Absorptivity The fraction of radiation incident on a body, which is absorbed.

For a black body this is one

at all wavelengths. The emissivity of a surface and its absorptivity are equal.
Active ions The active ions in a phosphor are the species that emit the fluorescent radiation. Different
ions produce different colours according to their electronic energy levels. They can also be
but are not necessarily the ions absorbing the incident energy.
Analogue signal Continuously variable signal e.g. light intensity (cf digital signal)
Ballast A device used to start a gas discharge lamp (including a fluorescent lamp:) while limiting
subsequent current flow. Such lamps present a difficulty in that the gas phase initially has a
very high resistance but it falls when the arc is struck between the two electrodes and ions
are generated. The device may simply be a resistor but this will result in power loss and so
generally involves more complex circuits including capacitors and inductors.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp)
Bandpass filter A filter designed to absorb strongly at certain wavelengths while giving high transmission
over another part of the spectrum
Bandwidth Information carrying capacity of a system. Units for digital systems are typically kbits s
-1
or
Mbits s
-1
while for analogue systems they are MHz, GHz. The latter units are used for both
cases however. Occasionally kilobytes rather than kilobits are used. There are 8 bits for 1
byte.
To compare different fibres, bandwidths may also be quoted for a unit length. The units are
then MHz km. The system bandwidth is the bandwidth in MHz km/fibre length in km i.e. it
decreases with length.
Black body A body whose emission of electromagnetic radiation follows the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Such a body also absorbs all radiation incident on it and so appears black. A deposited layer
of soot is almost a perfect black body
Black body
radiation
The total radiation emitted by an ideal black body is T
4
W m
-2
, where is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant. This radiation has a spectrum defined by Planks law, with a maximum
defined by Wiens Law.
Boltzmann
distribution
This law gives the probability of an electron/atom being in an excited state with an energy
E greater than its ground state (or any other reference state) as N
ex
/N
g.s
. = exp(-(E
ex
-
E
g.s
.)/kT) or exp (-E/kT). N
ex
and N
g.s.
are the numbers of atoms in the excited and the
ground state respectively. k is the Boltzmann constant.
Calibration The process of comparing a new instruments readings with those of an independent
standard
Chalcogenides That row of elements in group 6 of the periodic table, below oxygen i.e. S, Se, Te
Chopper A system for chopping a light signal into pulses e.g. at 100 cycles per minute, used in
combination with a lock-in amplifier that selectively measures the signal at that frequency
Coarsening See grain growth
Coherent fibre
bundle
The entry and exit points of an individual fibre within a bundle of optical fibres match so
that image transmission is possible
Combination
band
Wavelengths in an absorption spectrum that correspond to excitation of two different
fundamental vibrational modes simultaneously. The frequency of such absorptions is the
sum of the frequencies of the individual absorptions.
Constant
temperature
enclosure
An enclosed space surrounded by surfaces all at the same temperature. Even though the
emissivity of the surfaces may be less than one the radiation inside is black body radiation,
made up of both reflected and emitted radiation. A small hole can be used in the enclosure
can be used to allow measurement of this radiation. Such enclosures are used to calibrate
radiation pyrometers
Convection The process of heat transfer by flow of the gases around a hot (or cold) object i.e. heat is
transported as the kinetic energy of the gas molecules
Critical angle, C When light traverses a boundary from a high to a low refractive index it is refracted away
from the normal (perpendicular). The critical angle occurs where the angle of refraction just
reaches 90
0
. Mathematically this corresponds to the condition n
1
sinC=n
2
sin90
0
(n
2
<n
1
). For
angles of incidence greater than the critical angle total internal reflection occurs
CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition. A way of making high purity materials by chemical reaction
in the vapour phase. The material is deposited on a substrate, and often the chemical
reaction occurs at the surface, allowing propagation of a particular crystal structure
orientation
Devitrification The spontaneous crystallisation of a glass forming melt, caused by the addition of
nucleating agents or an extended hold at elevated temperatures below the liquidus
temperature
Dew point The temperature when the relative humidity just reaches one i.e. the atmosphere is fully
saturated and condensation can start. Since the vapour pressures of fully saturated air are
known as a function of temperature, measurement of dew point allows determination of
water concentrations
Digital signal A signal encoded in numerical form, usually as bits (0 or 1)
Discharge lamp A light source using the emission from atoms in the gas phase that have been excited by
electron impact (typically an inert gas, Na or Hg). http://www.lamptech.co.uk/
Dispersion In optical telecommunications this refers to the tendency of a sharp input signal to spread as
it travels along the fibre. It is therefore measured in time units and increases in proportion
with fibre length. It is the inverse of the bandwidth. The principal cause is the varying
velocities of different modes of propagation. (see also waveguide and materials dispersion)
Distillation The purification of a liquid phase by selective evaporation, followed by condensation
Durability,
chemical
The resistance of a material to attack by water, acidic or alkaline solutions, organic solvents
etc
Electrodes Source of or sink for electrons in an electrical circuit. A source of electrons is termed a
cathode while the sink for electrons is called the anode.
Electronic defects For materials made at high temperatures, errors in the bonding are always possible. These
can give: unpaired electrons, new molecular orbitals, electrons linked to empty sites etc and
can give optical absorptions often in the near UV or blue end of the spectrum. They are
responsible for the brown discoloration of glasses that have been irradiated.
e.m.f. The voltage generated by a battery or other system measured under conditions of zero
current flow (see also potential difference)
Emissivity The ratio between the actual amount of radiation emitted by a black body and the theoretical
amount emitted by an ideal black body, both bodies being at the same temperature. (see
spectral emissivity).
Extrinsic losses Optical losses in fibres arising from mechanisms that are potentially avoidable e.g.
impurities
Fabry-Perot
resonator
Two accurately parallel reflectors used in creating a resonant cavity.
Fluorescence The emission of a photon by an atom as it returns to a lower energy state after excitation e.g.
by another photon, or collision with an energetic electron. The general term for such
processes is luminescence and this term can be qualified by a prefix indicating the excitation
mechanism e.g. photoluminescence for excitation by photons. Luminescence is subdivided
into two subgroups, viz fluorescence and phosphorescence according to the time scale of the
process. Fluorescent processes are fast and no emission is observed after the excitation
source is switched off. Such processes may involve photons in the UV, visible or IR.
Foci Plural of focus. A lens is normally designed to focus light on to one point the focal point.
An elliptical cavity with a mirrored surface has 2 focal points, or foci.
Forbidden
transition
A transition between 2 energy states of an atom which in theory cannot be excited by a
photon because of the rules of quantum mechanics. An example is a transition between
states with the same quantum number i.e. 1s and 2s electronic levels. The reason is that
both states have the same angular momentum (=0) while a photon carries one unit of
angular momentum so a 2s to 1s transition does not preserve angular momentum and
hence is forbidden. In reality other factors e.g. thermal vibrations in a solid, destroy the
symmetry of different atomic states and such transitions often do occur but with a low
probability
Four level system Refers to the active energy levels for dopants used in making lasers, although in reality
many more than 4 excited states will exist. The pumping scheme is from 1 to 4, non-
radiative decay occurs to state 3, and the transition from 3 down to 2 is the laser transition.
Since state 2 will normally have a low occupancy at thermal equilibrium, it is much easier
to obtain an inverted population compared with 3 level systems
Frequency Electromagnetic radiation has a wave-like character. Its frequency () is the number of
waves passing a given point per second. Frequency is independent of the refractive index of
the medium
Fundamental
frequency
The natural vibrational frequencies associated with a particular group of atoms (two or
more). Typically these correspond to the frequency of radiation in the mid-IR but vary
approximately as (k/m)
1/2
where k represents a force constant and m mean mass. See also
overtones and combination bands
Germicides Substances/processes that destroy germs e.g. short wavelength UV radiation
Glass forming
ability
A measure of the ease with which a melt can be cooled to form a glassy phase, without
crystallising (e.g. may be measured as the critical cooling rate required)
Grain growth At high temperatures, smaller crystals in polycrystalline samples tend to shrink and transfer
material to larger grains thereby reducing the excess energy associated with the surface.
(Small grains have a higher surface area per unit volume than large grains). This process is
also known as coarsening, the average grain size slowly increasing.
Grating An optical device with very fine surface rulings designed to reflect selectively certain
wavelengths at particular angles by diffraction
Halogen The group of chemicals in Group 7 of the periodic table and including in order of increasing
atomic weight: fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine
Incandescent Glowing strongly because of high temperature of body
Incoherent fibre
bundle
No correspondence between the entry and exit points of an individual fibre within a bundle
of fibres used to transmit light
Induction furnace A high frequency electromagnetic field is used to induce eddy currents in the material to be
heated or a separate element. These currents then cause heating. This is intrinsically cleaner
than resistance heating, where the material must be placed in a heated container.
Inert gas One of the elements with a complete outer electronic shell (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn). Also
know as a noble gas. All exist in the gaseous state at room temperature and are monoatomic
Infrared That part of the electromagnetic spectrum between the visible range and the microwave
region (0.7 to 1000 microns). See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared
Infrared edge All materials absorb infrared radiation strongly at longer wavelengths. Absorption decreases
rapidly at shorter wavelengths towards the visible part of the spectrum and this is called the
infrared edge e.g. when considering the transmission of optical fibres.
Intensity The intensity of a light beam is the energy carried per sec i.e. watts. It is proportional to the
number of photons in the beam. It is also the square of the amplitude of the associated wave.
Intrinsic loss Optical losses in fibres which are fundamental to the materials used
Inverse square
law
The intensity of radiation emitted from a hot body decreases in proportion to the square of
the distance from that body (1/r
2
). It arises from the fact that a constant total flux of
radiation is spread over an area which increases as 4r
2
. A similar relationship holds for
many other effects e.g. the strength of an electric field around a point charge.
Inverted
population
A situation where there are more atoms in an excited state than in some lower energy level.
It is fundamental to the operation of a laser where a seed photon is used to excite emission
from such an inverted population causing amplification. An inverted population can only
be produced by pumping in optical energy (photons) via some third level.
Irradiance The energy emitted per second per unit area by an ideal black body (see spectral irradiance)
Kirchhoffs law The energy emitted by a real black body per second is given by eAT
4
(see Stefan-
Boltzmann equation)
Kinetic energy The energy associated with the motion (velocity v)of a body of mass, m. It is equal to mv
2

LASER Light Amplification via Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Lead glass A glass in the system K
2
O-PbO-SiO
2
. They have high refractive indices, high light
dispersion, and low electrical conductivity. They are used for art glass & fluorescent tubing.
Lone pair
electrons
Lead is in the same row of the periodic table as silicon and has an outer shell electronic
configuration of 6s
2
6p
2
. It can form a divalent ion by loosing just the two 6p electrons
leaving its two 6s electrons. These are termed a lone pair; they are only loosely bonded and
interact strongly with passing light; so lead compounds have a high refractive index. Tin
(Group 4, Sn
2+
), thallium (Group 3, Tl
1+
) and bismuth (Group 5, Bi
3+
) behave similarly; tin
retains its 5s
2
electrons.
Materials
dispersion
The refractive index of a material is a function of wavelength and hence also the
propagation velocity (c/n). Since a modulated telecommunications signal is effectively a
narrow band of wavelengths rather than a unique wavelength this refractive index variation
gives rise to signal dispersion. The effect is smaller than modal dispersion and for each
material there is one wavelength where materials dispersion falls to zero; for silica this is
near 1.3 m.
MCVD Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition is analogous to CVD but uses higher reactant
concentrations so the reaction occurs in the gas phase rather than at the surface. This allows
faster deposition rates but prevents oriented growth so is not used for crystals, only glasses.
Monochromatic A light source giving a single wavelength output (or a very narrow band)
Monomode fibre An optical fibre with a narrow core and a small difference in refractive index between core
and cladding that only allows one mode of light transmission (one light path) at the relevant
wavelength. Such a fibre is required for low dispersion/high bandwidth operation.
Multimode fibre An optical fibre where the light can take many different paths from one end to the other.
Such fibres cannot be used for telecommunications, only for the transmission of light.
Non-radiative
transition
When an excited atom looses its excess energy passing it on to the surrounding lattice as
heat, the transition is said to be non-radiative.
Numerical
aperture
The N.A. of an optical fibre measures the sine of the maximum angle of incidence on the
end of a fibre of a light ray which will be total internally reflected inside the fibre core i.e.
hit the core-clad interface at the critical angle or more. Mathematically N.A. = (n
1
2
-n
2
2
)
1/2

where n
1
and n
2
are the r.i.s of the core and cladding respectively.. For light guiding to occur
at all requires n
1
>n
2
. The maximum possible N.A. is 1 and corresponds to acceptance of
light incident at any angle. Such a value can be achieved by choice of appropriate core and
cladding glasses.
Optical loss
(absorption)
-10 log (optical transmission), units dB the units used for optical fibre systems. Optical
loss increases in proportion to the length of the fibre (cf bandwidth).
Absorbance (strictly) is the term for the optical loss for a unit length and is -10 log (optical
transmission)/fibre length, dB km
-1
or dB m
-1
.
NB. A 10dB loss corresponds to 10% transmission, 20dB to 1% etc
Optical
transmission
Usually expressed as a ratio of output to input power, either as a fraction or % -
I
transmitted
/I
Incident

Overtone bands In an absorption spectrum these refer to absorptions at wavelengths which are a half, a third
etc of that of the fundamental vibrational absorption i.e. a frequency of twice, three times.
They are much weaker absorptions than the fundamental
Phosphor A material which fluoresces strongly when excited by high energy photons e.g. in the UV
Phonons Localised atomic vibrations in a solid that can propagate through the lattice as sound waves
Photons Electromagnetic radiation, while having a wave-like character, comes in defined energy
packets called photons. The energy of a photon is hfrequency, where h is Plancks
constant. The energy of UV photons is therefore much more than for IR photons.
Planks constant See photons.
Polycrystalline Most metals and ceramics consist of many small crystals in a more or less random
orientation
Potential
difference
The potential difference between any two parts of an electrical circuit is what drives the
electrons between those points. Specifically electrons making up a total charge of one
Coulomb gain one Joule of energy in crossing a potential difference of one volt, or for
current of one amp (coulomb per second) the power generated is 1 Watt (Joule per second).
Preform A solid rod with an appropriate refractive index profile built up by MCVD, made as a
precursor for subsequent drawing into optical fibre. Typically 1 m long x 25mm diameter
Propagating
modes
In narrow core optical fibres, a travelling wave is confined to a small cross-sectional area
and cannot be properly thought of as a wave bouncing at infinitely variable angles between
interfaces. Instead the solutions become limited by the need to fit integer numbers of waves
within the cross-section rather like the wave solutions for an electron associated with an
atomic nucleus (Schrodinger). Monomode fibres have narrow cores and small numerical
apertures so that only one mode can propagate.
Radiation
Pyrometer
A device for measuring the temperature of a body, based on measurement of the emitted
radiation from that body
Radiative
transition
When an excited atom loses its excess energy by emitting a photon, the transition is said to
be radiative.
Rare earth
elements
That group of elements in the periodic table where the 4f levels are being filled. They are
not so much rare as difficult to purify. The actinides form an equivalent series where the 5f
orbitals are being filled. As for transition metals, their compounds are often coloured and
their ions can show magnetic behaviour because of unfilled orbitals and unpaired electrons
Rayleigh
scattering
Inhomogeneities in the refractive index of a medium cause a fraction of the incident light to
be scattered at an angle to the incident beam. If the scale of the inhomogeneity is much less
than the wavelength of light then scattering occurs over the whole angular range from 0 to
180
0
and is proportional in magnitude to B/
4
where B is a constant. Blue light is therefore
scattered more intensely than red. In disordered materials such as gases, liquids and glasses,
such inhomogeneities are part of the structural variability inherent to their natural states.
Reflectivity As a consequence of refraction, whenever a light ray crosses a boundary with a change of
refractive index, a reflected ray is also produced. For normal incidence, reflectivity is (n
2
-
n
1
)
2
/(n
2
+n
1
)
2
.
Relative humidity The concentration of water in an atmosphere, divided by the concentration if the air were
fully saturated. The concentration is proportional to the vapour pressure of water. At the
boiling point of water therefore the vapour pressure just equals one atmosphere.
Resistance
furnace
An electrical current, I, passed through a resistance R causes heating equal to IV (V is the
voltage drop across the resistor). This is the basis of a resistance furnace or an electric fire
Resonant cavity Usually a pair of parallel mirrors that traps a light beam inside and uses multiple reflections
between the two mirrors to coordinate the stimulated emission of radiation from excited
atoms inside the cavity. It ensures a parallel (well collimated), coherent (phase coordinated),
monochromatic light beam, which leaks out on a CW (continuous wave) or pulsed basis.
Rod-in-tube Describes a method of making low grade optical fibres for illumination, where a thin tube is
collapsed onto a core of optical quality glass at moderate temperatures
Scattering See Rayleigh scattering
Sensitiser ions Sensitiser ions are sometimes present at relatively high concentrations in phosphors. Their
role is to absorb a high fraction of the incident radiation and to pass it on to the active ions,
which then fluoresce at longer wavelengths, where the sensitiser ions do not absorb
Silica glass A glass made from pure silica. It has a very high transformation temperature (1200
0
C). It is
is chemically very durable, gives strong fibres, has a very low expansion coefficient and
excellent optical properties for telecommunications
Sintering A process undertaken at high temperatures, where solid particles are bonded into a single
mass, ideally with elimination of pores. The silica soot deposited by MCVD must be
sintered to make an optically transparent body.
Snells Law Relates the angle of incidence, i, to the angle of refraction, r, for light crossing a boundary
with refractive index n
1
into a region where the refractive index is n
2
. It states that n
1
sini =
n
2
sinr. Angles of incidence and refraction are measured relative to the normal to the surface.
Soda-lime-silica
glass
A glass in the Na
2
O-CaO-SiO
2
system, which is the basis of many commercially produced
glasses
Spectral
emissivity
The ratio between the actual quantity of radiation emitted within a narrow wavelength range
(typically 1) by a black body and the theoretical quantity emitted by an ideal black body,
both bodies being at the same temperature. (see emissivity).
Spectral
irradiance
The energy emitted per second per unit area by a hot body within a narrow spectral range
(typically 1)
Spectrometer An instrument for splitting the different wavelength components of a light beam and
measuring their intensities
Spectroscopy A study of the radiation absorbed or emitted as a function of wavelength usually with the
intention of understanding better some aspect of the structure or properties of a material. A
spectrometer is used for the measurement and particular peaks in the absorption or emission
spectrum relate to particular quantised energy states of the electrons or atoms in the material
Spontaneous
emission
When an excited atom is its excess energy by emitting a photon after some undefined time-
interval, the transition is said to be spontaneous
Stefan-
Boltzmann law
Energy emitted from a body at a temperature of T Kelvin is given by AT
4
, A is its surface
area and is the Stefan Boltzmann constant (see also Kirchhoffs law)
Stimulated
emission
When a photon of an appropriate energy causes an excited atom to lose its excess energy by
emission of a second photon, the transition is said to be stimulated
Stokes shift Emitted fluorescent radiation is normally at longer wavelengths than the incident radiation
which excites it. The shift in the photon energy to lower values is termed the Stokes shift.
Its origin is in the involvement of atomic vibrations in the absorption and emission
processes
Submarine cable A telecommunications cable placed under the sea or across an ocean
Thermal shock
resistance
The ability of a material to withstand fracture when subject to sudden changes in
temperature
Thermistor A resistance used in an electrical circuit because it has a rapid change in resistance with
temperature (usually decreasing).
Thermal
conductivity
Measures the efficiency of heat transmission through a material. Specifically it is the ratio
of the heat transported per second per unit area divided by the temperature gradient
Thermocouple A device for measuring temperature based on measurement of the e.m.f. generated in a
circuit of two different wires, with one of their junctions at the temperature to be measured
and the other at a known set point e.g. 0
o
C
Three level Refers to the active energy levels for dopants used in making lasers, although in reality
systems many more than 3 excited states will exist. The pumping scheme is from 1 to 3, non-
radiative decay occurs to state 2, and the transition from 2 down to 1 is the laser transition.
Time constant Many processes show a time dependent response which can fitted to an exponential function
e.g. decay of radioactive nuclei, the rise of a needle on an instrument to its true value. Such
systems can be described by functions of the form N=N
0
exp(-t/) or N

(1- exp(-t/)), where

N represents the instantaneous value, N
0
the initial value, t is time and is the time constant
for the process. In the second form of the expression N

represents the final value. Half-life
corresponds to the time when exp(-t/) = 0.5 and so t= - ln0.5 or 0.69.
Total Internal
Reflection
If light is incident on a boundary from a high to a low refractive index material at an angle
of incidence greater than the critical angle then it is totally reflected back into the high
refractive index medium.
Transformation
range
The temperature domain over which the mechanical behaviour of a glass-forming material
changes from predominantly liquid-like to predominantly solid-like (see also viscosity).
Transition metal Those groups of elements in the periodic table where the d orbitals are being filled (3d, 4d
or 5d). In materials based on these transition metal atoms/ions, their d orbitals may be
partially filled and this can give rise to important magnetic, electrical and optical (colour)
effects, because of the associated unpaired electrons and empty energy levels.
Ultraviolet That part of the electromagnetic spectrum at wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum to the
Vacuum Ultraviolet region (380nm to 1nm). The spectrum can be further subdivided
loosely into: near UV (380-200nm), Vacuum UV (200-10nm) and extreme UV (31-1nm).
Near UV itself is often further sub-divided according to its medical effects into: UVA 380-
315nm, UVB 315-280nm, and UVC or germicidal UV (<280nm). Photons in the VUV part
of the spectrum have sufficient energy to excite electronic transitions in molecules such as
oxygen and therefore are not transmitted by the atmosphere. For more information see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet edge Photons with wavelengths well into the ultraviolet are strongly absorbed by materials,
causing excitation of the bonding electrons to higher (empty) energy levels. The ultraviolet
edge is the extension (tail) of this absorption process on either side of the main peak weak
absorption of even visible/IR photons can result from these processes
Ultraviolet
catastrophe
A prediction by classical physicists (before quantum mechanics) that bodies should emit
more and more radiation at shorter and shorter wavelengths. This does not happen and
indeed black body radiation falls to zero the problem was only solved when it was
appreciated that electromagnetic radiation was quantised i.e. was in the form of photons
Vapour pressure The pressure exerted by a material in the vapour phase at equilibrium with the solid or
liquid state. Normal measurement units are torr, and this represents the height in mm of a
column of mercury exerting the same pressure. One atmosphere is approximately 760 torr; a
vapour pressure of x torr is therefore equivalent to a concentration of x/760. A liquid boils
when its vapour pressure reaches 760 torr.
Velocity of light The velocity of light (c) is the distance it travels per second in a vacuum and is
approximately 310
5
km s
-1
. Inside a medium of refractive index n the velocity becomes
c/n. It is related to wavelength and frequency by the relationship c=
Vibrational
energy
In solids (or liquids) the constituent atoms are in constant motion above absolute zero. This
gives the atoms excess kinetic energy (and potential energy associated with bond
distortion). Such vibrations are excited by photons in the mid to far Infared
Viscosity Measures the resistance to shear of a liquid. I.S. unit is Pascal seconds, but often poise (dPa
sec are quoted. The viscosity of liquids like water may be 10
-3
poise, while glass forming
melts have viscosities ranging from 10
2
to 10
15
during their manufacture and processing. For
most purposes, glasses behave effectively as solids once the viscosity exceeds 10
13
poise,
the so-called glass transformation point.
Visible part of
spectrum
That part of the electromagnetic spectrum between approximately 400 and 700nm. The eye
detects the light as a series of colours: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red, the
latter being at the longest wavelengths.
Vitreous The glassy (non-crystalline) form of a material. Vitreous quartz is thus not quartz (which is
crystalline) but its name derives from the material used to make it.
Volatilisation The selective evaporation of one or more phases from the surface of a high temperature
multi-component melt. GeO
2
used to dope silica fibres can volatilise during processing.
Waveguide
dispersion
For monomode fibres, the electric field associated with the propagating wave is not totally
confined to the core but also travels partly in the cladding. The resulting range of refractive
indices experienced by the wave can give rise to a low level of signal dispersion. By
designing more complex profiles for the core this type of dispersion can be eliminated, or
better still, be made negative so that it balances materials dispersion effects.
Wavelength Electromagnetic radiation has a wave-like character. The wavelength () is the distance
between successive peaks in the wave measured in a vacuum. Units are typically
nanometres (10
-9
m) or microns (10
-6
m). The wavelength in a medium of refractive index n
is /n.
Wiens law The energy emitted by a perfect black body peaks at a wavelength given by 2898/T microns
(T in Kelvin)
Xenon One of the inert gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon)


Important formulae.
Key formulae/units are given under the following headings in the text above.

Absorption: See Optical loss
Dispersion: See dispersion and bandwidth
Radiation laws: see Stefan-Boltzmann law, Kirchoffs law, Wiens law, irradiance
Refraction: Snells Law, critical angle, numerical aperture, reflectivity
Scattering: Rayleigh scattering