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t
experimental
240 cells
360 cells
480 cells
600 cells
R2r - H1
0
10
20
30
0.0 0.5 1.0
t
%
experimental
240 cells
360 cells
480 cells
600 cells
Fig. 4. Grid renement test according to the number of cells along grid interface.
54 A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966
static pressure on the fan discharge section. The total pressure rise across the fan Dp
t
is cal-
culated by adding to Dp
s
the dynamic pressure corresponding to the mean velocity in the discharge
section, obtained by dividing the volumetric ow rate by the area of the discharge section. It is
worth noting that the same procedure for the experimental measure of these quantities is followed
by the UNI 10531 [13] standard on test methods and acceptance conditions for industrial fans
(equivalent to ISO 5801 [14]). Finally, the torque on the blade row, which is required to calculate
the total eciency, is evaluated by averaging in time the integral of the torque (pressure and
viscous stresses) acting on the blades with respect to impeller axis.
2.3. Validation of the results
An example of the results obtained with the CFD model of the cross-ow fan described in the
previous section is given in Fig. 5, where the contours of the total pressure eld with velocity
vectors superimposed are plotted for three sample congurations. To validate the capabilities of
the model, the results of the numerical simulations are compared to the experimental data about
fan performance and eciency collected in [1] and to those about the ow eld within the impeller
collected in [9]. In fact, very dierent ow eld patterns within the same geometric conguration
may result in identical values of performance and/or eciency. These comparisons are presented
in Fig. 6 for the characteristic curves W
t
U and g
t
U of all the considered congurations, and
in Fig. 7 for the local ow quantities of sample congurations on two circumferences having
R 20 mm and R 40 mm in a plane perpendicular to impeller axis.
Fig. 5. Contour plots of the total pressure elds for three sample congurations (with velocity vectors superimposed).
A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966 55
R3r - H1
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
0
20
40
60
R2r - H1
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
0
20
40
60
RE - H1
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
0
20
40
60
RE - S3H1
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
t
%
t
t
0
20
40
60
R3r - H2
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
0
20
40
60
R2r - H2
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
0
20
40
60
RE - H2
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
0
20
40
60
RE - VE
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
t
%
t
t
t
%
t
%
t
%
t
%
t
%
t
t
t
%
t
t
0
20
40
60
Fig. 6. Fan performance (circles) and eciency (triangles) according to experimental data (white symbols) and
numerical simulations (black symbols).
56 A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966
The numerical simulations apparently reproduce the real performance and ow elds with a
satisfactory accuracy. The largest dierences between experimental data and numerical results are
due to two main causes:
The CFD model is two-dimensional and is not able to simulate the axial components of the
velocity vectors due to three-dimensional eects. These components become comparable to
those perpendicular to machine axis as ow rate decreases U < 0:4 and the space between
the impeller and the rear wall increases (i.e., larger rear wall radial widths).
The number of cells of the model has been limited due to the high computational eort re-
quired by the sliding mesh technique for the calculation of the unsteady solutions. As a con-
sequence, the interaction between recirculating ow and blade row is reproduced with lower
accuracy as vortex eccentricity and strength increase, that is as ow rate U > 0:8 and the
rear wall radial width increase, due to the highly distorted streamlines and high energy losses
in the vortex core.
3. The analysis of the results
3.1. Denition of a normalized stream function
The quantities of the ow eld on the external circumference of the impeller are not analyzed
here according to the angular coordinate, because of the non-uniform distribution of the radial
RE-VE =0.2
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
t
R=40mm (num)
R=40mm (exp)
R=20mm (num)
R=20mm (exp)
R3r-H2 =0.2
-20
-16
-12
-8
-4
0
4
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
s
R=40mm (num)
R=40mm (exp)
R=20mm (num)
R=20mm (exp)
RE-S3H1 =0.6
0
1
2
3
4
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
v/u2
R=40mm (num)
R=40mm (exp)
R=20mm (num)
R=20mm (exp)
R2r-H1 =1.0
-60
-30
0
30
60
90
120
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
yaw
R=40mm (num)
R=40mm (exp)
R=20mm (num)
R=20mm (exp)
Fig. 9. The local total pressure coecient along the external circumference of the impeller.
58 A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966
The values of some characteristic quantities of the ow eld along the external circum-
ference of the impeller are plotted for a sample conguration and for a single ow coecient
in Figs. 911, to illustrate the theoretical basis of the analysis that is developed in the fol-
lowing sections. In these gures, two ordinates correspond to a single abscissa, since each
streamline crosses twice the external circumference of the impeller (see the example in
Fig. 8 for a generic streamline r). In all the gures, the lower ordinate represents the value
that the plotted quantity assumes when the streamline enters the impeller, while the upper
ordinate represents the value that the plotted quantity assumes when the streamline leaves the
impeller.
R2r - H1
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
normalized stream function
c
u2
/u
2
= 0.4
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
f
l
o
w
r
e
t
u
r
n
i
n
g
t
o
s
u
c
t
i
o
n
r
e
c
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
n
g
f
l
o
w
Fig. 10. The ratio between the tangential velocity and the peripheral speed along the external circumference of the
impeller.
R2r - H1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
normalized stream function
2
= 0.4
2b
Fig. 11. The relative velocity angle along the external circumference of the impeller.
A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966 59
Fig. 9 shows the values of the local total pressure coecient W
t
along the external circum-
ference of the impeller. At impeller inlet the values of the streamlines coming from suction f > 0
are null, even if the perturbing eects of the blade motion appear. On the other hand, the average
of the values of the throughow streamlines 0 < f < 1 at impeller exit is the discharge mean
total pressure of the throughow. Therefore, this value represents the total pressure rise across the
impeller and, apart from the viscous losses in the duct between impeller exit and the discharge
section, across the fan itself. The impeller makes the total pressure of the streamlines returning to
suction f > 1 rise as well, but this transferred energy is completely lost. Finally, the total
pressure of a streamline of the recirculating ow at impeller exit is not varied, apart from the
viscous losses, when it re-enters the impeller. In fact, the two ordinates corresponding to the same
abscissa are practically superimposed for f < 0.
Fig. 10 shows the values of the ratio between the tangential component of the absolute velocity
c
u2
and the peripheral speed u
2
along the external circumference of the impeller. The area
bounded by these values is the integral of the variation of c
u2
between inlet and outlet for all the
streamlines owing through the impeller. This area is, therefore, a measure of the mechanical
energy transferred from the impeller to the ow. Actually, the exact expression of the specic
energy transferred to a single streamline is:
e c
II
u2
u
2
c
II
u1
u
1
c
I
u1
u
1
c
I
u2
u
2
2
but the contributions of the tangential components on the inner circumference of the impeller can
be neglected since they almost annul each other. The energy fractions that are transferred to the
recirculating ow, the throughow and the ow returning to suction can be evaluated by dividing
the area of the diagram along the abscissae f 0 and f 1. The total eciency can then be
estimated by comparing the total pressure rise across the fan to the overall mechanical energy
transferred by the impeller, whereas the hydraulic eciency can be determined by comparing the
total pressure rise across the fan to the fraction of the mechanical energy that is transferred by the
impeller to the only throughow. The volumetric eciency can be evaluated, as usual, as the ratio
between the throughow and the overall ow rate, but an interesting alternative formulation is to
consider the ratio between the energy fraction associated with the throughow and the overall
energy transferred by the impeller. In the latter case the total eciency can be expressed as the
product of the hydraulic and the volumetric eciencies.
Fig. 11 shows the values of the relative angle of the velocity vector b
2
along the external
circumference of the impeller for the only throughow streamlines. The incidence conditions can
be estimated in this diagram by comparing the eective relative angles to the blade external angle
b
2b
. Stall is likely to occur for the streamlines having the relative angles b
2
much lower than b
2b
.
Figs. 1214 show the values of W
t
, c
u2
=u
2
and b
2
, respectively, for all the selected congurations
at all the considered ow coecients and are discussed in the following.
3.2. Total eciency
For a generic conguration, the total eciency at low ow rates is poor due to the signicant
volumetric losses. In fact, the ratio between the throughow and the overall ow rate through the
impeller is low because of both the fractions of the ow recirculating around the vortex core and
returning to suction (Figs. 12 and 13). At intermediate ow rates, the ow coecient being around
60 A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966
Fig. 12. The local total pressure coecient for the selected congurations at all ow coecients.
A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966 61
Fig. 13. The ratio c
u2
=u
2
for the selected congurations at all ow coecients.
62 A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966
Fig. 14. The relative velocity angle b
2
for the selected congurations at all ow coecients.
A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966 63
0.6, these fractions are noticeably reduced while, on the other hand, the variation of the tangential
components of the velocity across the impeller is increased for all the streamlines (Fig. 13). A
substantial equilibrium, therefore, occurs between the reduction of the volumetric losses, which
tends to increase the total eciency, and the hydraulic eciency drop due to the increase of vortex
eccentricity and strength. This equilibrium results in a maximum in the g
t
U curve (Fig. 6).
Finally, when the ow coecient approaches 1.0, the further reduction of the volumetric losses
does not counterbalance the further decrease of the hydraulic eciency due to both the increase in
the variation of the tangential velocity components and the worse incidence conditions that make
stall arise in a large portion of the suction arc (Fig. 14).
The highest total eciencies, which are obtained using thick vortex walls matched with small
radial width rear walls, can be justied considering the reduced extension of the suction arc and
the larger space occupied by the thick vortex wall itself. These geometrical features result in a
drastic improvement of the volumetric eciency (Figs. 12 and 13). In fact, at low ow rates the
total eciencies obtained with the congurations RE-S3H1 and RE-VE are at least twice those
obtained with any other conguration having the thin vortex wall (Fig. 6). Moreover, the
hydraulic eciency is enhanced as well, since the vortex is less eccentric and the distribution of the
relative velocity angle at impeller inlet is more uniform (Fig. 14), preventing stall phenomena at
intermediate ow rates.
Conversely, in the congurations with the thin vortex wall, the wider extension of the suction arc
results in an increased portion of the ow returning to suction and the small vortex wall thickness
causes a stronger recirculation which involves a ow rate that is nearly equal to the throughput one
for U 0:6 (Figs. 12 and 13). The volumetric losses are, therefore, the main reason for the poorer
total eciencies obtained with these congurations. Moreover, incidence losses play a major role in
making the total eciency decrease at the highest ow rates. Although the angles of the relative
velocity increase with the ow coecient in the portion of the suction arc adjacent to the vortex
wall, thus improving incidence conditions, a larger and larger fraction of the throughow ap-
proaches the blade row at higher incidence angles in the portion of the suction arc that is closer to
the rear wall for UP0:8 (Fig. 14). The combinations of the small radial width rear wall with the
thin vortex wall (congurations RE-H1 and RE-H2) are particularly unfavorable because of the
little space that is available to the vortex and the consequent low values of both volumetric and
hydraulic eciencies. A better total eciency is obtained, in fact, with the highest positions of the
vortex wall (Fig. 6). When intermediate and large radial widths of the rear wall are considered, both
larger radial width rear walls and higher positions of the thin vortex wall tend to exert a negative
inuence on the total eciency because they allow the recirculating ow to expand inside the
machine. This expansion results in an increased rate of the recirculating ow and in an increase of
the energy transferred to it by the impeller (Fig. 13). These negative eects are overweighted by the
reduction of the ow rate returning to suction and the associated energy. On the other hand, the
decrease of the relative angles of the velocity at impeller inlet result in worse incidence conditions
for both larger radial width rear walls and higher positions of the vortex wall (Fig. 14).
3.3. The shape of the characteristic curve
The variation of the tangential component of the velocity increases with the ow coecient for
all the congurations, as expected from the simplied one-dimensional theory on cross-ow fan
64 A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966
operation formulated by Eck [3]. However, dierent shapes of the W
t
U characteristic curves are
experimentally and numerically obtained, as already mentioned in Section 2.1 (see also [1]),
depending on the rear wall radial width.
In the congurations having a small radial width rear wall, the vortex is forced to be not very
strong and eccentric at low ow rates. In such a ow eld pattern the tangential components of
the velocity at impeller exit are small (Fig. 13). Therefore, the total pressure coecient cannot be
high, in spite of the high hydraulic eciency due to the low eccentricity and strength of the vortex.
As ow rate increases, the vortex gets stronger and moves towards more eccentric positions. This
results in an increasing variation of the tangential components of the velocity, which produces an
ascending characteristic curve at least until the hydraulic eciency remains high (Figs. 6 and 13).
For intermediate radial widths of the rear wall, the vortex is already strong and eccentric en-
ough at low ow rates to form a ow eld in which the variation of the tangential components of
the velocity are high, generating high values of W
t
(Fig. 13). As ow rate increases, the charac-
teristic curve is almost constant because of the substantial equilibrium between the eects of a
stronger and more eccentric vortex (which tend to increase the total pressure coecient) and the
hydraulic eciency drop due to the more complex interaction between the recirculating ow and
the blade row.
Finally, for large rear wall radial widths, the negative eects of the diminished hydraulic e-
ciency, which also depends on the worse incidence conditions with the arising of stall phenomena,
prevail over the further increase of the variation of the tangential components of the velocity due
to the highest vortex strengths and eccentricities, and result in a descending trend of the char-
acteristic curve (Figs. 6 and 13).
Higher positions of the thin vortex wall tend to make the characteristic curve more stable
because they generate stronger and more eccentric vortices. Moreover, the entire ow eld follows
the clock-wise movement of the vortex. This results in a larger number of streamlines having low
energy, because of the unfavorable incidence conditions, that are included in the throughow.
These streamlines would otherwise return to suction for lower positions of the vortex wall.
3.4. The maximum ow rate
The values of the maximum ow rate obtained for dierent combinations of the most signi-
cant design parameters can be justied considering that larger discharge sections, which are ob-
tained for larger radial width rear walls and/or higher positions of the vortex wall, result in
decreasing mean velocities at fan outlet. The curve of the static pressure coecient, therefore,
increases, tending to approach the curve of the total pressure coecient, and this makes the ow
rate at free blowing increase. However, these modications of the geometric conguration lead to
a lower energy transfer as well. Consequently, an optimal combination of the design parameters
exists for which the fan ow rate at free blowing has a maximum value.
4. Conclusions
The present study on cross-ow fan operation conrms the tendencies that were high-
lighted in the experimental investigations by the same group of authors [1,9,10]. The inuence
A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966 65
of the most signicant design parameters on performance and eciency, which was simply
outlined in [1], and on the ow eld pattern, which was examined in [9] inside the impel-
ler, has been analyzed here in details and the ow elds determined by representative com-
binations of the design parameters have been theoretically linked to fan performance and
eciency through a streamline by streamline discussion. The circle of relationships existing
among:
design parameters (the radial width of rear wall is the most important, followed by the position
and the thickness of the vortex wall);
ow eld pattern (mainly characterized by the strength and the position of the vortex core
inside the impeller);
performance (total pressure coecient, total, volumetric and hydraulic eciency, maximum
ow coecient);
is now closed. This is the basic step towards the formulation of a general theory on cross-ow fan
operation.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Prof. Andrea Lazzaretto and Prof. Antonio Dario Martegani for
the helpful discussions and their useful suggestions.
References
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Eng 2003;125:6803.
[2] Lazzaretto A. A criterion to dene cross-ow fan design parameters. J Fluids Eng 2003;125:68493.
[3] Eck B. Fans. Oxford: Pergamon Press; 1973.
[4] Coester R. Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen an Querstromgeblase. Mitteilungen aus dem Institut
fur Aerodynamic ETH. 1959. p. 28.
[5] Tramposch H. Cross-ow fan. ASME Paper No. 64-WA/FE-25. 1964.
[6] Ilberg H, Sadeh WZ. Flow theory and performance of tangential fans. In: Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, vol. 180. 1965. p. 48196.
[7] Ikegami H, Murata SA. Study of cross ow fan. I. A theoretical analysis. Tech Rep Osaka University 1966;16:
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[8] Yamafuji K. Studies on the ow of cross-ow impellers2nd report, analytical study. Bull JSME
1975;18(126):142531.
[9] Lazzaretto A, Toolo A, Martegani AD. An experimental investigation of the ow eld pattern within the impeller
of a cross-ow fan. Exp. Therm Fluid Sci, in press.
[10] Lazzarotto L, Lazzaretto A, Macor A, Martegani AD. On cross-ow fan similarity: eects of casing shape. J Fluids
Eng 2001;123(3):52331.
[11] Clayton BR. A review and appraisal of crossow fans. Building Services Eng 1975;42:23047.
[12] Fluent v5.4 Users Manual. Fluent Inc., Lebanon, NH.
[13] UNI 10531, Ventilatori industrialiMetodi di prova e condizioni di accettazione, Milan. 1995 [in Italian].
[14] ISO 5801, Industrial fansPerformance testing using standardized airways, 1993.
66 A. Toolo / Computers & Fluids 34 (2005) 4966