, Bon-
hoefferhadtopurporttobeagoodNaziandtruepatriot,thoughit
meantbetrayinghisownearliersayingstothecontrary.
BonhoeffersinvolvementintheassassinationplotagainstHitlerde-
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111 dietrichbonhoeffer
velopedwhilehewasstayingataBenedictinemonasteryatEttal,whose
monks and way of life were very dear to him.The next step was for
himtobetakenintotheAbwehr,ostensiblytobeacourierwhosejob
would beto ndout abouttheecumenicalmovement.This enabled
himtomeetBishopBellwho,inhismemorialservicedescribedwhat
happenedwhenheandBonhoeffermetinStockholm:
ItwasinMay1942thatIhadmylastsightofhiminStockholm,when,
altogetherunexpectedly,hecamefromBerlinattheriskofhislifetogive
memuchinformationoftheutmostimportanceaboutthemovementof
theoppositioninGermanytoeliminateHitlerandallhischiefcolleagues,
andtosetupanewgovernmentwhichshouldrepealtheNurembergLaws,
undoHitlersdeedssofarastheycouldbeundone,andseekpeacewith
theAllies.OfthosesolemnlasttalksIhadwithDietrichIwillsaynothing
furtherbutthis:deeplycommittedashewastotheplanforelimination,
hewasnotaltogetherateaseasaChristianaboutsuchasolution.There
mustbepunishmentbyGod,hesaid.Wedonotwanttoescaperepen-
tance.Theeliminationitself,heurged,mustbeunderstoodasanactof
repentance.Oh,wehavetobepunished,Christiansdonotwishtoescape
repentanceorchaos,ifGodwillstobringitonus.Wemustendurethis
judgement as Christians. Very moving was our talk; very moving our
farewell. And the last letter I had from him, just before he returned to
Berlin,knowingwhatmightwellawaithimthere,Ishalltreasureforthe
wholeofmylife.
Notmanymonthsafterhisreturnhewasarrested.
ItisanawesomethoughtthattheeighteenmonthsorsothatBonhoeffer
spentasaprisonerinTegelPrisonwasspirituallytherichest,andintel-
lectuallyandartisticallythemostfertile,periodofhislife.Allhiscir-
cumstancespriortohisimprisonmentwereconducivetohimbecoming
ausefulandenlightenedcitizen.Indeed,hehadalreadybecomeapillar
oftheConfessionalChurchateacher,preacherandscholarofgrowing
renown,insideGermanyandabroad.Allthis(andIdonotmeanit
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dietrichbonhoeffer 112
disparaginglyatall)wastobeexpectedfromsohonorableandhonesta
productofaGod-fearing,cultivated,upper-middle-classhome.
Inhiscell,however,thetheologianbecameamystic,thepastorbe-
cameamartyr,andtheteacherproduced,inhisLettersandPapersfrom
Prison,oneofthegreatcontemporaryclassicsofChristianliterature.It
isverydifcultindeedforatwentieth-centurymindtoaccept,oreven
grasp,thenotionoftheblessednessofafiction.Bonhoefferprovides
uswithaperfectobjectlesson.Hisgreatnessgrewdirectlyoutofhis
afiction,andthroughtheveryhopelessnessofhisearthlystate,hewas
abletogeneratehopeatadarkmomentinhistory,whenitwasmost
sorelyneeded,comfortingandhearteningmany.
WhenBonhoefferheardinprisonthattheplotofJuly1944hadfailed,
herealizedthatHitler,havingmiraculouslysurvivedtheassassination
attempt, would be merciless in liquidating the conspirators. Now he
knewthat,inhumanterms,theircausewaslost.Godhadoverruledtheir
earthlypurpose,andnothingremainedforhimbuttocometoterms,once
andforall,withtheCross.Intheplotsfailurelayhistriumph,asinlosing
hislifehewouldgainit.Thisisbeautifullyconveyedinhislastwritings
inprison.
Ihaveneverregrettedmydecisioninthesummerof1939toreturntoGer-
many, for Im rmly convincedhowever strange it may seemthat my
lifehasfollowedastraightandunbrokencourse,atanyrateinitsoutward
conduct.Ithasbeenanuninterruptedenrichmentofexperience,forwhich
Icanonlybethankful.IfIweretoendmylifehereintheseconditions,
thatwouldhaveameaningthatIthinkIcouldunderstand.
Another thought he wrote down when he was in prison, one that I
like very much, is this: Death is the supreme festivalontheroadto
freedom.
DespitethemanythingshesaysabouthimselfinhisLetters,Bon-
hoefferwasanextremelyreticentpersonandrarelydisclosedhispro-
foundest feelings. But in this letter of August 1944, the last one he
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113 dietrichbonhoeffer
wrotetoBethge,hesaid:
Pleasedontevergetanxiousorworriedaboutme,butdontforgettopray
formeImsureyoudont.IamsosureofGodsguidinghandthatIhope
I shall always be kept in that certainty. You must never doubt that Im
travellingwithgratitudeandcheerfulnessalongtheroadwhereIm being
led.Mypastlifeisbrim-fullofGodsgoodness,andmysinsarecovered
bytheforgivingloveofChristcrucied.Forgivemywritingthis.Dontlet
itgrieveorupsetyouforamoment,butletitmakeyouhappy.ButIdid
wanttosayitforonce,andIcouldnotthinkofanyoneelsewhoIcould
besurewouldtakeitaright.
Laterinthesameletterhegoesontorefertohisyoungandverybeau-
tiful ance, Maria von Wedemeyer. Maria, he wrote, was here
today,sofreshandatthesametimesteadfastandtranquilinawayIve
rarelyseen.
InOctober,1944,whenfurtherdetailsofBonhoeffersconspirato-
rial activities were discovered, he was moved fromTegel to the Ge-
stapoprisoninPrinz-Albrecht-Strasse.ThefollowingFebruaryhewas
transferredtoBuchenwald.Mariawassomehowguidedbyinstinctto
followhimthere,andthenontoFlossenbrg.Thelastlettershegotfrom
himwasforChristmas,1944.
Thesewillbequietdaysinourhomes,butIhavehadtheexperienceover
and over again that the quieterit is around me, the clearer do I feel the
connection to you. It is as though in solitude the soul develops senses
whichwehardlyknowineverydaylife.ThereforeIhavenotfeltlonelyor
abandonedforonemoment.YoumustnotthinkthatIamunhappy.What
ishappinessandunhappiness?Itdependssolittleonthecircumstances.It
dependsreallyonlyonthatwhichhappensinsideaperson.Iamgrateful
everydaythatIhaveyou,andthatmakesmehappy.
So,inbodilyterms,theirloveended.Owingtothewar,andBonhoeffers
arrestsosoonaftertheirengagement,theyneverwerealonetogetheras
lovers.Yet,astheEnglishpoetJohnDonnewrote,lovesmysteriesin
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114 dietrichbonhoeffer
soulsdogrow,andwithoutanydoubttheirscontinuedtogrowdespite
theircruel,andnownal,separation.
ItalkedtoMaria,andshetoldmethatthereweretimesshecouldbe
happyabouttheengagementandtimeswhenitwasveryhardtotake
because
I was getting closer and closer to a man whom I was not really getting
closerto.
I went rst to Flossenbrg. You could take a train to something like
sevenkilometersfromthecampIwalkedtoFlossenbrgwitharuck-
sackfullofclothingforBonhoeffer.IknockedonthedoorandsaidIhad
beentoldbytheGestapoinBerlinthatBonhoefferhadbeentransferred
tothisconcentrationcamp,thatIhadbroughtclothingandwouldthey
pleasedelivertheclothingtohimandreturntheold,soIcouldtakecareof
itandwashit.Iwasmetwithgreatpoliteness.Ofcourse,itdidnthappen
veryoftenattheconcentrationcampthataneighteen-year-oldgirlwalked
upthereforsomeerrand[sotheguards]wentthroughabelievableeffort
inlookinguphisname.
AtthatpointIdidntrealizeitbutthereweredifferentlists.Inoneofce
they looked through one list, and since he wasnt on it, they said, Why
dontyougothere?AndIwent[toanotherofce]andtheylookedthrough
anotherlonglist.AtthatpointIthoughtoflistAorlistB,orIdontknow
what,onlylaterdidIrealize[thatoneofthelistswasofthosewhohadbeen
executed.]ButIwasquiteconvincedwhenIwasthroughIwouldsayI
wasagoodtwohoursinthatconcentrationcampthattheyhadmadean
honestefforttondhimandthathewasntthereAndhewasnt,notyet,
buteventuallythatiswherehewasexecuted.
IaskedMariawhateffect ifitispossibletoexpresssuchathingBon-
hoeffers death had had on her and her life. She described the stages
throughwhichshehadpassed:
At rst, of course, it was very hard to accept the fact that he was dead,
especiallysinceIhadneverreallybeensoclosetohim,andhadhadthese
longperiodsofnotseeinghim.Itseemedlikeanotherbigperiodofnot
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115 dietrichbonhoeffer
seeinghim.Itwasveryhardtocometogripswiththefactthatthiswas
indeednished.Ihavecontinuedtolivemylifelookingatthisasagreat,
great gift, a greataddition, a great enrichment of my life. Yet, on the
otherhand,ithaditshardpartsandithasbeendifcult,eventothisvery
dayitissometimesdifculttoacceptthatitisnolongerthere.Nothing
elsehasreallyquitereplacedit.
AfterthetransfertotheGestapoprisoninPrinz-Albrecht-Strasse,Bon-
hoefferwastakenawayfromBerlinwithapartyofinternationalprison-
ers.Perhapsitwasjustaswellthathenevercameback.What,wemay
askourselves,wouldhehavemadeofthecityasitwasresurrectedafter
thewar,withamacabrewall,dividing,notjusttwoBerlinsandtwo
Germanys,buttwoworlds?
In taking his decision to return to Germany from America in the
summer of 1939, Bonhoeffer had said: Christians in Germany will
facetheterriblealternativesofeitherwillingthedefeatoftheirnation
inorderthatChristiancivilizationmaysurvive,orwillingthevictory
oftheirnation,andtherebydestroyingourcivilization.Intheevent,
nosuchalternativeshavearisen;theirnationandChristiancivilization
havebothbeensubmerged.
Berlin todaywhat a sad outcome of the defeat of Hitler, an end
towardswhichBonhoefferhadchosentoassociatehimselfwithsuch
deviousandviolentpurposes!Inanycase,hewassparedthespectacle.
FromBuchenwaldhewastakenwithapartyofprisonerstoRegens-
burg, and thence to Schnberg, traveling in a preposterous vehicle
fueled with wood, and in the custody of guards who seemed no less
bewildered than the prisoners themselves. At one point, when some
villagegirlsaskedforalift,theguardstoldthemtheyweretransporting
acameracrewengagedinmakingapropagandalm.Theyspoketruer
thantheyknew;inasensethedramaofBohoefferslifeanddeath,now
approachingitsclimax,wastobeforothers.
Bonhoeffer and the other prisoners arrived at Schnberg on Satur-
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dietrichbonhoeffer 116
day,April7,1945,andwerelodgedinthevillageschool.Thenonthe
Sundaymorning,alltheprisoners,includingVassiliKokorin,saidto
be Molotovs nephew, pressed Bonhoeffer to conduct a service. After
somehesitation,heagreed,takingashistext:Withhisstripesweare
healed,andBlessedbetheGodandFatherofourLordJesusChrist!
ByHisgreatmercywehavebeenbornanewtoalivinghopethrough
the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead.Together they sang
LuthersEinefesteBurg.AnEnglishsurvivor,HughFalconer,hassaid
thatitwasanincomparableexperience,whichcarriedthemalltogreat
heightsofspirituality.
Scarcelywastheserviceoverthantwomenappeared,andtherewas
ashout:PrisonerBonhoeffer,getreadyandcomewithus!Heknew
whatitmeantandaskedanEnglishmanwhowaspresent,PayneBest,to
takeamessagefromhimtoBishopBellofChichester,totelltheBishop
thatthiswastheend,butforhimalsothebeginningoflife,andthat
theultimatevictoryoftheircausea universal Christian brotherhood
rising above all national interestwas certain.Then Bonhoeffer was
takenaway.
BishopBellconcludedhisaddressatBonhoeffersmemorialservice
inLondon:
So now Dietrich has gone. Our debt to him, and to all others similarly
murdered,isimmense.Hemadethesacriceofhumanprospects,ofhome,
friendsandcareerbecausehebelievedinGodsvocationforhiscountry,and
refusedtofollowthosefalseleaderswhoweretheservantsofthedevil.
OurLordsaid,Exceptacornofwheatfallintothegroundanddie,it
abidethalone;butifitdieitbringethforthmuchfruit.Hethatlovethhis
lifeshallloseit,andhethathatethhislifeinthisworldshallkeepitunto
lifeeternal.ToourearthlyviewDietrichisdead.Deepandunfathomable
as our sorrow seems, let us comfort one another with these words. For
him and Klaus, and for the countless multitudes of their fellow victims
throughtheseterribleyearsofwar,thereistheresurrectionfromthedead;
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dietrichbonhoeffer 117
forGermanyredemptionandresurrection,ifGodpleasestoleadthena-
tionthroughmenanimatedbyhisspirit,holyandhumbleandbravelike
him; for the Church, not only in that Germany whichheloved,butthe
ChurchUniversal,whichwasgreatertohimthannations,thehopeofanew
life.ThebloodofthemartyrsistheseedoftheChurch.
BonhoefferarrivedattheFlossenbrgprisoncamponaSundayevening
andwasatoncesummarilytriedandcondemnedtodeath.Hisserene
demeanor made a great impression on the prison doctor, who thus
describeswhathappened:
Throughthehalf-opendoorinoneroomofthehutsIsawPastorBonhoeffer,
beforetakingoffhisprisongarb,kneelingontheoorprayingferventlyto
hisGod.Iwasmostdeeplymovedbythewaythislovablemanprayed,so
devoutandsocertainthatGodheardhisprayer.Attheplaceofexecution,he
againsaidashortprayerandthenclimbedthestepstothegallows,braveand
composed.Hisdeathensuedafterafewseconds.InalmostftyyearsthatI
workedasadoctor,Ihavehardlyeverseenamandiesoentirelysubmissive
tothewillofGod.
AsBonhoefferwenttohisdeathinFlossenbrg,veyearsofthemon-
strousbuffooneriesofwarweredrawingtoaclose.HitlersThirdReich,
whichwastolastforathousandyears,wassoontoreachitsignomini-
ousandruinousend.TheliberatorsweremovinginfromtheEastand
theWestwithbombsandtanksandgunsandcigarettesandspam;the
airwasthickwithrhetoricandcant.
Lookingbacknowacrosstheyears,Iaskmyselfwhereinthatmurky
darknessanylightshines.NotamongtheNazis,certainly,noramong
theliberators,who,aswenowknow,weretoliberatenooneandnoth-
ing.Therhetoricandthecanthavemercifullybeenforgotten.What
livesonisthememoryofamanwhodied,notonbehalfoffreedomor
democracyorasteadilyrisingGrossNationalProduct,norforanyof
thetwentiethcenturyscounterfeithopesanddesires,butonbehalfof
A Third Testament
dietrichbonhoeffer 118
aCrossonwhichanothermandiedtwothousandyearsbefore.Ason
thatpreviousoccasiononGolgotha,soamidsttherubbleanddesola-
tionofliberatedEurope,theonlyvictoristhemanwhodied,asthe
onlyhopeforthefutureliesinhistriumphoverdeath.Therenevercan
beanyothervictoryoranyotherhope.
A Third Testament
afterword
S
incetheprogramswhosescriptsformthisbookwerereleased
forscreening,theyhavebeenshownonvariousPBSchannelsin
theUnitedStates,severaltimesontheCBCnetworkinCanada,
andonceontheBBC.Alsoparticularlypleasingtomeonnumerous
campuses.To judge by letters from viewers and reviews, the concept
behind the programshow throughout history Gods spies mysteri-
ouslyturnupasandwhenrequired,andcanbefullyrecognizedonly
inretrospectwouldseemtohaveclearlyemerged.Formepersonally,
too, doing the commentaries has been a great clarication over and
above identifying Gods Spies and specifying their role in particular
circumstancesandataparticulartime.Ithasmademegraspasnever
beforethatGodhasaninnerstrategic(asdistinctfromtactical)pur-
poseforHiscreation,therebyenablingmetoseethroughtheTheater
oftheAbsurd,whichiswhatlifeseemstobe,andintotheTheaterof
FearfulSymmetry,whichiswhatitis.Thusrealitysortsitselfout,like
lmcomingintosync,andeverythingthatexists,fromthetiniestatom
totheillimitableuniverseinwhichourtinyearthrevolves,everything
thathappens,fromthemosttrivialeventtothemostseeminglymo-
mentous,makesonepattern,tellsonestory,iscomprehendedinone
prayer:Thywillbedone.
M.M.
theauthor
B
ornin1903andeducatedatCambridgeUniversity,Malcolm
Muggeridge is often compared to G. K. Chestertonboth
forhisstylisticmasteryoftheEnglishlanguage,andforhis
defenseofChristianityinanincreasinglyanti-Christianculture.Ironi-
cally,hehimselfwasavocalagnosticformostofhislife,andembraced
apersonalfaithonlytowardtheend,somethingheformalizedwithhis
entryintotheCatholicChurchwhenhewaseighty.
A foreign correspondent in Cairo, Moscow, Calcutta, and Wash-
ington, D.C., Muggeridge rose through the ranks to become one of
Englandsmostrespectedjournalists.Hiscareeradditionallyspanned
suchrolesasnewspapereditor,majorintheBritishIntelligenceCorps,
rector of Edinburgh University, andmost famouslyeditor of the
BritishhumormagazinePunch.Bythe1960sand70s,asafrequent
guestonshowssuchasFiringLine,hewascaptivatingradioandtele-
visionaudiencesonbothsidesoftheAtlanticwithhissharp-tongued
commentaryandwittyinsights.
Muggeridgesarticlesaretoonumeroustodescribehere.Hisbooks
includeSomethingBeautifulforGod,theclassicbiographyofMother
Teresa of Calcutta often credited for introducing her to the western
world;ChroniclesofWastedTime,atwo-volumememoirhailedbythe
theauthor 121
WashingtonPostasoneofthemostfascinatingandentertainingmem-
oirsofourage;JesusRediscovered;ChristandtheMedia;andConfessions
ofa20thCenturyPilgrim.Hediedin1990inHastings,England.
A Third Testament