Professional Documents
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I
by providing proper nutrition, nfectious diseases of raptors are caused by bacterial, fungal, viral, and para-
housing, and hygiene. sitic agents (see Infectious and Parasitic Agents of Free-Ranging Raptors).1–5
The most common infectious and parasitic diseases are covered in detail
KEY FACTS in this article and include bumblefoot associated with Staphylococcus aureus;
aspergillosis; candidiasis; poxvirus and herpesvirus; trichomoniasis and capillar-
■ Bumblefoot is best prevented by iasis; and hemoparasites of the genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, and Leuco-
providing appropriate perches, cytozoon.
talon trimming, and regular
a
examination of the plantar BACTERIAL INFECTION: BUMBLEFOOT
surfaces of the feet to detect A common consequence of hospitalization and confinement of raptors is podo-
early clinical signs, dermatitis, commonly known as bumblefoot. Bumblefoot is defined as any inflam-
matory condition of the foot, ranging from mild erythema to severe abscessation
■ All raptors are susceptible to and osteomyelitis (Figure 1). Trauma predisposes to the development of bumble-
aspergillosis infection, but the foot; self-inflicted talon punctures, bites from prey, and improperly shaped perches
most susceptible species are are common causes. Obesity or inactivity, unsanitary cages, immunosuppression,
immature red-tailed hawks, bald and vitamin A deficiencies are additional causes.11,12 Bumblefoot has been presented
and golden eagles, goshawks, in the literature as a noninfectious disease12; however, S. aureus is often the cause of
gyrfalcons, rough-legged hawks, debilitating bumblefoot with associated cellulitis and osteomyelitis.11,13,14
and snowy owls, Falcon species tend to be more susceptible to bumblefoot than are hawks,11,15
and both of these groups are more frequently affected than are owls. The princi-
■ The cutaneous form of poxvirus pal clinical signs are swelling and inflammation of the plantar surface of the foot
infection has been reported in that can progress to debilitating lameness associated with cellulitis, tendinitis,
both Falconiformes (diurnal and osteomyelitis.
raptors) and Strigiformes (owls) Diagnosis is usually straightforward and based on physical examination, radio-
species, graphic evaluation, and bacterial culture and sensitivity of lesions. Staging for
prognostic assessment is usually based on the classification scheme proposed by
■ The top five differentials for any Halliwell that consists of four categories (see Bumblefoot Classification
raptor with caseous lesions in Scheme).11 Staging is important both for prognostic assessment and develop-
the oral cavity are candidiasis, ment of a therapeutic plan.
trichomoniasis, capillariasis, *For additional information on raptor medicine, see “Raptor Medicine: Basic Principles and
bacterial abscesses, and Noninfectious Conditions” in the March 1999 (Vol. 21, No. 3) issue of Compendium.
a
hypovitaminosis A, Information on other important bacterial infections of raptors, including Mycobacterium
avium, Chlamydia psittaci, and Salmonella species, can be found in the literature.2,6–10
Small Animal/Exotics 20TH ANNIVERSARY Compendium April 1999
Blood Parasites
Common blood parasites of raptors include species
in the genera Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon, and Haemo-
proteus.39,43 Other less frequently diagnosed blood para-
sites (not discussed in this article) are species of Try-
panosoma and Babesia. 39 Transmission of all raptor
hemoparasites requires an insect vector. Plasmodium,
Haemoproteus, and Leucocytozoon species are transmit-
ted by mosquitoes, hippoboscid flies or Culicoides
species, and simuliid flies, respectively. Much debate ex-
ists regarding the pathogenicity of hemoparasites in
raptors. Most investigators agree that Plasmodium
species are pathogenic.
Clinical signs associated with Plasmodium infections Figure 6—Intraerythrocytic Plasmodium species schizont (ar-
in raptors range from asymptomatic to characteristic signs row) in a bald eagle. (From Greiner EC, Black DJ, Iverson
of weakness, respiratory distress, and biliverdinuria. Di- WO: Plasmodium in a bald eagle [Haliaeetus leucocephalus].
agnosis is based on clinical in Florida. J Wildl Dis 17[4]:555–558, 1981. Reprinted with
MPENDIU signs and blood film evalua- permission.)
M’
20th
CO
1 9 7
9 - 1
9 9 9
um infections can be treated
ANNIVERSARY
with oral chloroquine (effec- CONCLUSION
tive against erythrocytic Veterinarians in clinical practice should be familiar
A LookBack forms) and primiquine (ef-
fective against tissue forms).
with the diseases of free-ranging and captive raptors.
Some infectious diseases (e.g., bumblefoot, aspergillo-
There have been many advances Redig suggests a loading sis) often result from stressful conditions during hospi-
in our knowledge base, dose of 25 mg/kg of chloro- talization of raptors that originally presented with a dif-
diagnostic capabilities, and quine combined with 1.3 ferent condition (e.g., trauma, toxicosis). Clinicians
mg/kg of primiquine fol- should know the clinical signs, diagnostic protocols,
therapeutic approaches to the
lowed by 15 mg/kg of chloro- and therapeutic approaches of these diseases.
infectious diseases of raptors
quine plus 0.75 to 1.0 mg/
during the past 20 years. The kg of primiquine at 12, 24,
most important of these advances and 48 hours.45 Treatment REFERENCES
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emergency airway in cases of tracheal obstruction. Proc Annu Dr. Deem is affiliated with the Field Veterinary Program,
Conf Assoc Avian Vet:215–216, 1990. Wildlife Health Sciences, Wildlife Conservation Soci-
28. Joseph V: Preventive health programs for falconry birds. ety/Bronx Zoo, Bronx, New York. She is a Diplomate of
Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet:171–178, 1995. the American College of Zoological Medicine.
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