The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans using

rafts or primitive boats, at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao
Man showed.
[1]
The first recorded visit from the West is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, who
sighted the island of Samar Island on March 16, 1521 and landed on Homonhon Island (now part
of Guiuan, Eastern Samar province) the next day. Homonhon Island is southeast of Samar Island.
[2]

Before Magellan arrived, Negrito tribes inhabited the isles, who were subsequently joined and largely
supplanted by migrating groups ofAustronesians. This population had stratified into hunter-gatherer
tribes, warrior societies, petty plutocracies and maritime-oriented harbor principalities which
eventually grew into kingdoms, rajahnates, principalities, confederations and sultanates. The
Philippine islands were greatly influenced by Hindu religions, literature and philosophy from India in
the early centuries of the Christian era.
[3]
States included the Indianized Rajahnate
of Butuan and Cebu, the dynasty of Tondo, the august kingdoms of Maysapan and Maynila,
theConfederation of Madyaas, the sinified Country of Mai, as well as the Muslim Sultanates
of Sulu and Maguindanao. These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium.
[4][5]
These
kingdoms traded with what are now calledChina, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam,
and Indonesia.
[6]
The remainder of the settlements were independent Barangays allied with one of
the larger states.
Spanish colonization and settlement began with the arrival of Miguel Lpez de Legazpi's expedition
on February 13, 1565 who established the first permanent settlement of San Miguel on the island
of Cebu.
[7]
The expedition continued northward reaching the bay of Manila on the island of Luzon on
June 24, 1571,
[8]
where they established a new town and thus began an era of Spanishcolonization
that lasted for more than three centuries.
[9]

Spanish rule achieved the political unification of almost the whole archipelago, that previously had
been composed by independent kingdoms, pushing back south the advancing Islamic forces and
creating the first draft of the nation that was to be known as the Philippines. Spain also introduced
Christianity, thecode of law and the oldest modern Universities in Asia.
The Spanish East Indies were ruled as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and administered
from Mexico City from 1565 to 1821, and administered directly from Madrid, Spain from 1821 until
the end of the SpanishAmerican War in 1898, except for a brief period of British rule from 1762 to
1764. They founded schools, a university, and some hospitals, principally in Manila and the largest
Spanish fort settlements. Universal education was made free for all Filipino subjects in 1863 and
remained so until the end of the Spanish colonial era. This measure was at the vanguard of
contemporary Asian countries, and led to an important class of educated natives, like Jos Rizal.
Ironically, it was during the initial years of American occupation in the early 20th century, that
Spanish literature and press flourished.
The Philippine Revolution against Spain began in August 1896, culminating the establishment of
the First Philippine Republic. However, the Treaty of Paris, at the end of the SpanishAmerican War,
transferred control of the Philippines to the United States. This agreement was not recognized by the
insurgent First Philippine Republic Government which, on June 2, 1899, proclaimed aDeclaration of
War against the United States.
[10]
The PhilippineAmerican Warwhich ensued resulted in massive
casualties.
[11]
Philippine president Emilio Aguinaldo was captured in 1901 and the U.S. government
declared the conflict officially over in 1902.
The U.S. had established a military government in the Philippines on August 14, 1898, following the
capture of Manila.
[12]
Civil government was inaugurated on July 1, 1901.
[13]
An elected Philippine
Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature.
[13]
Commonwealth
status was granted in 1935, preparatory to a planned full independence from the United States in
1946.
[14]
Preparation for a fully sovereign state was interrupted by the Japanese occupation of the
islands during World War II.
[15]
After the end of the war, the Treaty of Manila established the
Philippine Republic as an independent nation.
[16]

With a promising economy in the 1950s and 1960s, the Philippines in the late 1960s and early 1970s
saw a rise of student activism and civil unrest against President Ferdinand Marcos who
declared martial law in 1972.
[citation needed]
The peaceful and bloodless People Power Revolution of
1986, however, brought about the ousting of Marcos and a return to democracy for the country. The
period since then was marked by political instability and hampered economic productivity. However,
economic growth has gained pace in recent years to become one of the highest in Asia; as such the
Philippines has been labeled one of the Next Eleven countries due to promising future growth.

The Philippine Revolution (called the Tagalog War by the Spanish),
[citation
needed]
(Filipino: Himagsikang Pilipino) was an armed military conflict between the people of
the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities.
The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, upon the discovery of the anti-colonial secret
organization Katipunan by the Spanish authorities. The Katipunan, led by Andrs Bonifacio, was a
liberationist movement and shadow government spread throughout much of the islands whose goal
was independence from Spain through armed revolt. In a mass gathering in Caloocan,
the Katipunan leaders organized themselves into a revolutionary government, named the newly
established government "Haring Bayang Katagalugan", and openly declared a nationwide armed
revolution.
[2]
Bonifacio called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the capital city of Manila. This
attack failed, but the surrounding provinces also rose up in revolt. In particular, rebels in Cavite led
by Mariano Alvarez and Emilio Aguinaldo, from two different factions of Katipunan in the province,
won early victories. A power struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacio's death in 1897, with
command shifting to Aguinaldo who led his own revolutionary government. That year, a truce with
the Spanish was reached called the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo went to self-exile in Hong
Kong. Hostilities, though reduced, never actually ceased.
[3]

On April 21, 1898, the United States began a naval blockade of Cuba, the first military action of
the SpanishAmerican War. On May 1, the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George
Deweydecisively defeated the Spanish navy in the Battle of Manila Bay, effectively seizing control of
Manila. On May 19, Aguinaldo, unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines
and resumed hostilities against the Spaniards. By June, the rebels had gained control over nearly all
of the Philippines with the exception of Manila. On June 12, Aguinaldo issued the Philippine
Declaration of Independence and the First Philippine Republic was established. Neither Spain nor
the United States recognized Philippine independence.
Spanish rule in the islands officially ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1898 which ended the
SpanishAmerican War. In it Spain ceded the Philippines and other territories to the United
States.
[3]
There was an uneasy peace around Manila with the American forces controlling the city
and the weaker Philippines forces surrounding them.
On February 4, 1899, in the Battle of Manila fighting broke out between the Filipino and American
forces, beginning the PhilippineAmerican War. Aguinaldo immediately ordered, "[t]hat peace and
friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies".
[4]
In June
1899, the nascent First Philippine Republic formally declared war against the United States.
[5][6]

The Philippines would not become an internationally recognized,independent state until 1946.

Philippine Revolution, (189698), Filipino independence struggle that, after more than 300 years
of Spanish colonial rule, exposed the weakness of Spanish administration but failed to evict
Spaniards from the islands. The Spanish-American War brought Spains rule in thePhilippines to a
close in 1898 but precipitated the Philippine-American War, a bloody war between Filipino
revolutionaries and the U.S. Army.
Numerous quasi-religious uprisings had punctuated the long era of Spanish sovereignty over the
Philippines, but none possessed sufficient coordination to oust the Europeans. During the 19th
century, however, an educated Filipino middle class emerged and with it a desire for Philippine
independence. Opposition before 1872 was primarily confined to the Filipino clergy, who resented
the Spanish monopoly of power within the Roman Catholic church in the islands. In that year the
abortive Cavite Mutiny, a brief uprising against the Spanish, served as an excuse for renewed
Spanish repression. The martyrdom of three Filipino priestsJos Burgos, Mariano Gmez, and
Jacinto Zamorafor allegedly conspiring with the rebels at Cavite sparked a wave of anti-Spanish
sentiment.
Reform-minded Filipinos took refuge in Europe, where they carried on a literary campaign known as
the Propaganda Movement. Dr. Jos Rizal quickly emerged as the leading Propagandist. His
novel Noli me tngere (1886; The Social Cancer, 1912) exposed the corruption of Manila Spanish
society and stimulated the movement for independence.
By 1892 it became obvious that Spain was unwilling to reform its colonial government. Andres
Bonifacio, a self-educated warehouse clerk, organized a secret revolutionary society, theKatipunan,
in Manila. Membership grew to an estimated 100,000 by August 1896, when the Spaniards
discovered its existence. Bonifacio immediately issued a call for armed rebellion. The Spanish then
arrested Rizal, who had advocated reform but never condoned therevolution. Rizals public
execution, on Dec. 30, 1896, so enraged and united Filipinos as to make permanent retention of
power by Spain clearly impossible.
In March 1897 leadership of the revolution passed to a young general, Emilio Aguinaldo, who had
Bonifacio shot for alleged sedition. Aguinaldo proved incapable of militarily defeating the Spanish
troops, who were augmented by Filipino mercenaries. In the later months of 1897, Aguinaldos
revolutionary army was pushed into the mountains southeast of Manila.
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On Dec. 15, 1897, the pact of Biak-na-Bato was proclaimed. Though its precise terms have been a
matter of impassioned debate ever since, the pact brought a temporary end to the Philippine
Revolution. Aguinaldo and other revolutionary leaders accepted exile in Hong Kongand 400,000
pesos, plus Spanish promises of substantial governmental reforms, in return for laying down their
arms. Neither side executed the terms of the pact in good faith. Aguinaldo used the money to
purchase arms in Hong Kong, and the Spanish reneged on the promised reforms.
After the U.S. Navy commodore George Dewey annihilated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay on May
1, 1898, Aguinaldo immediately returned to the Philippines. He began the revolution anew, this time
against the United States, which had assumed title to the Philippines as a result of the Spanish
defeat. Aguinaldo was captured in 1901 and subsequently appealed to Filipinos to cease fighting
and accept U.S. sovereignty.

Andrs Bonifacio
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the person Andrs Bonifacio. For the Philippine Navy ship, see BRP Andres
Bonifacio (PF-7). For other uses, see Bonifacio.
Andrs Bonifacio y de Castro

An 1897 engraving of El Supremo in La Ilustracin Espaola y
Americana, taken from the only known extant photograph of
Bonifacio.
President of the Philippines
(Unofficial)
Haring Bayang Katagalugan
In office
24 August 1896 22 March or 10 May 1897
Vice President Emilio Jacinto
(Unofficial)
Preceded by Post Established
Succeeded by Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy
Personal details
Born Andrs Bonifacio y de Castro
30 November 1863
Tondo, Manila,
Captaincy General of the Philippines
Died 10 May 1897 (aged 33)
Maragondon, Cavite,
Captaincy General of the Philippines
Resting place Remains lost
Nationality Filipino
Political party La Liga Filipina
Katipunan
Spouse(s) Monica (c. 18801890)
Gregoria de Jess (18931897)
Children Andres Bonifacio y de Jess (died in infancy)
Profession Craftsman, Employee, Revolutionary
Religion Roman Catholicism
Signature

Andrs Bonifacio y de Castro (30 November 1863 10 May 1897) was aFilipino
nationalist and revolutionary. He is often called "the father of the Philippine Revolution". He was a
founder and later Supremo ("supreme leader") of the Kataas-taasan, Kagalang-galangang
Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or simply and more popularly called Katipunan, a movement
which sought the independence of the Philippines from Spanish colonial rule and started
the Philippine Revolution.
[1][2]
He is considered a de facto national heroof the Philippines,
[3]
and is
also considered by some Filipino historians to be the first President of the Philippines (through the
revolutionary government he established), but officially he is not recognized as such.
[4][5]


Capture, trial and death[edit]
A party of Aguinaldo's men led by Agapito Bonzn and Jos Ignacio Paua met with Bonifacio at his
camp in Indang. Unaware of the order for his arrest, Bonifacio received them cordially. The next day,
Bonzn and Paua attacked Bonifacio's camp. Bonifacio did not fight back and ordered his men to
hold their fire, though shots were nevertheless exchanged. Bonifacio was shot in the arm by Bonzn
and Paua stabbed him in the neck who was prevented from striking further by one of Bonifacio's
men, who offered to be killed instead. Andres' brother Ciriaco was shot dead, while his other brother
Procopio was beaten senseless, and his wife Gregoria may have been raped by Bonzn.
[63]

Bonifacio's party was brought to Naic, where he and Procopio stood trial on charges of sedition and
treason against Aguinaldo's government and conspiracy to murder Aguinaldo.
[62][64]
The jury was
composed entirely of Aguinaldo's men and even Bonifacio's defence lawyer himself declared his
client's guilt. Bonifacio was barred from confronting the state witness for the charge of conspiracy to
murder on the grounds that the latter had been killed in battle, but after the trial the witness was
seen alive with the prosecutors.
[65][66]

The Bonifacio brothers were found guilty despite insufficient evidence and recommended to be
executed. Aguinaldo commuted the sentence to deportation on 8 May 1897 but Po del Pilar and
Mariano Noril persuaded him to withdraw the order for the sake of preserving unity. In this they
were seconded by Mamerto Natividd and other bona fide supporters of Aguinaldo.
[67]
The Bonifacio
brothers were executed on 10 May 1897 in the mountains of Maragondon.
[67][68]
Apolinario Mabini
wrote that Bonifacio's death demoralized many rebels from Manila, Laguna and Batangas who had
come to help those in Cavite, and caused them to quit.
[35]
In other areas, Bonifacio's close
associates like Emilio Jacinto and Macario Sakay continued the Katipunan and never recognized
Aguinaldo's authority.
[37]

Historical controversies[edit]
The historical assessment of Bonifacio involves several controversial points. His death is alternately
viewed as a justified execution for treason and a "legal murder" fueled by politics. Some
historians
[who?]
consider him to be the rightful firstPresident of the Philippines instead of Aguinaldo.
Some historians
[who?]
have also called that Bonifacio share or even take the place of Jos Rizal as
the (foremost) Philippine national hero. The purported discovery of Bonifacio's remains has also
been questioned.
Trial and execution[edit]
Historians have condemned the trial of the Bonifacio brothers as unjust. The jury was entirely
composed of Aguinaldo's men; Bonifacio's defense lawyer acted more like a prosecutor as he
himself declared Bonifacio's guilt and instead appealed for less punishment; and Bonifacio was not
allowed to confront the state witness for the charge of conspiracy on the grounds that the latter had
been killed in battle, but later the witness was seen with the prosecutors.
[69][70]

Teodoro Agoncillo writes that Bonifacio's declaration of authority in opposition to Aguinaldo posed a
danger to the revolution, because a split in the rebel forces would result in almost certain defeat to
their united and well-armed Spanish foe.
[67]
In contrast, Renato Constantino contends that Bonifacio
was neither a danger to the revolution in general for he still planned to fight the Spanish, nor to the
revolution in Cavite since he was leaving; but Bonifacio was definitely a threat to the Cavite leaders
who wanted control of the Revolution, so he was eliminated. Constantino contrasts Bonifacio who
had no record of compromise with the Spanish with the Cavite leaders who did compromise,
resulting in the Pact of Biak-na-Batowhereas the revolution was officially halted and its leaders
exiled, though many Filipinos continued to fight especiallyKatipunan leaders used to be close to
Bonifacio (Aguinaldo eventually, unofficially allied with the United States, did return to take charge of
the revolution during the SpanishAmerican War).
[71]

Historians
[who?]
have also discussed the motives of the Cavite government to replace Bonifacio, and
whether it had the right to do so. The Magdalo provincial council which helped establish a republican
government led by one of their own was only one of many such councils in the pre-existing
Katipunan government.
[72][73]
Therefore, Constantino and Alejo Villanueva write Aguinaldo and his
faction may be considered counter-revolutionary as well as guilty of violating Bonifacio's
constituted authority just as they considered Bonifacio to violate theirs.
[72][74]
Aguinaldo's own adviser
and official Apolinario Mabini writes that he was "primarily answerable for insubordination against the
head of the Katipunan of which he was a member".
[35]
Aguinaldo's authority was not immediately
recognized by all rebels. If Bonifacio had escaped Cavite, he would have had the right as
the Katipunan leader to prosecute Aguinaldo for treason instead of the other way
around.
[75]
Constantino and Villanueva also interpret the Tejeros Convention as the culmination of a
movement by members of the upper class represented by Aguinaldo to wrest power from Bonifacio
who represented the middle and lower classes.
[74][76]
Regionalism among the Cavite rebels, dubbed
"Cavitismo" by Constantino, has also been put forward as motivation for the replacement of
Bonifacio.
[77][78][79]
Mabini considered the execution as criminal and "assassination...the first victory of
personal ambition over true patriotism."
[citation needed]
He also noted that "All the electors [at the Tejeros
Convention] were friends of Don Emilio Aguinaldo and Don Mariano Tras, who were united, while
Bonifacio, although he had established his integrity, was looked upon with distrust only because he
was not a native of the province: this explains his resentment."
[35]

There are differing accounts of Bonifacio's manner of execution. The commanding officer of the
execution party, Lazaro Macapagal, said in two separate accounts that the Bonifacio brothers were
shot to death, which is the orthodox interpretation. Macapagal's second account has Bonifacio
attempting to escape after his brother is shot, but he is also killed while running away. Macapagal
writes that they buried the brothers in shallow graves dug with bayonets and marked by twigs.
[80]

However, another account states that after his brother was shot, Bonifacio was stabbed and hacked
to death. This was allegedly done while he lay prone in a hammock in which he was carried to the
site, being too weak to walk.
[40]
This version was maintained by Guillermo Masangkay, who claimed
to have gotten this information from one of Macapagal's men.
[80]
Also, one account used to
corroborate this version is of an alleged eyewitness, a farmer who claimed he saw five men hacking
a man in a hammock.
[40]
Historian Milagros Guerrero also says Bonifacio was bayoneted, and that
the brothers were left unburied.
[81]
After bones said to be Bonifacio's including a fractured skull -
were discovered in 1918, Masangkay claimed the forensic evidence supported his version of
events.
[80]
Writer Adrian Cristobal notes that accounts of Bonifacio's captivity and trial state he was
very weak due to his wounds being left untreated; he thus doubts that Bonifacio was strong enough
to make a last dash for freedom as Macapagal claimed.
[40]
Historian Ambeth Ocampo, who doubts
the Bonifacio bones were authentic, thus also doubts the possibility of Bonifacio's death by this
manner.
[80]

Bonifacio as first Philippine President[edit]
See also: List of Unofficial Presidents of the Philippines
Some historians such as Milagros Guerrero, Emmanuel Encarnacin, and Ramn Villegas have
pushed for the recognition of Bonifacio as the first President of the Philippines instead of Aguinaldo,
the officially recognised one. This view is based on his position of President/Supremo of
the Katipunan revolutionary government from 189697. This view also emphasises that Bonifacio
established a government through the Katipunan before a government headed by Aguinaldo was
formed at the Tejeros Convention. Guerrero writes that Bonifacio had a concept of the Philippine
nation called Haring Bayang Katagalugan ("Sovereign Tagalog Nation") which was displaced by
Aguinaldo's concept of Filipinas. In documents predating Tejeros and the First Philippine Republic,
Bonifacio is called the president of the "Tagalog Republic".
[4][5][40][82]

The term Tagalog historically refers to an ethnic group, their language, and script. While historians
have thus tended to view Bonifacio's concept of the Philippine nation as restricted to the Tagalog
regions of Luzon, as compared to Aguinaldo's view of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao (comprising
the modern Philippines), Guerrero writes that Bonifacio and the Katipunan in fact already had an all-
encompassing view. The Kartilya defines "tagalog" as "all those born in this archipelago; therefore,
though visayan, ilocano, pampango, etc. they are all tagalogs".
[5]

In their memoirs, Emilio Aguinaldo and other Magdalo people claim Bonifacio became the head of
the Magdiwang, receiving the title Har ng Bayan ("King of the People") with Mariano lvarez as his
second-in-command.
[41][83]
However, these claims are unsupported by documentary
evidence.
[84]
Carlos Quirino suggests these claims stem from a misunderstanding or
misrepresentation of Bonifacio's title Pangulo ng Haring Bayan ("President of the Sovereign
Nation").
[84]
Santiago lvarez (son of Mariano) distinguishes between the Magdiwang government
and the Katipunan Supreme Council headed by Bonifacio.
[14]

Bonifacio as national hero[edit]
See also: National hero of the Philippines
Jos Rizal is generally considered the national hero, but Bonifacio has been suggested as a more
worthy candidate on the grounds of having started the Philippine Revolution.
[63]
Teodoro
Agoncillo notes that the Philippine national hero, unlike those of other countries, is not "the leader of
its liberation forces".
[85]
Renato Constantino writes that Rizal is a "United States-sponsored hero"
who was promoted as the greatest Filipino hero during the American colonial period of the
Philippines after Aguinaldo lost the PhilippineAmerican War. The United States promoted Rizal,
who was taken to represent peaceful political advocacy, instead of more radical figures whose ideas
could inspire resistance against American rule.
[86]
Specifically, Rizal was selected over Bonifacio
who was viewed as "too radical" and Apolinario Mabini who was "unregenerate."
[87]

Historian Ambeth Ocampo gives the opinion that arguing for Bonifacio as the "better" hero on the
grounds that he, not Rizal, began the Philippine Revolution, is moot since Rizal inspired Bonifacio,
the Katipunan, and the Revolution. Even prior to Rizal's banishment to Dapitan, he was already
regarded by the Filipino people as a national hero, having been elected as honorary president by
the Katipunan.
[63]
Len Mara Guerrero notes that while Rizal did not give his blessing to the
Katipunan because he believed the time was premature, he did not condemn the aim of
independence per se.
[88]
Teodoro Agoncillo gives the opinion that Bonifacio should not replace Rizal
as national hero, but they should be honored "side by side".
[85]

Despite popular recognition of Rizal as "the Philippine national hero", the title itself has no explicit
legal definition in present Philippine law. Rizal and Bonifacio, however, are given the implied
recognition of being national heroes because they are commemorated annually nationwide Rizal
Day on 30 December and Bonifacio Day on 30 November.
[89]
According to the website of the
National Center for Culture and the Arts:
Despite the lack of any official declaration explicitly proclaiming them as national heroes, [Rizal and
Bonifacio] remain admired and revered for their roles in Philippine history. Heroes, according to
historians, should not be legislated.
Their appreciation should be better left to academics. Acclamation for heroes, they felt, would be
recognition enough.
[89]

Bonifacio's bones[edit]
In 1918, the American colonial government of the Philippines mounted a search for Bonifacio's
remains in Maragondon. A group consisting of government officials, former rebels, and a man
reputed to be Bonifacio's servant found bones which they claimed were Bonifacio's in a sugarcane
field on 17 March. The bones were placed in an urn and put into the care of theNational Library of
the Philippines. They were housed at the Library's headquarters in the Legislative Building in Ermita,
Manila, together with some of Bonifacio's papers and personal belongings. The authenticity of the
bones was much disputed at the time and has been challenged as late as 2001 by Ambeth Ocampo.
When Emilio Aguinaldo ran for President of theCommonwealth of the Philippines in 1935, his
opponent Manuel L. Quezon (the eventual victor) invoked the memory of Bonifacio against him, the
bones being the result of Bonifacio's execution at Aguinaldo's hands. During World War II, the
Philippines was invaded by Japan in 1941. The bones were lost due to the widespread destruction
and looting during theAllied capture of Manila in February 1945.
[80][90][91]


Bonifacio in Cavite[edit]
There were two Katipunan provincial chapters in Cavite that became rival factions: the Magdalo,
headed by Emilio Aguinaldo's cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo, and the Magdiwang, headed by Mariano
lvarez, uncle of Bonifacio's wife. Leaders of both factions came from the upper class, in contrast to
Bonifacio, who came from the lower middle class. After initial successes, Emilio Aguinaldo issued a
manifesto in the name of the Magdalo ruling council which proclaimed a provisional and
revolutionary government despite the existence of the Katipunan government. Emilio Aguinaldo in
particular had won fame for victories in the province.
[38]
The Magdalo and Magdiwang clashed over
authority and jurisdiction and did not help each other in battle. Bonifacio, as the recognized overall
leader of the revolution, was invited by the Cavite leaders to mediate between them and unify their
efforts. After multiple letters were sent to Bonifacio urging him to come, in December 1896 he
traveled to Cavite accompanied by his wife, his brothers Procopio and Ciriaco, and some troops,
including Emilio Jacinto, Bonifacio's secretary and right-hand man. Jacinto was said to be against
Bonifacio's expedition to Cavite.
In Cavite, friction grew between Bonifacio and the Magdalo leaders. Apolinario Mabini, who later
served as Emilio Aguinaldo's adviser, writes that at this point the Magdalo leaders "already paid little
heed to his authority and orders."
[35]
Bonifacio was partial to the Magdiwang, perhaps due to his
kinship ties with Mariano lvarez,
[39]
or more importantly, due to their stronger recognition of his
authority.
[40]
When Aguinaldo and Edilberto Evangelista went to receive Bonifacio at Zapote, they
were irritated with what they regarded as his attitude of superiority. In his memoirs Aguinaldo wrote
that Bonifacio acted "as if he were a king".
[41][42]
Another time, Bonifacio ordered the arrest of
one Katipunan general from Laguna surnamed Fernandez, who was accompanying
the Magdalo leaders in paying their respect to Bonifacio, for failing to support his attack in Manila,
but the other Magdalo leaders refused to surrender him. Townspeople
in Noveleta (a Magdiwang town) acclaimed Bonifacio as the ruler of the Philippines, to the chagrin of
the Magdalo leaders, (Bonifacio replied: "long live Philippine Liberty!").
[42]
Aguinaldo disputed with
Bonifacio over strategic troop placements and blamed him for the capture of the town
of Silang.
[41]
The Spanish, through Jesuit Superior Pio Pi, wrote to Aguinaldo about the possibility of
peace negotiations.
[41]
When Bonifacio found out, he and the Magdiwang council rejected the
proposed peace talks. Bonifacio was also angered that the Spanish considered Aguinaldo the "chief
of the rebellion" instead of him.
[41]
However, Aguinaldo continued to arrange negotiations which
never took place.
[43]
Bonifacio believed Aguinaldo was willing to surrender the revolution.
[43]

Bonifacio was also subject to rumors that he had stolen Katipunan funds, his sister was the mistress
of a priest, and he was an agent provocateur paid by friars to foment unrest. Also circulated were
anonymous letters which told the people of Cavite not to idolize Bonifacio because he was a Mason,
a mere Manila employee, allegedly an atheist, and uneducated. According to these letters, Bonifacio
did not deserve the title of Supremo since only God was supreme. This last allegation was made
despite the fact that Supremo was meant to be used in conjunction with Presidente, i.e. Presidente
Supremo (Supreme President) to distinguish the president of the Katipunan Supreme Council from
council presidents of subordinate Katipunanchapters like the Magdalo and Magdiwang.
[40]
Bonifacio
suspected the rumor-mongering to be the work of the Magdaloleader Daniel Tirona. He confronted
Tirona, whose airy reply provoked Bonifacio to such anger that he drew a gun and would have shot
Tirona if others had not intervened.
[44][45]

On 31 December, Bonifacio and the Magdalo and Magdiwang leaders held a meeting in Imus,
ostensibly to determine the leadership of Cavite in order to end the rivalry between the two factions.
The issue of whether the Katipunan should be replaced by a revolutionary government was brought
up by the Magdalo, and this eclipsed the rivalry issue. The Magdaloargued that the Katipunan, as a
secret society, should have ceased to exist once the Revolution was underway. They also held that
Cavite should not be divided. Bonifacio and the Magdiwang contended that the Katipunan served as
their revolutionary government since it had its own constitution, laws, and provincial and municipal
governments. Edilberto Evangelista presented a draft constitution for the proposed government to
Bonifacio but he rejected it as it was too similar to the Spanish Maura Law. Upon the event of
restructuring, Bonifacio was given carte blanche to appoint a committee tasked with setting up a new
government; he would also be in charge of this committee. He tasked Emilio Aguinaldo to record the
minutes of the meeting and requested for it to establish this authority, but these were never done
and never provided.
[46][47]

The Tejeros Convention[edit]
Main article: Tejeros Convention
The rebel leaders held another meeting in a friar estate house in Tejeros on 22 March 1897 on the
pretense of more discussion between the Magdalo and Magdiwang, but really to settle the issue of
leadership of the revolution.
[48]
Amidst insinuations that the Katipunan government
was monarchical or dictatorial, Bonifacio maintained it was republican. According to him, all its
members of whatever rank followed the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity, upon
whichrepublicanism is founded.
[14]
He presided over the elections that followed, despite his
misgivings over the lack of representation by other provinces.
[49]
Before elections started, he asked
that the results be respected by everyone, and all agreed. The Cavite leaders voted their own Emilio
Aguinaldo President in absentia, as he was in the battlefield.
[48][50][51]
That revolutionary government,
now known as the Republic of Biak-na-Bato, styled itself as the Philippine Republic orRepublic of the
Philippines. It lasted just over a month. A later revolutionary government now commonly known as
the First Philippine Republic and also with Aguinaldo as President was inaugurated on 23 January
1899 as the Republica Filipina(Philippine Republic).
[52]
That later government is now considered to
be the first Republic of the Philippines, the present-day government of the Philippines being the fifth.
Bonifacio received the second-highest number of votes for President. Though it was suggested that
he be automatically be awarded the Vice Presidency, no one seconded the motion and elections
continued. Mariano Tras of the Magdalo(originally Magdiwang) was elected Vice President.
Bonifacio was the last to be elected, as Director of the Interior. Daniel Tirona, who had helped
distribute the ballots, protested Bonifacio's election to Director of the Interior on the grounds that the
position should not be occupied by a person without a lawyer's diploma. Tirona suggested a
prominent Cavite lawyer for the position. Hurt and angered, Bonifacio demanded an apology, since
the voters had agreed to respect the election results. Tirona ignored Bonifacio's demand for apology
which drove Bonifacio to draw his gun and again nearly shot Tirona, who hid among the people, but
he was restrained by Artemio Ricarte of the Magdiwang, who had been elected Captain-
General.
[53]
As people left the room, Bonifacio declared: "I, as chairman of this assembly and as
President of the Supreme Council of the Katipunan, as all of you do not deny, declare this assembly
dissolved, and I annul all that has been approved and resolved."
[53][54]

The next day, Aguinaldo surreptitiously took his oath of office as President in a chapel officiated by a
Catholic priest Cenon Villafranca who was under the authority of the Roman pope.
[55]:109
According
to Gen. Santiago Alvarez, guards were posted outside with strict instructions not to let in any
unwanted partisan from the Magdiwang faction while the oath-taking took place.
[56]
Artemio Ricarte
also took his office "with great reluctance" and made a declaration that he found the Tejeros
elections "dirty or shady" and "not been in conformity with the true will of the people."
[57]
Meanwhile
Bonifacio met with his remaining supporters and drew up the Acta de Tejeros (Act of Tejeros)
wherein they gave their reasons for not accepting the election results. Bonifacio alleged the election
was fraudulent due to cheating and accused Aguinaldo of treason due to his negotiations with the
Spanish.
[58]
In their memoirs Santiago lvarez (son of Mariano) and Gregoria de Jess both alleged
that many ballots were already filled out before being distributed, and Guillermo Masangkay
contended there were more ballots prepared than voters present. lvarez writes that Bonifacio had
been warned by a Cavite leader Diego Mojica of the rigged ballots before the votes were canvassed,
but he had done nothing.
[14][59]

Aguinaldo later sent a delegation to Bonifacio to get him to cooperate, but the latter
refused.
[60]
Bonifacio appointed Emilio Jacinto general of the rebel forces in Manila, Morong, Bulacan
and Nueva Ecija.
[61]
In Naik, Bonifacio met with Artemio Ricarte and others, including generals Po
del Pilar and Mariano Noriel of the Magdalo who had gone over to his side.
[41]
Bonifacio asserted his
leadership of the revolution with the Naik Military Agreement, a document which appointed Pio del
Pilar commander-in-chief of the revolutionary forces.
[61]
Bonifacio's meeting was interrupted by
Aguinaldo himself, and del Pilar and Noriel promptly returned to Aguinaldo's fold.
[41]
In late April
Aguinaldo fully assumed presidential office after consolidating his position among the Cavite elite
most of Bonifacio's Magdiwang supporters declaring allegiance to Aguinaldo.
[62]
Aguinaldo's
government then ordered the arrest of Bonifacio, who was then moving out of Cavite
Pact of Biak-na-Bato
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


The Filipino negotiators for the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. Seated from left to right: Pedro Paterno and Emilio Aguinaldo
with five companions
The Pact of Biak-na-Bato, signed on December 14, 1897,
[1]
created a truce between Spanish
colonial Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio
Aguinaldo to end the Philippine Revolution. Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were given
amnesty and monetary indemnity by the Spanish Government, in return for which the revolutionary
government would go into exile in Hong Kong. Aguinaldo had designs to use the money to purchase
firearms and return to the archipelago.
[2]:49[3]:232

The pact was signed in San Miguel, Bulacan, in the house of Pablo Tecson, a Philippine
revolutionary captain who served as Brigadier General in the 'Brigada Del Pilar' (military troop) of
General Gregorio del Pilar during the Revolution.
Contents
[hide]
1 Provisions
2 Results
3 Notes
4 References
o 4.1 Bibliography
Provisions[edit]
According to Aguinaldo, writing in 1899, the principal conditions of the pact were:
(1) "That I, and any of my associates who desired to go with me, would be free to live in any foreign
country. Having fixed upon Hongkong as my place of residence, it was agreed that payment of the
indemnity of $800,000 (Mexican) should be made in three installments, namely, $400,000 when all
the arms in Biak-na-bat were delivered to the Spanish authorities; $200,000 when the arms
surrendered amounted to eight hundred stands; the final payment to be made when one thousand
stands of arms shall have been handed over to the authorities and Te Deum sung in the Cathedral in
Manila as thanksgiving for the restoration of peace. The latter part of February was fixed as the limit
of time wherein the surrender of arms should be completed."


(2) "The whole of the money was to be paid to me personally, leaving the disposal of the money to
my discretion and knowledge of the understanding with my associates and other insurgents."

(3) "Prior to evacuating Biak-na-bat the remainder of the insurgent forces under Captain-General
Primo de Rivera should send to Biak-na-bat two Generals of the Spanish Army to be held as
hostages by my associates who remained there until I and a few of my compatriots arrived in
Hongkong and the first installment of the money payment (namely, four hundred thousand dollars)
was paid."
(4) "It was also agreed that the religious corporations in the Philippines be expelled and an
autonomous system of government, political and administrative, be established, though by special
request of General Primo de Rivera these conditions were not insisted on in the drawing up of the
Treaty, the General contending that such concessions would subject the Spanish Government to
severe criticism and even ridicule."
[1]

According to historian Teodoro Agoncillo, the pact was made up of three documents which together
came to be known as the Truce of Biak-na-Bat and which provided, among other things:
[4]

That Aguinaldo and his companions would go into voluntary exile abroad.
[1][4]

That Governor-General Primo de Rivera would pay the sum of P800,000 to the rebels in three
installments:
1. $400,000 (Mexican) to Aguinaldo upon his departure from Biak-na-Bat,
[1][4]

2. $200,000 (Mexican) when the arms surrendered by the revolutionists amounted to
800 stand,
[1]
and
3. the remaining $200,000 (Mexican) when the arms surrendered amounted to 1,000
stand, Te Deum in the Cathedral in Manila as thanksgiving for the restoration of
peace.
[1]

That Primo de Rivera would pay the additional sum of P900,000 to the families of the non-
combatant Filipinos who suffered during the armed conflict.
[4][a]

According to historian Sonia M. Zaide, the agreement consisted of three parts:
1. A document called "Program", generally as described by Agoncillo.
2. A document called "Act of Agreement" which reiterated parts of the "Program"
document and hinted at the desire of the Filipinos for reforms but contained no
definite agreement by Spain to grant such reforms.
3. A third document which discussed the question of indemnity, specifying that Spain
would pay a total of $1,700,000 $800,000 as above plus $900,000 to be
distributed among the civilian population as compensation for the ravages of war.
[6]

Results[edit]


Filipino revolutionaries exiled to Hong Kong. Sitting on Emilio Aguinaldo's right is Lt. Col. Miguel Primo de
Rivera,
[7]:278
nephew and aide-de-camp of Fernando Primo de Rivera and father of Jose Antonio Primo de
Rivera. Standing behind Aguinaldo is Col. Gregorio del Pilar. Miguel was held hostage until Aguinaldo's
indemnity was paid.
[8]:309310
Standing behind Miguel and to his right is Pedro Paterno.
In accordance with the first part of the pact, Aguinaldo and twenty five other top officials of
the revolution were banished to Hong Kong with $400,000 (Filipino)in their
possession.
[9]
The rest of the men received $200,000 (Mexican), but the third installment
was never received. General amnesty was never declared because sporadic skirmishes
continued.
[10]


Republic of Biak-na-Bato
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Republic of Biak-na-Bato
-na-Bat
Repblica de Biac-na-Bat
Unrecognized state



1897






Flag Seal


Location of the Republic of Biak-na-Bato in Asia
Capital San Miguel, Bulacan
Languages Spanish, Tagalog
Government Republic
President Emilio Aguinaldo
Historical era Philippine Revolution
-

Established
November 1, 1897
-

Disestablished
December 15, 1897
Area
-

1897 300,000 km(115,831 sq
mi)
The Republic of Biak-na-Bato (Tagalog: Repblik ng

Biak-na-Bat,Spanish: Repblica de Biac-

na-Bat), officially referred to in its constitution as the Republic of the
Philippines (Tagalog: Repblik ng

Filipinas,Spanish: Repblica de Filipinas), was the first republic

ever declared in thePhilippines by the revolutionary Emilio Aguinaldo and his fellow members of
the Katipunan. Despite its successes, including the establishment of thePhilippines' first ever
constitution, the republic lasted just over a month. This was after a peace treaty was signed by
Aguinaldo and the SpanishGovernor-General, Fernando Primo de Rivera, that includes Aguinaldo's
exile to Hong Kong.
Contents
[hide]
1 Government
2 History
3 The Mother of Biak-na-Bato
4 Legacy
5 Notes
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Government[edit]
The constitution of the Republic of Biak-na-Bato was written by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho,
who copied the Cuban Constitution of Jimaguaynearly word-for-word. It provided for the creation of
a Supreme Council, which was created on November 2, 1897, with the following as officers having
been elected:
[1]

Position Name
President Emilio Aguinaldo
Vice-President Mariano Tras
Secretary of Foreign Affairs Antonio Montenegro
Secretary of War Emiliano Riego de Dios
Secretary of the Interior Isabelo Artacho
Secretary of the Treasury Baldomero Aguinaldo

History[edit]
The initial concept of the republic began during the latter part of the Philippine revolution, when the
leader of the Katipunan,Emilio Aguinaldo, became surrounded by Spanish forces at his
headquarters in Talisay, Batangas. Aguinaldo slipped through the Spanish cordon and, with 500
picked men, proceeded to Biak-na-Bat,
[2]
a wilderness area at the tri-boundaries of the towns
of San Miguel, San Ildefonso and Doa Remedios in Bulacan.
[3]
When news of Aguinaldo's arrival
there reached the towns of central Luzon, men from the Ilocos provinces, Nueva
Ecija, Pangasinan, Tarlac, and Zambalesrenewed their armed resistance against the Spanish.
[2]

Unable to persuade the revolutionaries to give up their arms, Governor-General Primo de
Rivera issued a decree on July 2, 1897, which prohibited inhabitants from leaving their villages and
towns. Contrary to his expectations, they continued fighting. Within days, Aguinaldo and his men
planned the establishment of a Republic. Aguinaldo issued a proclamation from his hideout in Biak-
na-Bato entitled "To the Brave Sons of the Philippines", in which he listed his revolutionary demands
as:
1. the expulsion of the Friars and the return to the Filipinos of the lands which they had
appropriated for themselves;
2. representation in the Spanish Cortes;
3. freedom of the press and tolerance of all religious sects;
4. equal treatment and pay for Peninsular and Insular civil servants;
5. abolition of the power of the government to banish civil citizens;
6. legal equality of all persons.
[4]

On November 1, 1897, the provisional constitution for the Biak-na-Bato Republic was signed.
[5]
The
preamble of the constitution included the statement that
The separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into an independent
state with its own government called the Philippine Republic has been the end sought by the Revolution
in the existing war, begun on the 24th of August, 1896; and therefore, in its name and by the power
delegated by the Filipino people, interpreting faithfully their desires and ambitions, we, the representatives
of the Revolution, in a meeting at Biac-na-bato, Nov. 1st. 1897, unanimously adopt the following articles
for the Constitution of the State.
[6]

By the end of 1897, Governor-General Primo de Rivera accepted the impossibility of quelling the
revolution by force of arms. In a statement to the Cortes Generales, he said, "I can take Biak-na-
Bato, any military man can take it, but I can not answer that I could crush the rebellion." Desiring to
make peace with Aguinaldo, he sent emissaries to Aguinaldo seeking a peaceful settlement. Nothing
was accomplished until Pedro A. Paterno, a distinguished lawyer from Manila, volunteered to act as
negotiator.
On August 9, 1897, Paterno proposed a peace based on reforms and amnesty to Aguinaldo. In
succeeding months, practicing shuttle diplomacy, Paterno traveled back and forth between Manila
and Biak-na-Bato carrying proposals and counterproposals. Paterno's efforts led to a peace
agreement called the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. This consisted of three documents, the first two being
signed on December 14, 1897, and the third being signed on December 15; effectively ending the
Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
[7]

The principal conditions of the pact were:
[8]

(1) That I would, and any of my associates who desired to go with me, be free to live in any
foreign country. Having fixed upon Hongkong as my place of residence, it was agreed
that payment of the indemnity of $800,000 (Mexican) should be made in three
installments, namely, $400,000 when all the arms in Biak-na-Bat were delivered to the
Spanish authorities; $200,000 when the arms surrendered amounted to eight hundred
stand; the final payment to be made when one thousand stand of arms shall have been
handed over to the authorities and the Te Deum sung in theCathedral in Manila as
thanksgiving for the restoration of peace. The latter part of February was fixed as the limit
of time wherein the surrender of arms should be completed.

(2) The whole of the money was to be paid to me personally, leaving the disposal of the
money to my discretion and knowledge of the understanding with my associates and
other insurgents.

(3) Prior to evacuating Biak-na-Bat the remainder of the insurgent forces under Captain-
General Primo de Rivera should send to Biak-na-Bat two General of the Spanish
Army to be held as hostages by my
(2) associates who remained there until I and a few of my compatriots arrived in Hongkong
and the first installment of the money payment (namely, four hundred thousand dollars)
was paid to me.

(4) It was also agreed that the religious corporations in the Philippines be expelled and an
autonomous system of government, political and administrative, be established, though
by special request of General Primo de Rivera these conditions were not insisted on in
the drawing up of the Treaty, the General contending that such concessions would
subject the Government to severe criticism and even ridicule.
[8]


Revolution in Cavite[edit]
By December, the Spanish authorities in Manila recognized three major centers of
rebellion: Cavite (under Mariano Alvarezand others), Bulacan (under Mariano Llanera)
and Morong (now part of Rizal, under Bonifacio). Bonifacio served astactician for the rebel guerillas
though his prestige suffered when he lost battles he personally led.
[3]

Meanwhile in Cavite, Katipuneros under Mariano lvarez, Bonifacio's uncle by marriage,
and Baldomero Aguinaldo, ofCavite El Viejo (modern Kawit), won early victories. The Magdalo
council commissioned Edilberto Evangelista, an engineer, to plan the defense and logistics of the
revolution in Cavite. His first victory was in the Battle of Imus on September 1, 1896 with the aid
of Jose Tagle defeating the Spanish forces under General Ernesto Aguirre. The Cavite
revolutionaries, particularly Aguinaldo, won prestige in defeating Spanish troops in "set piece" battles
while other rebels like Bonifacio and Llanera were engaged in guerrilla warfare. Aguinaldo, speaking
for the Magdalo ruling council, issued a manifesto proclaiming a provisional and revolutionary
government after his early successes despite the existence of
Bonifacio'sKatipunan government.
[55]

The Katipunan in Cavite was divided into two councils: the Magdiwang (led by Alvarez) and
the Magdalo (led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, Emilio's cousin). At first these two Katipunan councils
cooperated with each other in the battlefield, as in thebattles of Binakayan and Dalahican, where
they won their first major victory over the Spaniards. However, rivalries between command and
territory soon developed and they refused to cooperate and aid each other in battle.
To unite the Katipunan in Cavite, the Magdiwang through Artemio Ricarte and Pio Del Pilar invited
Bonifacio, who was fighting in Morong (present-day Rizal) province to mediate between the factions.
Perhaps due to his kinship ties with their leader, Bonifacio was seen as partial to the Magdiwang.
[56]

It was not long before the issue of leadership was debated. The Magdiwang faction recognized
Bonifacio as supreme leader, being the head of the Katipunan. The Magdalo faction agitated for
Emilio Aguinaldo to be the movement's head because of his personal successes in the battlefield
compared to Bonifacio's record of personal defeats. Meanwhile the Spanish troops, now under the
command of the new Governor-General Camilo de Polavieja, steadily gained ground.
Execution of Bonifacio[edit]
See also: Andrs Bonifacio
Bonifacio moved his headquarters to Naic after the fall of Imus.
[40]:112
In Naic, Bonifacio and his
officers created the Naic Military Agreement, establishing a rival government to the newly constituted
government of Aguinaldo. It rejected the election at Tejeros and asserted Bonifacio as the leader of
the revolution. It ordered the forced enlistment of Filipino men to Bonifacio's army. The agreement
eventually called for a coup 'd etat against the established government. When Limbon in Indang, a
town in Cavite, refused to supply provisions, Bonifacio ordered it burned.
[40]:117
When Aguinaldo
learned of the document and reports of abuse, he ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his soldiers
(without Bonifacio's knowledge) on 27 April 1897.
[40]:120
Colonel Agapito Benzon met with Bonifacio
in Limbon and attacked him the next day. Bonifacio, and his brother Procopio were wounded, while
their brother Ciriaco were killed on 28 April.
[40]:121
They were taken to Naic to stand trial.
[40]:124

The Consejo de Guerra (War Council) sentenced Andrs and Procopio to death on May 10, 1897 for
committing sedition and treason.
[45]
Aguinaldo commuted the punishment to deportation,
[40]:140
but
withdrew his decision following pressure from Pio Del Pilar and other officers of the revolution.
On May 10, Major Lazaro Makapagal, upon orders from General Mariano Noriel, executed the
Bonifacio brothers
[40]:143
at the foothills of Mount Buntis,
[45]
near Maragondon. Andrs and Procopio
were buried in a shallow grave marked only with twigs.