Bio 97

Lecture 1 9/23/11
Phenotype- Physical Traits and physiological traits passed down to different
generations
Hereditary material- DNA

The Griffiths Experiment 1928
Smooth- capsule protecting a bacteria from the host immune system. Can cause
pneumonia
Rough: Incapable of protecting itself
Part 1-Take living smooth cells and injected into mice. They died from pneumonia.
Part 2- Rough cells injected did not kill mouse. Can extract blood and grow rough
cells in a pitri dish.
Part 3 Took heated S-cells that were dead and injected into mouse. Mouse lived.
Part 4- Took living R-cells and injected with killed S-cells and the mouse died from
pneumonia.
Experiment showed that either DNA or protein from S-cells can affect the phenotype
of the R-cells.

Avery Experiment 1944
Took S-cell extract and heated it up and extracted the DNA and a little protein.
Then, they used RNase (destroys RNA), Protease to (destroy Protein). They both
cultured with R-cells and S and R colonies were produced.
Then, they used DNase(destroy DNA) only produced R-cells.
This showed that DNA produced the phenotype of S-cells to the next generation.

Hersey-Chase 1952
1. Escherichia coli- intestinal bacterium
2. T2, a bacteriophage. A virus that kills bacteria.
3. T2 is 50/50 in protein and DNA composition
4. They infect cells, multiply within the cell, then the progeny get squirted out
into the environment
1-They took a bacteriophage containing phosphorous and had them inject their
DNA into cells.
They wanted to separate the phage heads from the radioactive DNA infected
cells and checked them with a Gieger counter. The cells produced more
radioactive progeny.

2- Made the protein radioactive and ran the same experiment

This experiment showed that it is the DNA that is transferred to the offspring
and not protein. This was the most convincing experiment.

This is a typical way that science works with slow increments of discovery.

What we know now
Chromosomes are strands of DNA bound by protein.
Genes are encoded at specific areas on the DNA.
Most genes contain the information to make protein.
DNA- --RNA intermedia- --Transcripted into Protein

Lecture 2 9/26/11
Chromosomes are strands of DNA bound by proteins
Genes are particular locations on chromosomes
DNA-double stranded molecule
Nucleotide- each strand of DNA is a string of nucleotides
Strands are antiparallel ( in opposite direction)
Four bases of DNA- Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
The bases pair with each other using hydrogen bonds
A-T held together with 2 hydrogen bonds/ G-C held together with 3 hydrogen bonds
RNA contains everything that DNA has except substitute Uracial for Thymine

Transcription
1. Makes an RNA copy of a DNA template
2. DNA is unwound
3. RNA is synthesized 5 to 3 along the DNA

Translation-
1. RNA leaves nucleus
2. The coding sequence specifies the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide
chain

RNA is coded from the antisense strand from 5 to 3

-------- LOST NOTES

There are 21 amino acids, but many codons.
The third position is usually redundant, can code for same amino acid


Mutations
Changes in DNA sequence
However, a single amino acid can affect a person immensely/ Not fully developed
metabolism
We have about 1-300 mutations compared to our parents. Each present a risk for
disease.
Every human phenotype is caused by a mutation.

Charles Darwin
1. Mutations are entered into the population with each generation
2. They contribute to different phenotypic variations
3. When environment changes, some phenotypes are better able to survive
4. These animals with beneficial phenotypes survive.

Lecture 3 9/28/11
Mendelian Genetics 1
Crosses
Take two parents, mate them, compare phenotypes of progeny
Experiments are fundamentally simple, but very important.

Major Question: How are traits passed from one generation to the next.

True-breeding varieties
Self-fertilized, the progeny are identical to one another and the parent
Modern tem: inbred line or stock

Mendelian Experiment
Male and female parts grown on same plant
Dissect flower and separate anthers(female) or stigma (male)
He would harvest pollen and pollinate other flowers.
Round mixed with wrinkled peas made Round offspring.

Parental generation- parents
FI first filial generation- progeny
Round is dominant to the wrinkled phenotype
He worked with 7 different traits with two different types and dominance.
He did reciprocal crossing and it still had the same results of phenotype

Mendelian Experiment continued
He inbreed the round peas
F2 ( generation 2) had a 3:1 ratio of round to wrinkled.

Observations:
Some phenotypes are dominant to others
The f1 progeny are not true-breeding. Instead, the phenotype segregates in
F2

Hypothesis
1. Phenotypes are controlled by a single factor
2. Individuals contain two copies of these factors, which segregate form
each other into gametes
3. One of these copies may be dominant to the other
4. Gametes unite at random during fertilization

In modern terms
1. Phenotypes are controlled by genes.
2. Peas are diploid organisms, getting one copy of the gene from the
parent
3. These two copies, or alleles, segregate into gametes. Unite at random
during fertilization.

Definitions
The homozygote has two identical alleles
The heterozygote has two different alleles at a given gene
A recessive gene is only seen if it is homozygous to the recessive
alleles.

Punnet Squares: Help you see the outcome of the different offspring.

Lower case- is to recessive allele
Upper case- is for dominant allele

Genotypes: are Ww, WW, ww for example
Phenotypes: are Round or wrinkled

Look at slide in Lecture 3 for more detailed
He took the f2 generation: were round and he inbreed them to get a f3 generation.
It perfectly follows punnet square of 1/3 gave plants with only WW progeny. 2/3
gave a mixed of both in inbreeding.
of the f2 were wrinkled. He inbred these and all of them produced wrinkled
progeny.

Test cross: Cross of unknown individual to a known individual.
Back cross: progeny are crossed back to one of the parental types

Mendels Law of segregation: The test crosses confirmed Mendels hypothesis that
alleles segregate independently into gametes.

Lecture 4 9/30/11
Mendels law of independent assortment
Test cross the phenotypes to test the genotypes of each of the peas of the 9:3:3:1
ratio.
Therefore it proved that different traits are controlled by alleles at different genes
and that alleles of these different genes assort independently into gametes.

Problem with pedigrees
Human families are small
Random effects can obscure patterns of inheritance
Need to combine lots of results of a lot of families.

Chi squared test
Compares observed data to what we expect from a model of inheritance.
Null hypothesis in which observed data truly come from that model
Important!
Use actual counts of observed in the Chi Squared Test




DF= Degrees of freedom= Number of values that are free to vary in a statistical test.