Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Second edition
Robert W. Erickson
Dragan Maksimovic
University of Colorado, Boulder
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Introduction to power processing
1.2. Some applications of power electronics
1.3. Elements of power electronics
Summary of the course
1.1 Introduction to Power Processing
Dc-dc conversion: Change and control voltage magnitude
Ac-dc rectification: Possibly control dc voltage, ac current
Dc-ac inversion: Produce sinusoid of controllable
magnitude and frequency
Ac-ac cycloconversion: Change and control voltage magnitude
and frequency
Switching
converter
Power
input
Power
output
Control
input
Control is invariably required
Switching
converter
Power
input
Power
output
Control
input
Controller
reference
feedback feedforward
High efficiency is essential
High efficiency leads to low
power loss within converter
Small size and reliable operation
is then feasible
Efficiency is a good measure of
converter performance
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
P
loss
/ P
out

=
P
out
P
in
P
loss
= P
in
P
out
= P
out
1

1
A high-efficiency converter
A goal of current converter technology is to construct converters of small
size and weight, which process substantial power at high efficiency
Converter
P
in
P
out
Devices available to the circuit designer
DT
s
T
s
Resistors Capacitors Magnetics Semiconductor devices
Linear-
mode
+

Switched-mode
Devices available to the circuit designer
Signal processing: avoid magnetics
DT
s
T
s
Resistors Capacitors Magnetics Semiconductor devices
Linear-
mode
+

Switched-mode
Devices available to the circuit designer
Power processing: avoid lossy elements
DT
s
T
s
Resistors Capacitors Magnetics Semiconductor devices
Linear-
mode
+

Switched-mode
Power loss in an ideal switch
Switch closed: v(t) = 0
Switch open: i(t) = 0
In either event: p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 0
Ideal switch consumes zero power
+
v(t)

i(t)
A simple dc-dc converter example
Input source: 100V
Output load: 50V, 10A, 500W
How can this converter be realized?
+

R
5
+
V
50V

V
g
100V
I
10A
Dc-dc
converter
Dissipative realization
Resistive voltage divider
+

R
5
+
V
50V

V
g
100V
I
10A
+ 50V
P
loss
= 500W
P
out
= 500W P
in
= 1000W
Dissipative realization
Series pass regulator: transistor operates in
active region
+

R
5
+
V
50V

V
g
100V
I
10A
+ 50V
P
loss
500W
P
out
= 500W P
in
1000W
+

linear amplifier
and base driver
V
ref
Use of a SPDT switch
+

R
+
v(t)
50 V

1
2
+
v
s
(t)

V
g
100 V
I
10 A
v
s
(t)
V
g
DT
s
(1 D) T
s
0
t
switch
position:
1 2 1
V
s
= DV
g
The switch changes the dc voltage level
D = switch duty cycle
0 D 1
T
s
= switching period
f
s
= switching frequency
= 1 / T
s
V
s
=
1
T
s
v
s
(t) dt
0
T
s
= DV
g
DC component of v
s
(t) = average value:
v
s
(t)
V
g
DT
s
(1 D) T
s
0
t
switch
position:
1 2 1
V
s
= DV
g
Addition of low pass filter
Addition of (ideally lossless) L-C low-pass filter, for
removal of switching harmonics:
Choose filter cutoff frequency f
0
much smaller than switching
frequency f
s
This circuit is known as the buck converter
+

R
+
v(t)

1
2
+
v
s
(t)

V
g
100 V
i(t)
L
C
P
loss
small
P
out
= 500 W P
in
500 W
Addition of control system
for regulation of output voltage
(t)
T
s
dT
s
t
+

+
v

v
g
Switching converter Power
input
Load

+
Compensator
v
ref
Reference
input
Hv
Pulse-width
modulator
v
c
Transistor
gate driver

G
c
(s)
H(s)
v
e
Error
signal
Sensor
gain
i
The boost converter
+

L
C R
+
V

1
2
V
g
D
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
V
5V
g
4V
g
3V
g
2V
g
V
g
0
A single-phase inverter
1
2
+

load
+ v(t)
2
1
V
g
v
s
(t)
+
t
v
s
(t) H-bridge
Modulate switch
duty cycles to
obtain sinusoidal
low-frequency
component
1.2 Several applications of power electronics
Power levels encountered in high-efficiency converters
less than 1 W in battery-operated portable equipment
tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts in power supplies for
computers or office equipment
kW to MW in variable-speed motor drives
1000 MW in rectifiers and inverters for utility dc transmission
lines
A laptop computer power supply system
v
ac
(t)
i
ac
(t)
Charger
PWM
Rectifier
Lithium
battery
ac line input
85265 Vrms
Inverter
Buck
converter
Boost
converter
Display
backlighting
Microprocessor
Power
management
Disk
drive
Power system of an earth-orbiting spacecraft
Solar
array
+
v
bus

Batteries
Battery
charge/discharge
controllers
Dc-dc
converter
Payload
Dc-dc
converter
Payload
Dissipative
shunt regulator
An electric vehicle power and drive system
3ac line
50/60 Hz
Battery
charger
battery
+
v
b

Variable-frequency
Variable-voltage ac
Inverter
ac machine
Inverter
Inverter
ac machine
DC-DC
converter
P
system
controller
Vehicle
electronics
Low-voltage
dc bus
control bus
ac machine ac machine
Inverter
1.3 Elements of power electronics
Power electronics incorporates concepts from the fields of
analog circuits
electronic devices
control systems
power systems
magnetics
electric machines
numerical simulation
Part I. Converters in equilibrium
i
L
(t)
t
0 DT
s
T
s
I
i
L
(0)
V
g
V
L
i
L
(DT
s
)
i
L
V
L
v
L
(t)
V
g
V
t
V
D'T
s
DT
s
switch
position:
1 2 1
R
L
+

V
g
D' R
D
+
D' V
D
D R
on
R
+
V

I
D' : 1
Inductor waveforms Averaged equivalent circuit
D
R
L
/R = 0.1
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.002
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Predicted efficiency
Discontinuous conduction mode
Transformer isolation
Switch realization: semiconductor devices
Collector
p
n
-
n n
p p
Emitter
Gate
n n
minority carrier
injection
collector
emitter
gate
The IGBT
t
i
L
V
g
0
i
B
(t)
v
B
(t)
area
Q
r
0
t
r
t
i
L
V
g
0
i
A
(t)
v
A
(t)
Q
r
0
t
area
~Q
r
V
g
area
~i
L
V
g
t
r
t
0
t
1
t
2
transistor
waveforms
diode
waveforms
p
A
(t)
= v
A
i
A
Switching loss
Part I. Converters in equilibrium
2. Principles of steady state converter analysis
3. Steady-state equivalent circuit modeling, losses, and efficiency
4. Switch realization
5. The discontinuous conduction mode
6. Converter circuits
Part II. Converter dynamics and control
+

+
v(t)

v
g
(t)
Switching converter Power
input
Load

+
R
compensator
G
c
(s)
v
ref
voltage
reference
v
feedback
connection
pulse-width
modulator
v
c
transistor
gate driver
(t)
(t)
T
s
dT
s
t
t
v
c
(t)
Controller
t
t
gate
drive
actual waveform v(t)
including ripple
averaged waveform <v(t)>
T
s
with ripple neglected
+

I d(t)
v
g
(t)
+
L
V
g
V d(t)
+
v(t)

R C
I d(t)
1 : D D' : 1
Closed-loop converter system Averaging the waveforms
Small-signal
averaged
equivalent circuit
Part II. Converter dynamics and control
7. Ac modeling
8. Converter transfer functions
9. Controller design
10. Input filter design
11. Ac and dc equivalent circuit modeling of the discontinuous
conduction mode
12. Current-programmed control
Part III. Magnetics

i
i
3i
2i
2i
2
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
yJ
d
layer
1
layer
2
layer
3
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Switching frequency
B
m
a
x

(
T
)
25kHz 50kHz 100kHz 200kHz 250kHz 400kHz 500kHz 1000kHz
P
o
t

c
o
r
e

s
i
z
e
4226
3622
2616
2213
1811 1811
2213
2616
n
1
: n
2
: n
k
R
1
R
2
R
k
i
1
(t)
i
2
(t)
i
k
(t)
L
M
i
M
(t)
transformer
design
transformer
size vs.
switching
frequency
the
proximity
effect
Part III. Magnetics
13. Basic magnetics theory
14. Inductor design
15. Transformer design
Part IV. Modern rectifiers,
and power system harmonics
100%
91%
73%
52%
32%
19%
15% 15%
13%
9%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Harmonic number
H
a
r
m
o
n
i
c

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
,
p
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

f
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
THD = 136%
Distortion factor = 59%
Pollution of power system by
rectifier current harmonics
R
e
(v
control
)
+

v
ac
(t)
i
ac
(t)
v
control
v(t)
i(t)
+

p(t) = v
ac
2
/ R
e
Ideal rectifier (LFR)
ac
input
dc
output
boost converter
controller
R v
ac
(t)
i
ac
(t)
+
v
g
(t)

i
g
(t)
i
g
(t) v
g
(t)
+
v(t)

i(t)
Q
1
L
C
D
1
v
control
(t)
multiplier
X
+

v
ref
(t)
= k
x
v
g
(t) v
control
(t)
R
s
v
a
(t)
G
c
(s)
PWM
compensator
v
err
(t)
A low-harmonic rectifier system
Model of
the ideal
rectifier
Part IV. Modern rectifiers,
and power system harmonics
16. Power and harmonics in nonsinusoidal systems
17. Line-commutated rectifiers
18. Pulse-width modulated rectifiers
Part V. Resonant converters
L
+

V
g
C
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
Q
4
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
1 : n
R
+
V

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
M

=

V

/

V
g
F = f
s
/ f
0
Q = 20
10
5
3.5
2
1.5
1
0.75
0.5
0.35
Q = 0.2
Q = 20
10
5
3.5
2
1.5
1
0.75
0.5
0.35
Q = 0.2
The series resonant converter
Dc
characteristics
conducting
devices:
t
V
g
v
ds1
(t)
Q
1
Q
4
D
2
D
3
turn off
Q
1
, Q
4
commutation
interval
X
Zero voltage
switching
Part V. Resonant converters
19. Resonant conversion
20. Soft switching
Appendices
A. RMS values of commonly-observed converter waveforms
B. Simulation of converters
C. Middlebrooks extra element theorem
D. Magnetics design tables
2 1
3 4
5
C
C
M
-
D
C
M
1
+

C
2
50 H
11 k
500 F
V
g
28 V
L
C
R
v
ref
5 V
+12 V
LM324
R
1
R
2
R
3 C
3
R
4
85 k
1.1 nF 2.7 nF
47 k
120 k
v
z
v
y
v
x
E
pwm
V
M
= 4 V
value = {LIMIT(0.25 v
x
, 0.1, 0.9)}
+
v

i
LOAD
1 2 3
4
5
6 7
8
.nodeset v(3)=15 v(5)=5 v(6)=4.144 v(8)=0.536
X
switch
L = 50
f
s
= 100 kz
f
|| G
vg
||
60 dB
80 dB
0 dB
20 dB
5 Hz 50 Hz 5 kHz 50 kHz 500 Hz
R = 3
R = 25
40 dB
20 dB
Open loop, d(t) = constant
Closed loop
Chapter 2
Principles of Steady-State Converter Analysis
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation
2.3. Boost converter example
2.4. Cuk converter example
2.5. Estimating the ripple in converters containing two-
pole low-pass filters
2.6. Summary of key points
2.1 Introduction
Buck converter
SPDT switch changes dc
component
Switch output voltage
waveform
complement D:
D = 1 - D
Duty cycle D:
0 D 1
+

R
+
v(t)

1
2
+
v
s
(t)

V
g
v
s
(t)
V
g
DT
s
D'T
s
0
t 0 DT
s
T
s
Switch
position:
1 2 1
Dc component of switch output voltage
v
s
=
1
T
s
v
s
(t) dt
0
T
s
v
s
=
1
T
s
(DT
s
V
g
) = DV
g
Fourier analysis: Dc component = average value
v
s
(t)
V
g
0
t 0 DT
s
T
s
v
s
= DV
g
area =
DT
s
V
g
Insertion of low-pass filter to remove switching
harmonics and pass only dc component
v v
s
= DV
g
+

L
C R
+
v(t)

1
2
+
v
s
(t)

V
g
V
g
0
0
D
V
1
Three basic dc-dc converters
Buck
Boost
Buck-boost
M
(
D
)
D
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
M
(
D
)
D
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
M
(
D
)
D
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(a)
(b)
(c)
+

L
C R
+
v

1
2
+

L
C R
+
v

1
2
+

L
C R
+
v

1 2
M(D) = D
M(D) =
1
1 D
M(D) =
D
1 D
i
L
(t)
V
g
i
L
(t)
V
g
i
L
(t)
V
g
Objectives of this chapter
G Develop techniques for easily determining output
voltage of an arbitrary converter circuit
G Derive the principles of inductor volt-second balance
and capacitor charge (amp-second) balance
G Introduce the key small ripple approximation
G Develop simple methods for selecting filter element
values
G Illustrate via examples
2.2. Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation
Buck converter
containing practical
low-pass filter
Actual output voltage
waveform
v(t) = V + v
ripple
(t)
Actual output voltage waveform, buck converter
+

L
C R
+
v(t)

1
2
i
L
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
i
C
(t)
V
g
v(t)
t
0
V
Actual waveform
v(t) = V + v
ripple
(t)
dc component V
The small ripple approximation
In a well-designed converter, the output voltage ripple is small. Hence,
the waveforms can be easily determined by ignoring the ripple:
v(t) V
v(t) = V + v
ripple
(t)
v(t)
t
0
V
Actual waveform
v(t) = V + v
ripple
(t)
dc component V
v
ripple
<V
Buck converter analysis:
inductor current waveform
original
converter
switch in position 2 switch in position 1
+

L
C R
+
v(t)

1
2
i
L
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
i
C
(t)
V
g
L
C R
+
v(t)

i
L
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
i
C
(t)
+

V
g
L
C R
+
v(t)

i
L
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
i
C
(t)
+

V
g
Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 1: switch in position 1
v
L
= V
g
v(t)
Inductor voltage
Small ripple approximation:
v
L
V
g
V
Knowing the inductor voltage, we can now find the inductor current via
v
L
(t) = L
di
L
(t)
dt
Solve for the slope:
di
L
(t)
dt
=
v
L
(t)
L

V
g
V
L
The inductor current changes with an
essentially constant slope
L
C R
+
v(t)

i
L
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
i
C
(t)
+

V
g
Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 2: switch in position 2
Inductor voltage
Small ripple approximation:
Knowing the inductor voltage, we can again find the inductor current via
v
L
(t) = L
di
L
(t)
dt
Solve for the slope:
The inductor current changes with an
essentially constant slope
v
L
(t) = v(t)
v
L
(t) V
di
L
(t)
dt

V
L
L
C R
+
v(t)

i
L
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
i
C
(t)
+

V
g
Inductor voltage and current waveforms
v
L
(t) = L
di
L
(t)
dt
v
L
(t)
V
g
V
t
V
D'T
s
DT
s
Switch
position:
1 2 1
V
L
V
g
V
L
i
L
(t)
t 0
DT
s
T
s
I
i
L
(0)
i
L
(DT
s
)
i
L
Determination of inductor current ripple magnitude
(change in i
L
) = (slope)(length of subinterval)
2i
L
=
V
g
V
L
DT
s
i
L
=
V
g
V
2L
DT
s
L =
V
g
V
2i
L
DT
s

V
L
V
g
V
L
i
L
(t)
t 0
DT
s
T
s
I
i
L
(0)
i
L
(DT
s
)
i
L
Inductor current waveform
during turn-on transient
When the converter operates in equilibrium:
i
L
((n + 1)T
s
) = i
L
(nT
s
)
i
L
(t)
t
0 DT
s
T
s
i
L
(0) = 0
i
L
(nT
s
)
i
L
(T
s
)
2T
s
nT
s
(n + 1)T
s
i
L
((n + 1)T
s
)
V
g
v(t)
L
v(t)
L
The principle of inductor volt-second balance:
Derivation
Inductor defining relation:
Integrate over one complete switching period:
In periodic steady state, the net change in inductor current is zero:
Hence, the total area (or volt-seconds) under the inductor voltage
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
An equivalent form:
The average inductor voltage is zero in steady state.
v
L
(t) = L
di
L
(t)
dt
i
L
(T
s
) i
L
(0) =
1
L
v
L
(t) dt
0
T
s
0 = v
L
(t) dt
0
T
s
0 =
1
T
s
v
L
(t) dt
0
T
s
= v
L
Inductor volt-second balance:
Buck converter example
Inductor voltage waveform,
previously derived:
Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:
= v
L
(t) dt
0
T
s
= (V
g
V)(DT
s
) + ( V)(D'T
s
)
Average voltage is
v
L
=

T
s
= D(V
g
V) + D'( V)
Equate to zero and solve for V:
0 = DV
g
(D + D')V = DV
g
V

V = DV
g
v
L
(t)
V
g
V
t
V
DT
s
Total area
The principle of capacitor charge balance:
Derivation
Capacitor defining relation:
Integrate over one complete switching period:
In periodic steady state, the net change in capacitor voltage is zero:
Hence, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
The average capacitor current is then zero.
i
C
(t) = C
dv
C
(t)
dt
v
C
(T
s
) v
C
(0) =
1
C
i
C
(t) dt
0
T
s
0 =
1
T
s
i
C
(t) dt
0
T
s
= i
C
2.3 Boost converter example
Boost converter
with ideal switch
Realization using
power MOSFET
and diode
+

L
C R
+
v

1
2
i
L
(t)
V
g
i
C
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
+

L
C R
+
v

i
L
(t)
V
g
i
C
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
D
1
Q
1
DT
s
T
s
+

Boost converter analysis

original
converter
switch in position 2 switch in position 1
+

L
C R
+
v

1
2
i
L
(t)
V
g
i
C
(t)
+ v
L
(t)
C R
+
v

i
C
(t)
+

L
i
L
(t)
V
g
+ v
L
(t)
C R
+
v

i
C
(t)
+

L
i
L
(t)
V
g
+ v
L
(t)
Subinterval 1: switch in position 1
Inductor voltage and capacitor current
Small ripple approximation:
v
L
= V
g
i
C
= v / R
v
L
= V
g
i
C
= V / R
C R
+
v

i
C
(t)
+

L
i
L
(t)
V
g
+ v
L
(t)
Subinterval 2: switch in position 2
Inductor voltage and capacitor current
Small ripple approximation:
v
L
= V
g
v
i
C
= i
L
v / R
v
L
= V
g
V
i
C
= I V / R
C R
+
v

i
C
(t)
+

L
i
L
(t)
V
g
+ v
L
(t)
Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms
v
L
(t)
V
g
V
t
DT
s
V
g
D'T
s
i
C
(t)
V/R
t
DT
s
I V/R
D'T
s
Inductor volt-second balance
Net volt-seconds applied to inductor
over one switching period:
v
L
(t) dt
0
T
s
= (V
g
) DT
s
+ (V
g
V) D'T
s
Equate to zero and collect terms:
V
g
(D + D') V D' = 0
Solve for V:
V =
V
g
D'
The voltage conversion ratio is therefore
M(D) =
V
V
g
=
1
D'
=
1
1 D
v
L
(t)
V
g
V
t
DT
s
V
g
D'T
s
Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost converter
M
(
D
)
D
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
M(D) =
1
D'
=
1
1 D
Determination of inductor current dc component
Capacitor charge balance:
i
C
(t) dt
0
T
s
= (
V
R
) DT
s
+ (I
V
R
) D'T
s
Collect terms and equate to zero:

V
R
(D + D') + I D' = 0
Solve for I:
I =
V
D' R
I =
V
g
D'
2
R
Eliminate V to express in terms of V
g
:
i
C
(t)
V/R
t
DT
s
I V/R
D'T
s
D
0
2
4
6
8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
I
V
g
/R
Determination ofinductor current ripple
Inductor current slope during
subinterval 1:
di
L
(t)
dt
=
v
L
(t)
L
=
V
g
V
L
Inductor current slope during
subinterval 2:
2i
L
=
V
g
L
DT
s
di
L
(t)
dt
=
v
L
(t)
L
=
V
g
L
Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):
Solve for peak ripple:
i
L
=
V
g
2L
DT
s
Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude
is obtained
V
g
V
L
V
g
L
i
L
(t)
t
0 DT
s
T
s
I
i
L
Determination ofcapacitor voltage ripple
Capacitor voltage slope during
subinterval 1:
Capacitor voltage slope during
subinterval 2:
Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):
Solve for peak ripple: Choose C such that desired voltage ripple
magnitude is obtained
In practice, capacitor equivalent series
resistance (esr) leads to increased voltage ripple
dv
C
(t)
dt
=
i
C
(t)
C
=
V
RC
dv
C
(t)
dt
=
i
C
(t)
C
=
I
C

V
RC
2v =
V
RC
DT
s
v =
V
2RC
DT
s
v(t)
t
0 DT
s
T
s
V
v
I
C

V
RC
V
RC
2.4 Cuk converter example
+

L
1
C
2
R
+
v
2

C
1
L
2
1
2
+ v
1

i
1
i
2
V
g
+

L
1
C
2
R
+
v
2

C
1
L
2
+ v
1

i
1
i
2
D
1
Q
1
V
g
Cuk converter,
with ideal switch
Cuk converter:
practical realization
using MOSFET and
diode
Cuk converter circuit
with switch in positions 1 and 2
+

L
1
C
2
R
+
v
2

C
1
L
2
i
1
i
2

v
1
+
i
C1 i
C2
+ v
L2
+ v
L1

V
g
+

L
1
C
2
R
+
v
2

C
1
L
2
i
1
i
2
+
v
1

i
C1
i
C2
+ v
L2
+ v
L1

V
g
Switch in position 1:
MOSFET conducts
Capacitor C
1
releases
energy to output
Switch in position 2:
diode conducts
Capacitor C
1
is
charged from input
Waveforms during subinterval 1
MOSFET conduction interval
+

L
1
C
2
R
+
v
2

C
1
L
2
i
1
i
2

v
1
+
i
C1 i
C2
+ v
L2
+ v
L1

V
g
v
L1
= V
g
v
L2
= v
1
v
2
i
C1
= i
2
i
C2
= i
2

v
2
R
Inductor voltages and
capacitor currents:
Small ripple approximation for subinterval 1:
v
L1
= V
g
v
L2
= V
1
V
2
i
C1
= I
2
i
C2
= I
2

V
2
R
Waveforms during subinterval 2
Diode conduction interval
Inductor voltages and
capacitor currents:
Small ripple approximation for subinterval 2:
+

L
1
C
2
R
+
v
2

C
1
L
2
i
1
i
2
+
v
1

i
C1
i
C2
+ v
L2
+ v
L1

V
g
v
L1
= V
g
v
1
v
L2
= v
2
i
C1
= i
1
i
C2
= i
2

v
2
R
v
L1
= V
g
V
1
v
L2
= V
2
i
C1
= I
1
i
C2
= I
2

V
2
R
Equate average values to zero
The principles of inductor volt-second and capacitor charge balance
state that the average values of the periodic inductor voltage and
capacitor current waveforms are zero, when the converter operates in
steady state. Hence, to determine the steady-state conditions in the
converter, let us sketch the inductor voltage and capacitor current
waveforms, and equate their average values to zero.
Waveforms:
v
L1
(t)
V
g
V
1
t
DT
s
V
g
D'T
s
Inductor voltage v
L1
(t)
v
L1
= DV
g
+ D'(V
g
V
1
) = 0
Volt-second balance on L
1
:
Equate average values to zero
v
L2
(t)
V
1
V
2
t
DT
s
V
2
D'T
s
i
C1
(t)
I
2
t
DT
s
I
1
D'T
s
Inductor L
2
voltage
Capacitor C
1
current
v
L2
= D( V
1
V
2
) + D'( V
2
) = 0
i
C1
= DI
2
+ D'I
1
= 0
Average the waveforms:
Equate average values to zero
i
C2
(t)
I
2
V
2
/ R (= 0)
t
DT
s
D'T
s
Capacitor current i
C2
(t) waveform
Note: during both subintervals, the
capacitor current i
C2
is equal to the
difference between the inductor current
i
2
and the load current V
2
/R. When
ripple is neglected, i
C2
is constant and
equal to zero.
i
C2
= I
2

V
2
R
= 0
Cuk converter conversion ratio M = V/V
g
M
(
D
)
D
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
M(D) =
V
2
V
g
=
D
1 D
Inductor current waveforms
di
1
(t)
dt
=
v
L1
(t)
L
1
=
V
g
L
1
di
2
(t)
dt
=
v
L2
(t)
L
2
=
V
1
V
2
L
2
Interval 1 slopes, using small
ripple approximation:
Interval 2 slopes:
di
1
(t)
dt
=
v
L1
(t)
L
1
=
V
g
V
1
L
1
di
2
(t)
dt
=
v
L2
(t)
L
2
=
V
2
L
2
i
1
(t)
t DT
s
T
s
I
1
i
1
V
g
V
1
L
1
V
g
L
1
V
2
L
2
V
1
V
2
L
2
i
2
(t)
t
DT
s
T
s
I
2
i
2
Capacitor C
1
waveform
dv
1
(t)
dt
=
i
C1
(t)
C
1
=
I
2
C
1
Subinterval 1:
Subinterval 2:
dv
1
(t)
dt
=
i
C1
(t)
C
1
=
I
1
C
1
I
1
C
1
I
2
C
1
v
1
(t)
t DT
s
T
s
V
1
v
1
Ripple magnitudes
i
1
=
V
g
DT
s
2L
1
i
2
=
V
1
+ V
2
2L
2
DT
s
v
1
=
I
2
DT
s
2C
1
Use dc converter solution to simplify:
i
1
=
V
g
DT
s
2L
1
i
2
=
V
g
DT
s
2L
2
v
1
=
V
g
D
2
T
s
2D'RC
1
Analysis results
Q: How large is the output voltage ripple?
2.5 Estimating ripple in converters
containing two-pole low-pass filters
Buck converter example: Determine output voltage ripple
Inductor current
waveform.
What is the
capacitor current?
+

L
C R
+
v
C
(t)

1
2
i
C
(t) i
R
(t)
i
L
(t)
V
g
V
L
V
g
V
L
i
L
(t)
t 0
DT
s
T
s
I
i
L
(0)
i
L
(DT
s
)
i
L
Capacitor current and voltage, buck example
Must not
neglect
inductor
current ripple!
If the capacitor
voltage ripple is
small, then
essentially all of
the ac component
of inductor current
flows through the
capacitor.
i
C
(t)
v
C
(t)
t
t
Total charge
q
DT
s
D'T
s
T
s
/2
V
i
L
v
v
Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v
q = C (2v)
Current i
C
(t) is positive for half
of the switching period. This
positive current causes the
capacitor voltage v
C
(t) to
increase between its minimum
and maximum extrema.
During this time, the total
charge q is deposited on the
capacitor plates, where
(change in charge) =
C (change in voltage)
i
C
(t)
v
C
(t)
t
t
Total charge
q
DT
s
D'T
s
T
s
/2
V
i
L
v
v
Estimating capacitor voltage ripple v
The total charge q is the area
of the triangle, as shown:
q =
1
2
i
L
T
s
2
Eliminate q and solve for v:
v =
i
L
T
s
8 C
Note: in practice, capacitor
equivalent series resistance
(esr) further increases v.
i
C
(t)
v
C
(t)
t
t
Total charge
q
DT
s
D'T
s
T
s
/2
V
i
L
v
v
Inductor current ripple in two-pole filters
Example:
problem 2.9
can use similar arguments, with
= L (2i)
= inductor flux linkages
= inductor volt-seconds
R
+
v

C
2
L
2
L
1
C
1
+
v
C1

i
1
i
T
i
2
D
1
Q
1
V
g
v
L
(t)
i
L
(t)
t
t
Total
flux linkage

DT
s
D'T
s
T
s
/2
I
v
i
i
2.6 Summary of Key Points
1. The dc component of a converter waveform is given by its average
value, or the integral over one switching period, divided by the
switching period. Solution of a dc-dc converter to find its dc, or steady-
state, voltages and currents therefore involves averaging the
waveforms.
2. The linear ripple approximation greatly simplifies the analysis. In a well-
designed converter, the switching ripples in the inductor currents and
capacitor voltages are small compared to the respective dc
components, and can be neglected.
3. The principle of inductor volt-second balance allows determination of the
dc voltage components in any switching converter. In steady-state, the
average voltage applied to an inductor must be zero.
Summary of Chapter 2
4. The principle of capacitor charge balance allows determination of the dc
components of the inductor currents in a switching converter. In steady-
state, the average current applied to a capacitor must be zero.
5. By knowledge of the slopes of the inductor current and capacitor voltage
waveforms, the ac switching ripple magnitudes may be computed.
Inductance and capacitance values can then be chosen to obtain
desired ripple magnitudes.
6. In converters containing multiple-pole filters, continuous (nonpulsating)
voltages and currents are applied to one or more of the inductors or
capacitors. Computation of the ac switching ripple in these elements
can be done using capacitor charge and/or inductor flux-linkage
arguments, without use of the small-ripple approximation.
7. Converters capable of increasing (boost), decreasing (buck), and
inverting the voltage polarity (buck-boost and Cuk) have been
described. Converter circuits are explored more fully in a later chapter.