Contents

3 DMRSION WORK5 ....

3.1 Overvi ew...
3.2 Generol princi
3.3 Intoke locotio
3.3.1 Charocteristics
3.3.2 Exomple
77
77
77
18
18
20
3.4 Intoke types
vll
1
tf'
t,'
66
vl l l
5.6 Checklist for grovel trop, settling bosin
6.5.4
Quick
method for smoll schemes with crossflow turbines ................ ............. 95
ix
7.
10
11
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
LIST OF PHOTOCMPHS
Ph0t0 2.2 0bstructions coused by debris folling from on unstoble slope ......... ..................... 9
Photo 3.2 Side intoke of the Golkot micro-hydro scheme, Boglung, Nepol .........22
Photo 3.3 Where on intoke is lioble to ottroct flooting debris, o troshrock moy be necessory (Sri Lonko) .............22
Ph0t0 3.5 Timber plonks ploced horizontolly in grooves provide o low-cost gote in
q
chonnel (Mhopung) ...........25
Ph0t0 3.11 Gobion wolls ot the heodworks of the 30 kWJhorkot micro-hydro scheme, Mustong, Nepol ................. 35
Ph0t0 4.3 Stone mosonry in cement mortqr heodrqce ccnql of the 50 kW Golkot MHB Gqlkot, Boglung, Nepol ..................... 38
Photo 4.4 Reinforced concrete cover slobs provide protection from folling debris (Bolivio) ................... 38
Photo 4.6 Timber conol with brocing supporting the sides, Thuptenchuling ........ .............. 39
Photo 4.11 Overflow from the foreboy dischorged over o rock cliff, Dhoding micro-hydro, Nepol .......... 50
Photo 4.12 Spillwoy on o crossing where the excess flow is dischorged into
q
gully,
Photo 4.13 HDPE pipes provide
qn
overflow from o timber chonnel (Mhopung) .................... 53
Ph0t0 4.15 Ghqndruk micro-hydro heqdroce crossing, Ghondruk, Nepcl ............ 54
Photo 4.u Flush-outs should be provided
qt
low points in pipelines so the heovy debris cqn be
Photo 4.18 HDPE heodroce pipe olong unstqble olignment, Ghondruk micro-hydro scheme, Nepol ...... 56
Photo 4.19 Bend prepored by cutting ond welding the HDPE heodroce pipe ot Ghqndruk ...................... 56
xl
Photo 4.21
Photo 4.22
Photo 5.1
Photo 5.2
Photo 5.3
Phoro 5.4
Phoro 5.5
Photo 5.6
Photo 5.7
Photo 5.8
Phoro 5.9
Phoro 5.10
Phoro 5.11
Phoro 5.12
Photo 5.11
Phoro 5.14
Photo 5.15
Photo 6.1
Photo 6.2
Phoro 6.3
Photo 6.4
Phoro 6.5
i'iroto 6.6
Phot0 6.7
Phoro 6.8
Photo 6.9
Phot o 6. 10
Photo 6.11
Photo 6.12
Phot o 6. 11
Photo 6.14
Phor 0 6. 15
Photo 7.1
Ph0t0 7.2
Phoro 7.3
Photo 7.4
Photo 7.5
Photo 7.6
Joi ni ng
HDPE pi pes by pushi ng
Col l ors used to
j oi n
HDPE pi pes
thm while hot
57
col kot grovel trop .... ' . . . ' ' , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' ' ' ' . . . . . . . . 71
Sliding got ot settling bosin entronce, Peru ....___........... ?5
Jhorkot
setti i ng bosi n ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
se( l i ng Dosr n ot
Jhor kor
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1'7
sql l ri Chi oi so setl l i ng bosi n
chondr uksef i l r ng bq) i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
81
8l
84
crovel trop. settling bosin ond foreboy ofJhonhe mini'hydro ................
A dry stone mosonry foreboy showi ng the connecti on wi th the penstock .........,..............
A cemnt mosonry chonnl
qnd
foreboy ot the top ofo step sl ope (Dhqdi ngJ .............
82
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8l
Cleoning con be difiicult with horizontol bors
submerged troshrock, Sol l eri Chi ol so mi ni -hydro scheme............
overfl ow wei r for the settl l ng bosi n
qt
Jhorkot
.................................
An expqnsi 0nj 0i nt shoul d b l ocotedj ust bel ow
qn
onchor bl ock to protect the bl ock
from forces whi ch mqy Il ot be desi gned to resi st (Si kl i s) ..................
chondruk peoki ng reservoi r duri ng constructi on ............. ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Ghondruk Deoki D0 reservoi r ofter constructi on .............................
Pnstock
ql i gnment
of the 36 kW
Jhorkot
mi cro-hydm schme, Mustong, Nepol ........................................................ 87
Pen( t oLk. Pur ong. . .
84
85
Penstock olignmert ofthe 50 kW Borpok micro-hydro scheme, Corkho. Nepol
Excovoti on to reduc the cost ofl h
penstock ond reduce the need foronchors
{Si kl i s)
..... .............. ......... ....... ... 88
Penstock i nstol l oti on i s often chol l engi ng ond requi res sofe ond corful work .... ................ 89
Penstock oi i gnment hi gh obove the ground to ol l ow occess for peopl e 0nd cottl eJhonl re mi ni -hydro ................... 89
HDPE-mi l d stel c0upl i ng.
Jhong
mi cro-hydro schme, Mustong, Npol .................. .................................................. 9i
Penstock ot Ghondruk wi th vi l l og i n the bqckground ............
Temporory suppon for site welding work,Jhonl(Ie minihydro, Nepoll08
A strol qht pnsrock wi th four suppons cnd on onchor bl ock before th power house.....
Jhonkre
minihydro onchor block for on upword verticol bend
sl rdl ng expqn5i on
j ornt,
Jhonkre
mrni .hydro
crocki ng 0f the upper surfoce of on unrei nforced oDchor bl ock......
U5e ol dr y st one wol l f or f or m wor k,
JhunLr e
mr n1. hydr 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
droi nqge ond prevel ti ng corri si on betwen the bl ock ond the pi pe (Ki omche) ............................
104
105
106
108
l l l
u1
l l 2
113
I l l
stone mosonry suppoft pi ers,l honkre mi ni ' hydro scheme ...........
The use ofon exl ensi on t0 the concrcte supp0n l i fts the pi pe cl eor 0l on bl ock, ol l owi rl g
Photo7.7 Wooden support pi ers ot Komche mi cro-hydro scheme, Nepol ....................... ........................... I16
Photo 8.2 Powefhouse ond l oi l roce oi the sol l eri Chi ol so mi [i ' hydro scheme . . ... . . ..... .... ..... 130
Phot0 9.1 Unsrobl e sl opes
(re
o throt l 0 schemc. Thi s pol vefhouse wos destroyed by o l ondsl i de ........................................... 119
Photo 9.2 Mosonry steps for entrgy di ssi poti on ond contr0l 0f spi l l wov woter ............ ........................... 140
x I
;
)
)
l
I
t
6
J
0
Ph0t0 9.4 Stone mosonry con provide slope stobilisotion olong the route of the penstock (Barpok) ......... ........ 141
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.2 Heod is the verticol height through which the woter drops ................ 3
Figun 2.1 Viewing the site from o vontoge point gives the opportunity to ossess the options for
Figure 3.7 A temporory weir proposed for the 18 kW Thorong Phedi micro-hydro scheme, Monong, Nepol .............................26
Figure 3.8 Heodworks orrongement of the 500 kWJhonkre mini-hydro scheme, Nepol .............. ........................27
Figure 3.10 A stone mosonry permonent weir proposed for Ghomi micro-hydro scheme, Mustong, Nepol ................................ 29
Figure 3.11 A plum concrete permonent weir proposed for Ghqmi micro-hydro scheme. ............ 30
Figure 3.15 Heodworks orrqngement of the 80 kW Bhujung MHP, under construction in Lomjung, Nepol ................................. 36
Figure 4.3 Buried membrone lining proposed in Design Mqnuols for Irrigction Projects in Nepol ..................... 4l
Figure 4.11 Heqdworks of the 100 kW Siklis micro-hydro scheme (Siklis, Nepol) ........................... 62
Cqnol lining with stone mosonry in cement mortor 66
72
57
81
83
An i deol settl i ng bq\rn
Foll velocity ofquonz spheres in woter
A typi col settl i ng b0si n ond i ts components ..............
Exponsi on 0nd controcti on rol i o i n st0i ng bosi t
Flushing o settling bosin using th verlicol flush pipe method
Vrticol flush pip section in o settiing bosin
Flushing system of
jhqnkr
minihydm
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ?4
Foreboy
Fi gure 4.13
Fl gure 5.1
Fi gurc 5.2
Fi gure 5.3
Fi gure 5.4
Fi gure 5.5
Fi gurc 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figurc 5.8
Figure 5.9
Fi gure 6.1
Fi gurc 6.2
Il gure 6.3
FrguIe 6.4
Fi gure 6.5
Figur 6.6
Figur 6.7
Figur 6.8
FiguI 7.1
Figure 7.2
Frgure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Fi gur 7.5
Flgure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Fi gure 7.8
Fjgure 7.9
Fi gurc 8.1
Fi gur 8.2
Flgur 8.3
Figur 8.4
Fl gure 8.5
Fi gun 8.6
Fi gure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Fi gure 9.3
Fi qure 9.4
Fi qure 10.1
ti qure 10.2
Fi gur 10.3
Fi gure 10.4
Tabl e 3.1
Tqbl e 3.2
Wolls ood floon ofwotr retqining structurs
Typicol penstock profile
..... 142
90
9l
93
to2
105
106
107
108
112
112
4
115
119
122
125
127
127
131
133
133
133
135
136
142
142
144
149
lypicol HPDE mild steel pipe
coupling
Surge pressures
Jhonkre
mini-hydro pnstock olignment ot downstrcom end
Tronsition from buried to exposed penstock, jhonkre mini-hydro
Sliding
rype
exponsion
joint
Thermol exporsion ofo pnstock pipe
Setting out rh c$trlin ofth pensto(k 6lignmnt
Anchor block sction.
Composi t onchor bl ock secti on
Arrangement ofweor plote ot a suppon pier
Typicol sction through o support pier
Di ston(es ond ongl s used i n onchor bl ock ond support pi er equoti ons
Proposed onchor bl ock shope
Force diogrom on th
qnchor
block
Suppon pier for smoll schemes with ground height ofless thon 1 m
Suppon pier for smoli schemes with ground height of 1 m to 2 m
Powerhouse floor plon ofthJhonk mini'hydro scheme
Mochine foundotion section
Mochi ne foundoti on pl on......
Resol uti on offors on the mqchi ne foundoti on ...........
Proposed mochin foundotion section for Exomple 8.1
Rinforced concrcte toilroce chonnel
Gobi on retoi ni rg w011..............
Stone mosonry rtoi ni ng wol l ................
Trrocing ond dry stone wolls to retoin slops ....
A gobion check dom 0t the intok ofjhorkot micro-hydro scheme
A Coondo i ntoke scren ..........
Proposd orrongemenr for bursting disc instollotion in micro-hydro s(hmes
Flexible steel suppon pier forJhorkot micro-hydro scheme
Foundoti on for theJhorkot fl exi bl e support pi er...........................
145
'150
LIST OF TABLES
Tobl e 1.t
Tobl e 2.1
Tobi e 2.2
Dillerencs between micro'hydro ond lqrge hydro schemes
Indicotors of slope instobility
Possi bl use 0fsoi l & rock i n mi cro-hydropower .......... 10
t2 Tqbl e 2.3 Cqnol sepdge l osss......
cotgories of Nepolese rivers
Sel ecti on cri teri o tor si de
qnd
bottom i nrcke
19
Toble 4.1 Roughness
Toble 6.1 Advontoges ond disqdvontoges of different penstock moteriol .......... 90
Toble 7.3 Unit weight (y), ongle of friction (Al ond ollowoble beoring pressure for diflerent soil types .......... 121
UST OF WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
UST OF BOXES
Box 3.1 Composite gobion concrte PVC sheet
Box9.1 Use of mosonry grid to stobilise theJhonke mini-hydro powerhouse orec slope ........743
1. Introduction
1.1 Hydropower ond micro-hydropower
Hydropower i s the generoti on ofpower (mechoni col ond/or
el ectri col )usi ng the fol l ofwoter In the cottext ofNpoi , o
hydropower scheme wi th on i nstol l ed copoci ty ofl ess thon 100
kW is clossified os micro hydro. Schemes in the rong 100-1000
kW ore cl ossi {l ed os mi ni hydro, ond shore some ofthe choroc-
teri sti cs 0f mi cro-hydropower schenes. Apqft frorn the power
output ofschemes, some 0fthe moj or di fferences between l orge
ond mi cro hydro cre shown bel ow i n Tobi e Ll .
SOMI DENNITIONS
. Civil engineering is the opplicotion ofscience to the
pr0cti c0l bui l di rg ofsofe ond cost effecti ve structufts.
. A structure i s on ossembl y of motencl s whi ch serves the
pueose for l vhi ch i t i s desi gned (occommodote peopl e,
convy Il ou trofi i c, etc.) ond c0rri es the ossoci oted
l oods. A cr vr l er , gr necr i ng sr r u, r ur e r ' spr r . f i col l y
designed to fulfil o purp0se ond/0r pe orm o function
qt
0n opprop ore quol i ty ond to
qn
occeptobl e ti me scol e
ond cost.
r Civil rvorks are cll octivities necessory for the building of
structures.
. Sforoge schemes moke us ofo dom to stop river flow
bui l di ng up
q
reservoi r 0fwoter behi nd th dom. The
wotrr i s then reLeosed through turbi nes when power i s
neded.
r Run-oiriyer sche mes do not stop the river flow, but
i nsteod di vert p0n ofthe fl ow vi o o heodroce ond
Toblt l.l Differencs btween micro-hydro ond lorge hydro schemes
The desi gn ond constructi on 0fci vi l ngi neeri ng works hove
some important chorocteristics:
They ore depeodent 0n condi ti 0ns ot the si te. No two
sl tes orc the some.
They olwoys involve structures thot ore in contoct with
the ground. Desi gn engi neers moy hcve control overthe
motri ol s used i n corstructi on, but hove l i l ni ted conrr0l
over t he gr ound on whi , h l he \ t r u( l ur e sl 0nds. They
must therefor toke occount ofthe ground condi ti ons,
ond moy hove to consi der ol ternoti ve si tes to ovoi d
stobi l i ty probl eIns
They oi ten i nvol ve o number 0fpeopl e worki ng on
desi gn, supervi si on ond constructi 0n ot the si te. Vori ous
skills ond moteriols ore involved, usuolly over o period
of severoi months. Therefore pl onni ng, communi coti on
ond occount0bility ore very importont.
Foilure ofcivil works con be very dongerous ond very
expensive. Similorly, poor performonce or over-design
ore uneconomi col .
On i mportont poi nt shoul d b recogni sedi compl ete
stondordi soti on 0fci vi l works i s not possi bl due to the
vori 0ti on i n si te condi ti 0ns. Insteod, stondord 0pprooches to
penstock to
q
turbi ne. Mi cro-hydro schemes
qre
ol most
olwoys run'of-th-river.
1.2 Aspects of civil engineering worlc
DESCzuPNON MICRO HYDRO SCHEMES LARCE HYDRO SCHEMES
'IYpe
Pow$ generoti on
Noture oi intoke
funnel s & underground structuri ,s
Penstock oliqnment
surge shoft
Distribution system
Unlined conol
N' l ostl y run-ol :ri ver
El ectri col ond/or rnechoni col
Usuol l y tmporory 0r semi -permonent
Rore
Verti col & Irori zontol bends
Rore, fbreboy octs os surge tqnk
Isol otd (i .e. not coonected to the
nnr i ^ f n1 ol , . f r , . , r v n r i . l r
Cor0rnon
Both run' of' ri vr ond storoge
El ectri col onl y
Pefmonent
CoII]mon
Fewer verti col bends ond usuol l y no h0nzontol
bends
Comrnon
Il ostl y gri d connected
Rqre
I
I
I
design ore used. providing methods ond crireriq thot enoble o
desi gn to b odoptd to condi ti ons ot o si te
Of course, scfe. occurote ond economi c desi gn i s essenti 0l
i n ci vi l engi neeri ng but, becouse ofsi te vori oti ons, o procti col
understondi ng ofdesi gn i s ol so cruci ol . Fqi l ures i n ci vi l engi -
neeri ng do not usucl l y 0ccur through on error i n col cul oti ons
but becouse of o seemi ngl y nri nor vent or cj rcumstonce l vhi ch
drd not sn1 i mponont. A thoi ough understqndi ng i s needed of
whi ch el emenl s ore cri ti cql .
1.3 Components of micro-hydro schemes
Al th0ugh no two mi cro hydro si tes 0re si rl l i Lqr, ol l ofthem
requi re speci fi c common components ofdi fferent di mensi ons to
convey the streom w0ter to the power generoti 0n uni ts ond
bcLk r i l o t : ? sl r eom : he' c i or : : ponent ' oD' shol l n r n Fr gur e
1.1. Thc ci vi l conponents or bri efl y di scussed bel ow:
HEADWORI(s
Structures ot the ston oi the scheme or col l ecti vl y cql l ed the
heodworks. In micro-hydro schemes, the heodriorks ohvoys
include the diversion weir, intoke ond grovel trop. A spillwoy
ond o settling bosin ore
qlso
usuolly ot the hodworks.
DIVERSION WEIR
A diversion weir is o low structure (smqll dqm) ploced ocllss
the river which diverts some ofthe dvr flow into the
hydropower scheme. The weir con be of o permonent, semi-
permonnt 0r temporory n0ture.
INTAJC
This is ot the riverborlk upstreom from the diversion weir
where w0ter i s i ni ti ol l y drown i nto o c0ndui t (conol or o pi pe).
Usuolly 0 flow contrcl structuI! ond o coorse troshr0ck 0rc
i ncorporqted ot th i nroke.
GMVEL TRA"P
Thi s i s 0 bosi n (pond) cl os to the i ntoke wherc grovel 0nd othr
coorse motriols ore tropped ond then removd. In the obsnce
ofthis structur grovel con sttle olong the gentler sction of
the heodroce or in the settling bosin.
SETTUNG BASIN
Thl 5 LS
qLso
o bosi n where sqnd 0nd 0l her Ii ne ' uspended
porti cl .s present i n the ri ver woter ore serti ed ond then
renoved. l f ol l owed t0 enter the pnstock. such porti cl es wordd
obrode l he penstock pi pe ond the turbi ne 0nd hence shonen
thci r opLrqtl ()n0l l i \' fs.
HEADRACE
This is o conql or o pip thot conveys the woter ftom the
heodworks to the foreboy structure. The heodroce olignmenl is
usuol l y on even to gentl y sl opi ng ground; o heqdroce pi p i s
generol l y not subj ect to srqni fi cont hydrcul i c pressure.
FOREBAY
Thi s i s o tonk ot th entronce to the penstock pi p. i he foreboy
tonk ollows for fl0w tronsiriorI from open chonnel to pressure
flow ond provides storoge whn there ore flow fluctuotions in
the turbine. It con olso serve os o finol settling bosifl. ln fqct,
someti mes the settl i ng bosi n ond the foreboy structurs om
combi ned.
SPILLWAYS AND ESCAPES
Spi l l woys orc openi ngs i n hodroce conol s thot di vert xcess
fl ows ond 0nl y ol l ow the desi gn fl ow d0l vnstrqm. Note thot
some literoture moy us th{ terms spillweir 0r overflow t0 rfr
to the spillwoy. Escopes ore similor structures but their function
is t0 diven flows from the heqdrqce conols in cose the upstrcom
sectj ons get bl ocked such os i f there ore l 0ndsl i des.
CROSSINGS
Thes ore structurs thot convey the flow over streoms, gullies
or ocross unstoble telloin subject to londslids ond rosion.
Aqueducts. culverls dnd suspxded crossings ore examples of
such structures.
PENSTOCK
This is o pipe thot conveys wotr undr pressur from the
foreboy to the turbine. Th penstock pipe usuqlly storts wher
the grcund profile is steep.
ANCHOR BLOCI(
An onchor block
{thrust
block)is on encosement of o penstock
desi gnd to constroi rl the pi pe m0vemnt i n
ql l di l tcti ors.
Anchor blocks ore ploced ot oll shorp horizonrol orld verticol
bends, since there ore forces ot such bends thqt will tnd to
move the pip 0ut ofolignment. Anchor blocks 0re olso
requi red to resi st oxi ol forces i n l ong strci ght secti ons of
penstock.
SUPPORT PIER
suppon pi ers (ol so col l ed sl i de bl ocks or soddl es) orc structures
thot ore used ol ong stroi ght runs ofexposd perutockpi p
(betwen onchor blocks), to prevent the pipe from sogging ond
becoming overstressed. They need to resist oll verticol forces
such os the wei ght ofthe penstock pi pe ond the wotr. However,
they shoul d ol l ow m0vement porol i ei to the penstock ol i gn-
ment, whi ch occurs duri ng thennol exponsi on und controcti on
Pr0cesses.
POWERHOUSE
Thi s i s o bui l di ng thot oc(omrnodotes ond proteds the el ctr0-
mechoni c0l equl pment such os the turbi ne, generotor ond moy
i ncl ude oqro' pl ocessi ng uni ts. Thc el ectro nechoni col equi p-
ment i n the powerhouse convens the potenti ol 0nd ki nel rc
energy 0Iwoter i nt0 l ectfi col power
TAILMCE
Thrs i s 0 chonnel 0r o pi pe thot conveys rvoter l r0m the turbi ne
(0fter p0wer gneroti 0n) bock i nt0 the streqm; gnerol l y the
s0m str?0m l ronl wi ri ch water wos i ni ti ol l y wi thdrown.
Det0i l ed ds.ri pti ons of thse comp0nents i ncl udi nq
sel ecti on, desi gn
qnd
c0nstructi on l nei hod0l ogy 0rc di scussed i n
subsequent chopt.s.
A
Toi l r oce
l)oul? l.l Components ofo micrc hydro saheme
1.4 The power equotion
'Ilte
powerovoiloble from c hydropower scheme is depndent
on the vol ume l l owi ng i n the system ond i l s drop
j n
hei ghr. The
Rl oti 0nshi p l s exprcssed by l he po!ver equotr0nl
P=0x ox h x
rvhere:
t' i s the power produced i n kw
Q
i s the fl ow i n the penstock pDe i n mr/s
g
j s
the occel erati on due t0 grovi ty
=
9.8 m/s' :
hq,,,, i s the gross heod ovoi l obl e i n m
e is the overoll s!'strn eiliciency
Gross heod, h,,
,.,
i s the di l ference bet!\ren the l voter l evel
ot the f0reb0y ond the turbj ne centrel j ne l evel (or toi l roce woter
suri oce i fo drqft tube i s uscd). Thi s i s shown schemoti col l y i n
Fi gur e 1. 2.
Nel hod, h , i s the pressur heod ot the entronce to the
l urbj ne. Thot i s l he gr0ss head mi rus conveyonce l osses i n l he
penstock. For mi cr0-hydropower schemes the penstock 1s
generol l y desi gned such thoI the net heod i s 90' 95q,r ofthe gross
heod meosured from the Ibrcboy (reier to Secti0n 6.4 for
penstock sj zi ng).
The 0verol l systel n el l i ci ency, e", i s the roti o ofusel ul
po$,er output t0 hydr0ul i c power i nput. It i s the prOduct of
spqrate effl .i enci es for severol components ofthe system. i .e.
e : i r e L e q e , ,
wherc:
er i s the pensto.k effi crerrcy. rypi col i y 0.90 0.95
i h
=h
e)
e, i s the turbi ne efl )ci ency. typi c0l l y 0.65
-
0.80 dependi ng on
rurDl ne ryp
er l s the generot0r efl i cl ency, typi col l y 0.65 0.90 dependi ng
on si ze
pL
i s thr l ronsmi ssi 0n emci ency rncl udi ng trcrnsforners i l
used, typi col l y 0.85 0.90
F0r prel i mi nory pl onni ng of rni cro-hydropower schemes
i n Nepol i t i s comm0n to ossume on overol l system effi ci ency 0f
0.5 to 0.6. However, i t moy be os l ow as 0.3 l or very smol l
i nstol l oti ons ond os hi gh os 0.7 f0r l orger schemes. Therefore ot
detoi l d desi qn stoge i t i s i mponont to recol cul ote the power
output bosed on the octuol desi gn 0nd monufocturcrs' doto for
the proposed equi pment.
Fi g, . r pl l Hc od. r he\ er t ol h. gl . l r hr c u! hwh. , l | , hdr pr dr op.
l rap/
^ / )
a'/'/
z
\{],,
' <\,
l
Anchq
2. Site selection
ond
planning
2.1 0verview
Th sel ecti on 0fon 0ppropri ote sj te i n m0st mi cro-hydropower
schemes i s on i teroti ve process. In the Nepol ese context, usuol l y
some communi ty members rvho hove hod previ ous exp0sure to
mi cro-hydrgpol ver tcahnol ogy oppi ooch fundrn g ogenIi es.
consul tqnts or monufocturers dependi nq upon thei r fl nonci ol
ps0urces
ond the si ze 0fthe scheme. Thf rchni ci ons ofthe
ogency concemed undertoke o si re vi si t to ossess whether the
si te i s feosi bl e f0r a mi cro hydro i rstol l oti on. Bosed on the
feosi bi l i ty report submi tl ed by thse teci rni ci ons, th commu.
ni ty members ond others i nvol ved l n the process decj de
whether t0 pr0ceed f.rfl l i ef wi th I ne di \ /l Jpmpnr of rhe
scheme.
0nceth deci si 0n i s mode to proceed wj th the scheme,
ond i fi t i s i n the uppr ronge 0f Di cro hydro (soy obove 20 kw)
then 0 detoi l ed survey ofthe protect orq i s undcrtoken ond a
detqiled design rcpon is prcpored. Th sor)cti0n oi loons,
subsi dy ond grcnts by fundi ng crgenci es ond bonks ore bosed on
thi s repoft. Thrre ore frequent meti ngs between the concerned
porti es duri ng thi s stoge. F0r the l ower el ]d oi mi cro hydr0 (soy
i ess thon 20 kW). usuol l y the monufocturers undertake both the
desi gn ond i nstoLl oti on.
Apon from soci o econorni c foctors such cs the need 1br
el ectri ci ty, 0l I0rd0bi l i ty, ond suppl y 0nd demond, technj r0l l y
the sel ecti on ofon 0ppropri oi e si te depends on the fol l 0wi ng
two foctors:
. Streom ilolv
. Topogrophy
As menti oned i n Chopter I, the power ovoi l obl e from o
micro'hydroporver scheme is o functjon 0fboth the flow ond
the heod. The heod depends on the topogrophy i\,ficro'hydro
becomes techni c0l l y vi obl e oni y i fthe combi noti on ofhead ond
fl ow ore such thor the demond of the rorgeted conrnruni ty con
be met. Urdsr n0rmol ci rcumstqnces. Ihe l ow scoson fl orv r,i the
I
I
I
nv( r sl r 0ul d be u5ed whi l e( 01, ul l l r ng I hepowpr 0- l pul I l
shoul d be n0ted thot desi gners hove l l l e c0ntrol over the l l ow
ovoi l obl e i n the streonl . Horveve( they h(ve s0me conl r0l over
l ht' topogrophy. They con choose di l l erent ol i gnnents for l he
i ntoke, heodroce ond penst0ck. l hey con ol so modi fy the l ocol
topogrophy through excovoti on, bui l di ng 0fstructures ond by
undertqki ng s0i l stobi l i ty enhoncemenl meosures.
Al though the pl onni ng ofDri cro hydro ci vi l works does
not rBqui re the detoi l ed work ofl orge proj ects, the pri nci pl es orc
tht s0De 0nd core needs to be token to fol l 0w some bosi c rul es.
Proper pl onni ng ond co-0rdi noti 0n i n th i ni ti ol stoge ofthe
projct will keep costs to o mirrimum ond reduce deloys.
Meosurement ofheod ond flow ore beyond the scope of
thpse gui del i nes but ful l desc pti ons 0fthe methods used con be
found i n o number oftexts i ncl udi ng Rei 1.
2.2 Principles of site investigation
Si te rnvesti goti on i s the prel i mi nory work c0rri ed out t0
estobl i sh the sui tqbi l i ty for constructi on ofthe vori 0us opti ons
(or
the most fecsi bl e opti on rI rt i s opporentr tl rrough the
rnvesti goti on of soi l s, sl ope stobj l i ty, fl ood l vl s, surfoce woter
movenent
qnd
subsi dence. Thi s i s di scussed l oter i n thi s
chopter
In most ci vi l ngi neeri ng work, the unexpecred hcppens.
Si t i nvsti goti on oi ms to predi ct whot thi s mi ght be so thot the
engi neer con prepore o desi gn thot wi l l deol wi th i t.
It shoul d b noted thot th meosurement ofheod ond
fl ow serves to estobl i sh the 0pti 0ns ov0i l obl e for devel opment of
the si te f0r mi cro' hydro. The si te i nvesti goti on then
qssesses
the
sui tobi l j ty ofthe si te f0r eoch ol ternoti ve. The si te i nvesri goti on
process hel ps to choose the opti nl unr l oyoul where more thon
on opti 0n oppors to be teosi bl e. Si te condrti ons ore ol s0
recorded duri ng the si te i nvesti gqti on stoge so thot there i s
odequot informotion for the detoiled design phose.
Ther is usuolly o limit t0 th time ond funds ovciloble
for site investigotions. lt is olwoys dimcult to know whn
odequote work hos been comp)eted. Thekeyi stowork
efficielltly ond to think corefully 0bout where mor thorough
i nvesi i gqti on i s requi red. The pri nci pl es
ofsi t i nvesti gotj on 0re:
. Take your time and be thorough. A return visit to collct
informotion missed th first time is costly, ond inod-
equote ci vi l dsi gn evn morc so
. walk oll over the sire. Goin o fulloppreciotion ofthe
opti ons ovoi l qbl e.
. Tolk to local peopla especiol)y those who hove corried
out constructi on work i n the oro. Si nce most ofthe
ri vrs i n th mountoi ns ond th mi ddi e hi l i s ofNpol
hove not been gouged, streom fl ow dqto ore not usuol l y
qvqi l obl e.
Therefore, i t
j s
i mponont to tol k to l 0c0l
peopl e t0 get o l i rl ofth fl o0d l evLs for rore l l ood
everts (soy 20 yeors t0 50 yeors return peri od).
. Overol l , oi m to rqi se the understondi ng ond oworeness
ofchonges i n the si te over ti me.
2.3 Selection of olternotive lovouts
2.3.1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE SITE
This will involve viervlng the site from o physicoLvontoge point
os shown i n Fi gure 2.1, ond toki ng ti m to consi der the procti -
col desi gn
qnd
constructi on ofthe ol ternqti ve l oyouts (i .e.
selected potentiol sites). Eoch possible loyout will require
constructi on work on di fl erent pqrts ofthe potenti ol si te ond
the surveyor should thrcforc note on which pon eoch compo-
neni ofthe scheme wi l l be l occtsd. The overvi ew shoul d note
feoturcs thot moy 0ffect the dsi gn ofth scheme, such os sl ope
stobility, ond lond us ond ownership. A sktch mop ofoch site
pl on shoul d be mode os shown i n Fi gurc 2.2.
23.2 LOCATION OF COMPONENTS
For eoch ofthe ol ternoti ve l oyouts sel ected du ng i he si te vi si t,
l ocoti ons ofeoch component shoul d be i denti fi ed ond thn
i ncl uded i n rhe si te pl orl
os shown i n Fi gure 2.2. Nore thot
generolly the locotion of th intoke is the key cornpolrerlt in
determining the site loyout, sinc thr is usuolly only one most
oppropriote intoke locotion. Therfore the intoke lo(otion moy
determi ne the l ocoti ons
qnd ql i grl ments
ofother components.
lntoke selection is covercd in Chopter 3.
once ol l ol ternoti ves hove been i denti fi ed, the most
sui tnbl e l oyout shou)d b chosn. Ap0rt from the proj ect cost.
the fol l owi rrg ore
(he
nl qLo cri teri o thot shoul d be used to sel ect
the most sui tobl e l oyout:
. The combi noti on ofheod ond fl ow ofeoch ol trnoti ve
should b such thot the required minimum power
output is feosjble.
o Preference should be given to the simplest loyout in
terms ofdesi gn ond constructi on.
. The shoner rhe
ql i gnment
ofthe scheme i s, the l ess the
requi rement for constructi on moteri ol s. Hnce, such
q
scheme con be constructed f0ster ond ot o l owr cost.
. The powerhouse
should be os close os possible
to the
lood centre. It is odvisoble to keep the tronsmissiol line
length less thon 2 kilometrcs.
. Finolly, techDic0l porometers such os overo)l slope
stobi l i ty, fl ood ri sks, ond other si te-speci fi c i ssues shoul d
be consi derd.
Y'r.
{ t l uf t
\ l \ ,
[ ..r
f d 6
dr.-
##
a.-)
\ ,
r)
n k
t 1 /
4
Fl gurc 2.1 Vi ewi ng the si te frotn o vontoge poi nt gl ves the opportuni ty t0 ossess the opti ons for the l oyout ofo scheme
Yi l l qge
o
o
q
req
a
r o
E
a a
Tr qnsmi ssi oa
l j
PoWerlrouse- Qve\
oc,F, Q,l i !n
Ri ve
r tzr
rq.a
spillrrzo
l r r i q q { i o a c - q n q
Tqi
lrq.'
. ! Fore-bqv
Corn f i sl d
Cor n Fi
Sgt t t : " _g
! SS; n
S P i l l wa
l l eqdr c<. e.
C- qnql
G r a v a - l { t
Fi gur 2.2 Atypi col si te pl on
_5lT
E Pt,qN
r l
2.4 Geotechnicol considerotions
2.4.7 GEOLOGY
The geol ogy ofthe si te i s cri ti col to the desi gn, costs ond future
performonce of the civil works of micro-hydro schemes.
Geol ogi col mops ofcertoi n
qreqs
ofNepol ore
qvoi l qbl e qt
the
Deportment of Mining cnd Geology or Tribhuvon University's
geologicol librory. It is worth checking whether such o mop is
ovoiloble for the oreo of interest since this will indicote the
generol geol ogi col condi ti on ofthe si te.
Geol ogi col chorocteri sti cs ofo si te con be grouped i n the
following woy:
c Major weakness zones
-Lorgeoreos
ofgeologicol
instobility in the oreqs where the clvil structures ore to
be l ocqted.
o S/ope stability
-
The degree ofstobility ofthe hillsides of
the site.
. Sorl and rock fypes
-
Foundotion conditions ond liobility
t0 seepoge undermining ond subsidence oround
structures plonned for the site.
2.4.2 MAJOR WEAKNESS ZONES
The moin tectonic zones of the Himcloyos generolly correspond
to the physi ogrophi c di vi si ons ofthe country ond run i n
northeost-southwest direction. Mojor weokness zones such os
thrusts or fqults seporote these zones from eoch other. In
qddition
there ore mony other
"minor" weokness zones which
coul d si gni fi contl y i mpoct the proj ect. If
qvoi l obl e,
o geol ogi col
mop of the oreo where the micro-hydro scheme is proposed
shoul d be consul ted to ovoi d pl or:i ng ci vi l stmctures 0n these
moj or thrusts ond foul ts. If ci rcumstonces di ctote the i nevi tobi l -
i ty ofpl oci ng the scheme i n such zones, expert hel p from o
geol ogi st shoul d be sought.
2.4.3 SLOPE STASILITY
In geol ogi col terms, the hi l l s ond mountoi ns of Nepol ore young
ond unstqble. They could be likened to o pile of sond in thot the
excovotion olong o slope eosily results in the sliding ofthe lond
obove, especiolly when o further triggering mechonism occurs
(porticulorly during the monsoon). Common triggering
mechoni sms ore the fol l owi no:
. Surfqce woter
r Ground woter
r Undercutting ofslope by excovotion
The stobility of slopes will
qffect
the design of oll
components of o micro-hydro scheme
qnd
should therefore be
onolysed thoroughly, porticulorly in the following key oreos:
o Above ond below proposed conoi routes.
o Bel ow the proposed l ocoti on ofo settl i ng bosi n or o
foreboy tonk.
o Along the proposed penstock olignment.
r Above ond below the proposed locotion ofthe power-
house.
Threots in these oreos will either toke the form of
weokening ofthe support oround the foundqtions through lond
sl i ppi ng owqy 0r col l opsi ng, or domoge t0 structures through
folling debris, os shown in Figures 2.3 ond 2.4 ond Photogrophs
2.1 ond 2.2. tndi cqtors ofsl ope i nstobi i i ty ore presented i n
t oDI e z. I .
fi gure 2.3 Threot to structures from bel ow due to l ondsl i p
Fi gure 2.4 Threot t0 structures due to fol l i ng debri s from obove
Photo 2,1 Tension crocks olong oslope Photo 2 2 Obstructions coused by debris follrng from on unstoble slope
tlbk 2.1 Indicotors ofslope instobility
sEcnoN 0F sroPE INDICATOR OF INSTABILITY
LJpper, middle or lower hillslopes Tension crqcks
qlong
slope (Photogroph 2.1), ground shelves shorply, trces leoning downslope
or bending upwords from the bose, woter springs or seepqge
qt
bose ofslope, displocement
of pqths, fence or posts.
Fresh rock foces exposed, presence ofsoft, weotheroble rock, openjoints in rock, tension
crocks, overhongs
qnd
loose rock, woter springs or seepoge ot bqse ofrock foce,
Frcsh dbris ot bose ofslope, tree roots exposed,loose debris which moves underfoot,
profiles steepen towords bose ofslope, debris littered with deod or ovenurned woody plonts
ond oross clumDs.
Bposd foces of londslides
'lle
followilg feotures ofthe slope or rock foc indicot slop
stobilitf
. complete vegetotion cover, including trees stonding
verticolly
. Stroight, even, slope prolile
I Rock surfocs covered with moss, lichen or 0 weotheR
skin
. Hod, impemeobl rock
. Rock with no or fewjoints
. Closed mckjoints
. Wll.pockd dbris, especiolly with fin moteriol
p0cked into voids between coorse moteriol
. Well-estoblished trees ond shrubs
. No octive gullying (olthough o stoble gully system
moy be present)
The incRosed Imowledge ofthe sit goined ftom 0 thorough
investigotion ofthe slopes will influnce the design ofthe
whol scheme, poniculorly the locotion ofprincipol
srruclurEs.
The recommend0ti 0ns frOm thp rnvesl i goti on ofsl 0pe
stobrl i ty 5houl d i ol l o!\, rwo bcrsi c rul es:
. Never construct on fi l l , thot i s, l ond \,vhi ch hos beerl
bui l r up or fi l l ed usi ng excovotd moteri ol .
. Avoi d the l ocol i 0D of structLrrcs cl ose t0 l ondsl i de zones
2.4.4 SOIL AND ROCK TYPES
The surveyor shoul d i nvesti gote whot l ocol a0nstrLrcti on
moteri qLs such os soi l ond rock ore ov0i l obl e ot si te. Possi bl e
uses 0fsuch moteri ol s 0re preserted i n Tobl e 2.2.
The type of soi l or ro(k ol so ofl ecl s thf l ourdoti on oi
\ r f l r t ur e. 0ndl l - pLun0l t y pe. f or
px onr pl ,
. . f he. oi ) t 1pe, .
sondy l oom, o l orger tbundoti 0n depth i s .equi red. 0n the
othr hond, structures moy be bui l t di rectl y on hord rock
wi th0ut ony excovol i 0r). Si mi l orl y, l i ni ng nl 0v not be requj red
for heodroce ccnol i f rhe soi l type i s cl oy HDw{rvr, l i ni ng wi l l
be requi red i fthe oLgnmcnt rs through sondy soi l .
Subsi dence i s coused by the l ocoti on 0fqci d substoncs
i n the l ocol groundwoter octi ng on sol ubl rocks such cs
l i mest0ne. by the presence of rocks whi ch ore l i obl e t0 spl i l ti ng
ond l 0l i oti oi r, oi bV undcrEround cdverns \rhi ch cre prone to
coLl opsc. The presence of thi ck l oyers of l oo!c sqndy soi l
(Ioy
ol so Leod to subsi dence.
These chorocteristics
qre
identilled by coreful observo-
ti 0n 0fthe si te. Li mesi one 0utcrops, si nkh0l es (hol es of 2-10 nr
i n di omter whi ch l orrrl when the i i mstorl e beneoth di ss0l VeJ,
cousi ng the s0i l obove t0 col l opse), the oppeqronce ol streoms
or other seepoge from depressi ons or crocks i n the ground
surfoce ore excmpl es 0l choroctri i sti cs ro l ook for.
Undermi ni ng refers 10 the octj 0n of surfuce woter on the
tbundqti ons 0fsrrucrures. The i Dtoke ofthe scheme ond the
penstock ore porti cul orl y prone to undcrmi nl ng where surl oce
woter threqtens the structures, but the hodroce conol i s ol so
vul nerqbl e.
Toble 2.2 Possible use ofsoil
qnd
rock in micro.hydropower
2.5 Hydrology ond wster ovoilqbility
2.5.1 PRf,DICTION METHODOLOGIES
Hydrol ogy di ctotes the si ze ofvori oLrs mi cro-hydr0 conponents
l i ke the turbi ne, chonnel ond the penstock.l t ol so hos gfeot
i nfl uence on the schene bei ng desi gned over or under copoci ty.
The gncrol pro(ti ce
j n
Nepol tor ml cro-hydro schms i s t0 vi si t
th sj te dufLng dry secson ond meosure the fl o!v. The scheme i s
then desi gned bosed 0n thj s fl ow Thi s moy l eod to si tuoti ons
wherc the l l ows ore l ess thon the desi gn fl ow ond consequentl y
turbi nes orp pr0duci ng l ess porver thon expecl ed The foct thot
nr o ny nl cr o hyd r o . hr nr ?5 . r L Nepol r epon gr nr r or l on woy
bel ow the i ostol l ed copoci ty i s strong evi dence of thi s. It i s
i mperoti ve t0 understond whether the fl ow wos meosured i n o
dri er thon ri yeroge yeor or i n on overoqe yeor, becouse ofthe
i nfl uence th0t thi s hos on sel ecti ng the desi gn fl orv. To be obl e to
produce o desi gn fl ow os occurql el y os possi bl e. o predi cti on
study must be undertoken.
Most potenti ol mi cro hydropower si tes orc l ocoted on
ungouged cotchments where si te speci fi c hydrol ogi c doto i s
l o.ki ng. To esti m0te yi el d from ung0uged corchmerts, two
techni qLl es
qre
currentl y ovoi l qbl e to predi ct fl 0ws. These ore
known os th WECS/DHM ond l he MIP methods, and
qre
presentd i n the subsequent di scussi ons to predi ct fl ows i n
ungouged cotchments i n Nepol .
fi owvr, o( o rcgi 0noi troi ni ng workshop on l ow fl ow
meosurment ond onol ysl s orgqni sed by ICl l r{OD i n Apri l 1999
i n I(othmondu, Nepol , i t wos reported thot both the WECS/DHM
ond MIP methods for esti motrng yi el d from ungouged cotch-
ments hod moj or drowbocks, ond use ofthese methods hod to
be exrci sed wi th extro ccutl on- It was recommended thot rhe
WECSi DHM sl udi es be revi el ved, ond esti moti on ofthe porom-
eters be updoted from time t0 time. In this regord, DHN'I is n0w
colloboroting with WECS Io rsview the prvious studies, ond
i mprove 0nd updot the por0nl eters by usi ng more stoti ons
wi th Longer records ofdcto. [t wos stressed rhot wi th Nepo]
focing blg problems in estimoting the dsign low flows for o
N' IE OF SOIL
OR ROCK
POSSIBLE USE IN
Ii'IICRO.HYDRO CIVIL WORKS
TRIATMENT BI]FOR-L USE
Sond Concrcte
Ag!reg0te i n concrete
Bed moteri ol i n droi ns
Cdbi ons ond masonrv
Conol l i ni ng
Musr be selected or thoroughly woshed to be free from orgonic motter, fine
poni cl es, cl oy l umps 0Dd excessi ve mi co.
Musl be coreful l y soned ond woshed.
Must b woshd.
N{usl be selected for c0rrct type of rock, density ond size.
Testi ng ofcl oy content requi red to ensur thot i t wi l l serve os on
i mpermeobl e l oyer
crovel
Rocks
Cl ov
10
v0riety of opplicotions including micro-hydropower, o Ielioble
method wos urgentl y requi red. In thi s c0ntext, the l nsti tute of
Hydr0logy, U.K. is undertoking 0 project titled
'Regi0nol
Flow
Regimes Estimotion f0r Smoll-scole Hydropower Assessment
(REFRESIiA)" in coilcboroti0n with ICIIUoD ond DHII from 1999,
whi ch oi ms to provrde o rel i obl e method for esti moti ng the
hydrol ogi coi regi me ot ung0uged si tes i n the Hrmol oyon rgi On
0fthe country RIFRISHA is scheduled to b rtody in obout fivo
ye0rs trme.
WhcslDepotr|Jfjent of Hydrotogy and
Meteorolry pHMl
method
The woter
qnd
Energ-v conl nri ssi 0n Sccretori ot (wECs) cud DHN{
(Rel 4) method l s b0sed 0n 0 seri es of regressi on equ0ti ons thot
orc deri ved from onol vses ofol l the hvdrol ogi [ol records i r0m
Nepol . The fi ndi ngs ofthi s l "gfessi on onol ysi s hov ben used to
produce quotions for predicting different hydrologic poronr-
eters such os the l0!v flols, flood flows
qnd
floiv durotion
rurves.l t
j s
beyond the scope ofthi s boQk to expl oi n i n det0i l
the WICS/DHIVI meth0d. Reodel s ore odvi sed to consul t the
Rfercnce. detoi l s 0f \\ hr.\ ore provrded i n Chop' er I L Appen-
dix Adescribes this method with
qn
exomple.
lledium lrrigation Project method (MIPI
l h MIP method pre5nts o techni que i br sl i mcti ng the
distributloi, 0f nont hly ilows throuqhout 0
yeor'for
ung0uged
l 0t0ti ons. Th l vl l P mthod0l Ogy uses o dut0hqse consi sti ng of
DHM spot meosurenenrs. The 0ccosi onol wddj ng gougi ngs
conducted by DHM include only 1ow llows ond these flows d0
not rPpresent the noturol c0ndjtions since they ore residuol
llows amoining ofter obsrroction ior different purposes like
i ri q0ti on. MIP prsents non-di mensi onol hydrogrophs of meqn
rnonthly fl0ws for seven difierent physiogr0phic regi0ns. These
hydrogrophs present nonrhly fl0ws os o rotio ofthe flow in
April (0ssumed IOwest onnuol flow). For opplicotion to
ungougd sites, it is necessory r0 obtoin o I0w flow dischorge
e5tim0te by gouging ot a pofticulor site. Th mosurcd flow is
then used with ih rgionoL non dimensionol hydrogroph t0
synl hesi se on 0nnu0l hydr0gr0ph for the si te. Appendi x A
describes this method rvjth on exomple.
Comryisons of the WECSIDHM s,,d the MIP opprooches
IIDCSIDHM: Dliootion 01 droinoge bosins
qnd
elevati0n
(ontours
oR oftn distcfird on rhe cv0rlobl mops: olso
ngmsions wen derived 0n lhe bosis ofobserved 0ows for
c0tdlments ronging in size fr0m 4 up t0 54,100 kTn'. Therefore,
fol llows in smoller cotchments the results would prov to be
unnlioble.
MIP: The MIP method opprooch bosed on wodrng meosure.
ments takn 0n on intrmittent b0sis connot be expected to
gi ve 0 good esti moti on oftot0l fl ow i n the monsoon months, i t
con, however, give o reosonoble opproximotion ofthe divertoble
fl ows i n these months. In the rvet seoson months, Nl l P woul d be
expecred to underesti mol e WECS tl qures, whi ch shoul d more
0ccurotel y represent totol fl ow In the dry seosor l i l l P ond
!VECS shoul d both provi de rotol fl ow esti motes. The MIP
prOcedure, whi ch xpl i ci tl y odvocots the use 0fl oc0l doto to
odjust the regionol hydrogroph, should give rosonobly
occurote esti motes through rhe dry seoson months thot ore
cri ti col i n ossessi ng mi cr0 hydro proj ects.
Not drot nei ther the WECS/DHM nor i he MIP nthOds
rvere derived from doto for high oltitude snow'fed cotchments.
F0r such cotchments, more wei ght shoul d be gi ven to the resul ts
of si te meosuremnts.
It must be mphosi 5ed that one con get o fel for 0nnuol
i l oods by meosuri ng f)ood l evl s ot sj te. Si l t ond debns depos-
i ted ol ong the ri ver bonks or l vel j ust bel ow th vegercti on
growl h 0re i rdi coti 0ns ol l l ood depths. By meosuri ng fl ood
deprh, wi dth ond overoge gr0di ent ofthe ri ver ot the i ntoke
orco, i t i s possi bl e to cal cul ote the fl ood fl ow usi ng I' l onni ng' s
equoti on, descri bed i n 4.3.2. Il i s beyond the scope ofthi s book
to dcscri be the di fferent methods ofri ver gougi ng: pl eos se
Re[. I or Rel . 2 fbr gui donce.
2.5.2 PROCEDURX TO ESTABLTSH fiE DESIGN FLOW
l . C0ndLr( | 0 fl ow n.eosurement ol srl e duri ng the dry
Jeo\on
rNov(
mber \1oyJ. Pr| .fcrobl y rn February l or
snow-fed rivers ond li{orchiApril for 0ther rivrrs. Note if
the yeor i s dri er thon overog, overoge or wettcr l hon
overoge Thi s con be estobl i shed by tol ki og to rhe l ocol s.
Consi der i fthere orE sj gni fi cont obstrocti ons by 0ther
wqter users, such os
j fi goti 0n
ond dri nki ng woter
schemes upstreom ol the p0i nt where th gougi ng wos
conducted.
2. Col cul ote :
. Averoge nl onthl y fl ows by usi ng WECS/MIP methods.
. Flow durotion curve using WECs.
. lnstontoneous flood 0ows ofdifferent return periods
usi ng WECS.
L compore the dry seqson rneon monthl y fl ows obtoi ned
by IVECS ond N{l P method. l fthe tl ow meosurd ot si te i s
0bout overoge occordj ng to the l ocol peopl e, romp0re
the dry seoson meon moDthl y fl ow obtoi ned by the
WICS method with thot obtoined by the lr'llP method,
ond use the l ower vol ue. Ifthe fl 0w wos meosured ot
11
si t du ng el ther o wetter thon
qverqgr
yeqr or o dri er
thon overoge yeor, then use the volue obtoined by th
WECS mel hod.
Use the llow durorion curve (FDc) to estoblish the
probobi l i ty of exceedonc ofthe vol ue fron step 3. The
FDC i s useful becouse the power qui vol ent ofthe fl ow
con be superi mposed onto i t, so thot i t i s p0ssj bl e l o reod
ofl the omount ofti rne eoch ye0r thot certoi n power
l evel s con be obtoi red. Thi s i s o useful pl onni ng tool ,
oJl owi ng o choi ce ofsi ze ofturbi ne t0 be mod, together
v,/i th 0n i ndi c0ti 0n 0frcqui red vori obl e fl ol v perform-
once ofturbi ne 0nd on i ndj c0ti on ofthe pl onl f0ctor
constroi nts whi ch wi l l resul t from ony portj cul or choi ce
oftu.bi ne si z. Se Rf. l fordetai l s.
Deci de on whct percntoge
ofthe l l ow es(qbl i shed i n
stp 3 cqn be di vfted for power generoti on. l fusi ng a
temporory wei r ossum thot 50% ofrhe 1l 0w corl be
divened. lfthe rive! preselts farmidoble dimculties,
ossume less thon 500/0. If using o permqnent wir
founded on bedrock ossume 954/0 ood for weir bosed on
ol l uvi um foundoti on, ol l ow for seepqge l osses ond
ossume thot 90olo of the flow c0n be drvened.
Toble 2.3 cqnql seepoge losses
N PE OF SOIL SEEPACE LOSS, (lh/1000 n'
OF WETTED AREA)
Rock
Impervi ous cl oy l oom
Medium cloy loom
cloy loom or silty soil
crovel l y cl oy l oom or sondy
cl oy or grovel cennted wi th cl oy
Sondy l oom
Sondy soi l
Sondy soi l wi th grovel
Pervious grove)ly soil
Grcyel wrth some eorth
<0. 5
0.8
-
1.2
1. 2
-
t . 7
1. 7
, 2. 7
2. 7
, 3. 5
3.5 5.2
5.2 6.4
6.4 8.6
8.6
-
10.4
10.4 20.8
5.
6. c0l cul ote seepoge l osses f0r the w0ter conveyonce
structures. Thse iosses must be deducted fr0m the flow
estobl i shed
j n
step 5. Ssepoge col cul oti on i s covered
j n
Secti on 2.5.3.
7. Consi der i ftherc are other rvoter users such os
j rdgotj on
ond drinking water dowlstreom ofth diversion works.
Estobiish th omount of flow that hos to be rleased
downstrrom ond deduct this omount lr0m the 0ow
ifom stp 6. This is the design IIow.
A desi gn exoti pl e i s i nci uded i n Appendi x A.
2.5.3 SEEPAGE
It i . i mperol i ve ro exomi ne l he soi l ol ong the r0ute o[the
proposed conol ond esti mote the omount ofseepoge thot o
cqnol mqy suffer, on imponont issue thot is often overlo0ked by
Dicro-hydro designers. Thls is especiolly trut for micro-
hydropower schemes wi th l ong unl i ned conol s. Tobl e 2.3 gi ves
conol seepoge losses for djffer0nt soil tvpes. By colculoting th
wetted oreo for o gi ven cross secti on ofthe conol , seepoge con
be col cul ofed usi ng doto from the tobl e. [x0mpi e 2.1 i l ]ustrotes
thi s method.
2.6 Otherconsiderotions
2.5.I FLOOD RISK
In si te i nvesti g0l i 0n, the concern i s for the sel ecti on ofthe bst
opti on for the desj gn ofthe scheme. Therefore know)edge of
fl ood l evel s i s i mponont ot the two extremes ofthe mi cro' hydro
scheme, the i ntoke ond the powerhouse, 0r ot other pons ofthe
A 500 metre lorlg unlined heodroce conol is to be con-
structed in sondy cloy to convey o design flow ofO.l m?/s.
A stondord tropezoidol sction is pmposed with o depth
of0.2 m, o bonom width of0.6 m ond side slopes of1:2
(V:H). Colculote the seepoge loss in rhe conol.
Solution:
The wetted perimetr (P) ofth ccnol con be colculoted
using the following equotion:
p =
s + 2 x H x
{ifM(see
chopter4)
=o. o+zxo. 2xVi i TZT
=
1.49m
The wetted dro
: Px L
=
1..19 x 500
=
747 ml
From Tobi 2.1, seepage loss ir sqody clcy is 3.5 lA/1000
m'z ofwetted oreo. Th seepog loss is givn by:
q.,!
=
3.5 x wettd oroi 1000
=
3.5 x 747
/1000
=
2.6
Vs
Which is 2.6% of the designed flow of the conol.
12
scheme thot moy be lulneroble to flood domoge from the river.
Flood lvels moy be prdicted by hydrologicol colculotion
from ovoiloble doto to give the 20 yeor or 50 yeor 0ood level, 0r
by ronsulting locol people. ldeolly, both methods should be used
t0 give 0 relioble estimote. Alwoys cllow o morgin oferror so
thot o rore llood event is ollowed for, ond think rorefully obout
how the floods will olTect eoch ofthe prcposed loyouts for the
proJect. The locotion ofthe poweftouse higher oD o slope will
rcduce the ovnilobie heod ond therfore hcve on importqnt
unpoc on the.opoory ond the economrcs ofthe prqect.
2.5.2 CROSS DMINAGE
Someti mes, because 0fthe n0tur ofthe topogrophy, the
he0dmc conol ond/or the pgnstock olignments will ned to
cr0ss gullies ond smoll streoms. Note thot dry slopes ole more
stobl thqn soturoted slopes. Surfoce woter con be diverted by
conslructing v0rious t)?es of cross droinoge works. For
exomple, cotch droins con be constructed uphill from the
rnicro-hydro olignment to divert th surfoce runoff. Cotch
droins ore smoll chonnels thot divert surfqce runoff(thus cotch
it)qnd diveft it int0 neorby gullies or noturol drqinqge.
Another exomple ofcross drqinoge works is the use ofo
superpossoge. This is o covered heodroc conol orrongement
sudr thot the surfoce runoffllows over it whereos the design
flow is sofely conveyed in the conol.
2.6J WATER RIGHTS
Sometirnes there con be woter use conflicts betwen the
pmposed micro-hydro schme ond other prior uses oFthe source
stnon. For xomple, ifthep is on irrigotion scheme down-
stn0m 0fthe proposed micro-hydro intoke thot moy rceive less
wotI
{once
the micro-hydro plqnt
js
commissioned), thelt will
be conflicts. Such w0rer righrs issues should be rcsolvd beforc
inplementing the micro'hydrc schme.
It sh0uld b notd thqt irrigqtion ord micro-hydro ccn be
c$ordjnoted ifon cgrcment with oll concrned porties is
Rodred in the initiol stoge. This is bcqus inigqtiorL woter is
not ltquind throughout the yeor orld thercfore woter cqn b
usd for power production ot other times. This moy resuit in
less or even no power ovoiloble during peok irrigotion period.
fiowver, ifthe elertdcity users or olso owners ofthe irrigotd
lond, they con prioritise their needs, such os by irrigoting in the
oftemoons ond nights ond producing power duriDg mornings
ond evenings.
2J.{ tiND OWNEnSHIP AND LqND USE
T1I surveyor should note down the issues conceming lond use
ond ownership. Ifthe olignment trqverss thrcugh o formr's
poddy neld, the lond moy hove to be boughr by the prcjct.
Another xomple is thot on open chonnl heodroce moy be
technicolly feqsible but the designer m0y hove to choose o
buried pipe ifthe heodroce olignment is r.rlong cultivoted lond.
Similorly, sediment flushing ond spillwoy flows need to be
sofely diverted owoy from cultivoted lond. It is importont to
note down londowners whose lorld will be used for structures,
so thot ogreements such os leose orrongements cqn be negoti'
oted. These foctors will offect the design ofth schene.
2.5,5 HIGH AITITUDE SITES
These guidlines ore gnrolly opplicoble to micro-hydropower
in Nepol, but some porticulor mosurcs ned to be tokn for
high oltitude sits to ovoid ill'efffects fmm freziDg tempero-
turs.
To 0void frost dom0ge to concrele ond mosonry, th
following meosurcs ore necessory:
. Keep the woter to cement rotio os low os possible,
prferobly not mole thon 0.50.
. Avoid oggregot with o lorye moximum size, or o lorge
proportion of fl ot porticles.
. Use o woter reducirg oir entrqining ogent (plosticiser).
. Ensure good compoction.
. Do not build while night temperutufts ole below
freezing. Surfoces must be prevented from drying out
for ot leost three weel6 ifthe ombient temperoture is on
qverog
5oC or less.
To ovoid ice domoge to conols ond structurcs, the woter
foce of wolls should b smooth concrete or plostred mosonry
oDd i ncl i ned ot 0pproxrDotel y l :1. The expondi ng i ce con then
ise between the wolls, instod ofpushing the wolls aport.
Heodrqce c0nols should be designed for o minimum
velocity 0f0.6 m/s. Evn though the surfoce mcy frceze, woter
will flow under the ice.
The rop ofrroshrqcks should be below ony expcted ice
lev1, to ovoid ice forming oround the troshrock bors. Timbr
trsshrock bors moy b less lioble to icing thqn steel bors.
Th foundotion lvel of structures should be below the
deprh of ground freezing. This is )ikely to be obout one metr
depth.
2.7 Plonning
Th plqnning ofcivil engjnering works lor lorg projects is 0
complex process ond the skills Iequired ore considered to be o
seporote disciplin within the fild ofcivil enginee ng. The
reqson thot plonning is given so much importonce ir th0t the
project construction cost con be significontly brought dowr by
13
emcient co-ordinqtion of lobou! quipment ond motriols. This
eruurs thot the Esources orc used ot their moximum prcduc-
tlury
As mentioned eorlir. the plonning ofmicro'hydro civil
work does not rcquire the detoiled work oflorge prcjects-
However, the principles orc the sqme ond corc needs to be tqken
to follow some bqsic rules. The pmcess ofconstructing micro-
hydro civil works hos three ports:
. Unde$tandingwhot hos to be built
. Estoblishingthemethod, quipment ond the pople
required
. Corr!'ng outthework sofly, economicolly ond to the
quolity rquircd to sotisry th clint.
"Ihe
undentondingpqrt ofthe prccss sounds stroightfor-
word, but it should not be overlookd. civen the likely number
ofpeople involved, effective commumcotion ord cleor demqrco-
tion of responsibilities ore essentiql in plonning. Everyone
needs to lanow whot they ore occountoble for ond to whom.
There orc a number offoctors offecting hoq when ond in
whot order the work con be corried out. A checklist of these
foctors is os follows:
. Performonce ofstoff, quipment ond moteriols.
. Avoilobility of stoff, equipment ond moteriols.
. Holidoys ond festivols.
. Access to the site.
. Weother, seosons.
r Avoilobility oftunds.
. Sit geology
qnd
topogrcphy.
. Existing use ofthe site
qnd
its boundories.
. Public relotions.
PRporing o
"Project Implementotion Chort" in the
initiol stog is olwoys helpfr.[ since it will indicote whot
octivities ore in th criticol poth ond ollow for plonning
qheod.
Undoubtedly, such o chort wiU undergo frequent revision
du ring the construction phose- However, it is stil helpful to
formulote o chort ord moke chonges os necessqry since it con
be used to monitor the progress of work ond plon for futurc
octivities such os proculmellt ofconstruction moteriols ond
lobour orlqngements. A typico] implementotion chort is
showninFigure 2.5.
Activity Durqtion in months
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Public relotionsi oworeness roisino
il
D
Site survey including lowflow
meosurement & dotq processing
I
Detoileddesign s
Finoncing
Tendering ond oword of
construction contrqct @6weeks
A n
Fobricotion & supply ofsteel ports
(penstock, troshrocks, flush pipes etc.)
construction of heqdroce cqnql o N
Construction of settlino bosin & forebov N
Construction of mosomy wol & gully crossing s F T
Insto.llotion ofpnstock & construction of
onchorblocks & support pie$
o E
Fobricotion & supply oftuftine. beh drive
ond otierelectrGmechonicol eouiDment
s
Instollotiol of tronsmission Iine N T A
Powerhouse construction T I
Electrcmechonicol instollotion
qt
powerhouse
Testing & commissioning A
Projct hondover to the client L
Figure 2 5 A rwicol Prolect lJnplemcnlohon Chon
74
2.E Checklist for site selection
IAND OWNERSHIE LAND USE A,I!D WATER RIGIITS
H0ve 0ll issues concrning lond use ond owlership been duly
recorded during the srte visit? Does the olignment troverse
through o former's poddy field or is
jt
olong bqmn lqnd? Hove
woter rights issues such os irrigotion use ben odequotly
oddressed?
INTAXE
Moke sure woter con be diverted
qwqy
from tie river ond
towqrds the heodroce. Does the river course oppeor stoble or
does it look like it will meonder? Think obout floods ond flood
levels. Does lhe rivr corry l0rge boulders? Ifso, think obout
temporory diversion works r0ther thon o permonent wir.
GRAVU, TRAP
Does the river c0rry o sigflificont omount ofgrovel during the
monsoon? If so provid 0 grovl trop os close to the heodworks
0s possible. Con rhe grovel be eosily flushed into the stlom or 0
neorby gully from the grovel trqp?
SETruNG BASIN
'this
stucture should be locoted
qs
close to the intoke
qs
possible. The e0rlier the sediment is removed the less rhe
mohtenonc in the heodrqce. Ifthe source river is not for owqy
tle sedimenr c0n be dischorged bock into ir.
IIEADRAG
Il generoJ the heodroce olignment should be on level to slightly
doping ground. Ifthe olignmnt is step, corsider using o
hodroce pipe insteod ofo conol. Try to get the olignment owoy
ftomtbe river os eorly os possible to minimis llood domog.
Pmvide escopes upstreom oforeos where the conol might be
blocked by lorddides. tfseepoge fiom the heodroce cqnol con
triggr londdides, think obout hning the conol or using pipes.
FONBAY
Allowonce shonld be mode for finol settling ofsediments.
Gnerolly. this structurc should be locqted
just
uphill ofthe
tr0nsition 0reo whete the ground profile chonges from Ievel to
step, ts thIe o possibility to sqfely dischorge the nt[e flow
ftom o spillwoy in cose ofsystem m0lfunctiol?
PE{STffX
Tle pNtock olignmenr should stort where the ground profil
gets steeper. An ideol ground slope would be between 1:1 ond
'l:2
lV:H).
The Ilqtter the ground slope, the less economrc is rhe
ptrsto&.lt is dimcult to mqnuolly loy penstock, construct
support piers ond onchor blocks ifthe slope is greqter thon 1:1.
Also try to minimise bends since thse will require odditionol
onchor block.
POWERIIOUSE
Moke sule thot ther is enough spoce for o powerhouse with the
requiftd dimensions (to fit the electro-mechonicol equipmnt)
ot the loc0tion selcted. Excqvotion con be minimised by
locoting the powerhouse on lvl grcund. Think obout wher
the toilwoter con be dischorgd (i.. tolhoce olignment).ls the
powerhouse high enough obove the river to be sofe from floods?
IAII,RACE
Moke sur thot th t0ilroce is protected fiom the streom into
which woter emerging from the turbine is dischorged. The
toihoce should be oriented downstreom to prevent floodwqter,
debris, ond bed lood from being funnelled into it toword the
powerhouse.
TR,qNSIItrSSION UNES
ls the vlllqge situoted owoy from the powerhouse site? lfso,
tronsmission lines 0re requipd. The cost oftronsmission lines
Photo: 2 3 A Stroight pnstock run keeps costs to o mininum
15
qdds
significondy to the overcli cost ofo scheme. Consult Ri I
for dioiis.
AVAII.IIBIIIIY OF COI{STRUCTION
MATERIALS AND IIAOUR
Constructiorl mdtriols for micro-hydro schemes thot m0y be
fould at site ore sond, cagregote ond stons. Arc thes mcte
-
ols eosily avoilobl 0t site or brought fronl outside? AIe skilled
lobourers such os mosons cnd carpenters ond ulskilled
lobourcrs ovoilabl at site?
The unit rotes for such construction moteriols ond lobour
should be obtoined while ot site for esrimoting quonritjes ond
cost ofthe scheme duing the design phose. It is more Ielevont
to use prcvai l i ng rotes rother thon di strj ct rotes, whi ch ore
norrnol ]y l ower thon the prev0i l i ng r0tes.
STAB!UTY
Apon from the obove criterio, it is very impofiont for the entire
scheme to be 0n stobl e ground. Ifonl y o smc)l l ength ofthe
0l i gnment i s unstobi e i t m0y be possi bl e to stobi hse i r. Refer to
S0ct r on 2. 4 0nd Chopr er 9 r o 0sseqs l hi s
j ssue.
3. Diversion works
3.1 0verview
The divfiion works for o micro-hydropower schme control
the flow 0fr{oter frcm the source river into the heqdroce.
ThE c0mp* o di versi on wei r (usuol l y). on i ntoke, ond
s0metunes nver troiDing works. The diversion works ore pqrt
oftheheodworks,
qnd
serve the foLlowing functions:
. m0intoin the design 0ow with nominol heod losses
during both monsoon ond dry seosoDs;
.
!rcvnt,
or 0t leost minimise, th bed lood ond other
flo0ting moteriols (ice, timber, leqves etc.) entering th
conol;
. sofely cont0in pe0k flows ir the iver ond owoy from
th micro-hydro systm so thot domoge is not coused
to th structures.
'Ihe
principol mointenonce t0sk ossocioted with cjvil
works is oftenthe removql ofsediment orld debris conjed by
$e incoming woter, which con couse domoge to the turbines
should itbe pemifted t0 enter rhe penslock. It is therefore
tlsgltiol th0t the odapted intoke design prevents sqnd, bed
lood ond debris irom entering the intoke os much os possible.
one ofthe p nci pol couses ofprobl ems i n the operoti on
ofhydroporver schemes i s o poorl y desi gned i ntake whi ch moy
permi t oper0ti on ofth schem i n the shon' term but beyond
thot. cous seri ous domoge to the system. The desi gn ofon
oppropriote intok structure for micm-hydrc in Nepol requires
on odequoi understonding of Himoloyon riven since they
h ' v , < ^ m, , , n i . ' , , f , n r ' , r , c
3.2 Generol principles for
selecting intqke locqtion
The mojor considerqtions requird to select 0ppropridte intok
locotiols ore disaussed in this section. It is imponqnt for the
design enginer to rolis thst much con b lomed from
observing the irrigotion intoke sites selected by locol formers.
The forDers ore fomili0r with the rivem ond hove the odded
odvontoge thot they hove observed them over c long period of
ti ne. In foct, some of the former monoged i rri goti 0n schemes
in Nepol or more thon 100 yeors old ond the intokes ofsuch
17
sites hove foced most problens brought
qbout
by Himoloyon
rivers.
The following princrples should be considered whiie
selecting oppropriote intoke locotLons:
Minimol disturbs,ncc to the nstursl stste ofthe iver
Constructi on ofhi gh ond permonent wei rs
1l o!gr
thqn 1' 2 m)
ocross the totol width ofthe dver is gnerolly ufldesiroble,
becouse domming hos the eflect 0fropid sedimnt deposition
ond chonge ofpresent ri ver course,l eovl ng the l ntoke dry ond
useless. The design ond construction of weirs requires coreful
considerotion to
qvoid
preserltinq on obstocle to flood flow in
the roiny seoson. F0r diversion from o noturol pool, no weir is
required ond woter con be conveyed through HDPE pipes 0r o
covered mosonry flume t0 o heodroce conol.
For this reoson, ottempts should be made to locote
intokes such thot the noturol woter level ot low flow in the
strcom is suitoble for the intoke level ofthe con01. This will
ollow the conol intok structure to be built ot stream level ond
the onJy meosures necssory within the streom or river bed
itselfore meosures for th stobilisoti0n ofthe
present stote of
the streom.
Locotion in on srea which offers nsturol prctection
When withdrowing wotr from o streom whose level moy
increose morkedly dudng roiny periods, it is desiroble to locote
the intoke behind or under lorge, permonently plocd boulders
or rcck, these limit the woter thot con enter the intoke, ond
deflect flood flows ond river borne debris owoy. Advontoge con
olso be roken ofstoble bonl<s 0nd rock outcrops.
Lnation on the oubide ofo bcnd
Therc is o noturol tendency ofthe ver to deposit sediment on
the inside ofbends olong th ive. At bends, the direction 0lrh
flqw closst to the river bed chonges compored wjth the sudoce
flow. A spircl flow forms, which tronsports the bed 10od to the
inner side ofthe river bend. On oll streoDs ond rivers it c0n be
observd thot grovelond sand bonks form ot the inside bend,
i.e. the bed loqd is dive(ed from the deflecting bonk. As o rcsult
ofthis when the river flow dcreoses, the river width decrcoss
from the inside ofthe bend. Therefore cn intoke should not be
si ted on the i nsi de ofo bend. To mi ni mi se sedi ment l oqd ond to
ensure flow
(tvoilqbility
during the dry season, on intqke should
be si ted on the outsi de ofo bend. The best l ocati on i s about 2i 3
t0 3/4 ofthe di stonce oround the bend or l he outsi de
qs
shown
in Figur 3.1. Shorper bends orc more effective in preventing
i he entry of sedi ment, and the omount 0fbed l ood tronsported
into the conol decreoses os the diverted proponio[ ofthe totol
flow ln the dver decroses.
FLgure l-1 Locoting intoke oround o bnd
other considerations
In stroight sections of0 iver, the water flows poro)lel to the
bonks
qnd
the bed lood is transported olong the bottom.
Thefelore iIl stroight sectians the locqtion of the intoke is
governed by foctors such os bcnk stability and heodroc
ol l gnment.
Ih locqtion ofqn iltcke structure must be so chosen
thot th lorgest p0ssible ponion afrhe bed load remoins in the
river ond is not dive(ed into the hecdrcce. Howvec even c
good intoke lvill not exciude oll sediment; lhe grovel trqp cnd
sel tl i ng bosi n [unher ol ong the conql
(ompl te
thi s.
3.3 tntoke locqtion in relotion
to river chqrocteristics
3J.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF HIMAJ.AYAN RIVERS
In Nepol, most micrc'hydropower schemes ore locoted in the
foothills ofthe Himolqyon Ronge. This includes the High
Mountoins, Middle Mountoins ond the Siwqliks os shown in
Fi gure 3.2. It i s essenti ol to hqve
q
cl eor understondi ng ofthe
chorocteristics of these Himolqyon rivers beforr opprooching
tbe design ond construction ospects ofdiversion works. These
ri vers fl ow i n geol ogi col l y young mountoi n structuEs ond con
be choroctedsed os follows:
steep river grodient ond steep slopes olong both river
bonks;
Hi gh degrce ofconti nui ng ercsi on 0nd sedi ment
rr0nsporT;
Sm0l l r streqms of steep ond unstobl e noture wi th o
boul dery ol )uvi ol bed;
Ii 0bl e to tronsport consi derobl e quonti ti es ofsedi rnent
r ncl udi ng boul der s dur i ng l he monso0n; .
A significont flow ond sdjment incrcose in the rivers
du ng the monsoon.
Due to these u!ique choroctristics, development of
hydropower from the Himoloyon rive$ prsents grcot chol
Figur 3.2 Feosible locotions of mrcro-hydro schemes in Nepol
lenges. Design ond c0nstruction ofoppropriqte structures to
cope with movement 0f lorge boulders
qnd
high sediment
loods ore two ofthese chollenges. River intokes used elsewhere
in nlotively flot ond stoble rivers including the Teroi ore
inoppropriote in the cose of mountqin rivers of Nepol.
Ioble 3.1 Cotegories of Nepolese rivers
Rivers in Nepol con be categorised occording to the woy
in which they ore influenced by vorious chorocteristics. The
types of river thot sre mostly utilised in micro-hydro ore shown
in Tqble 3.1.
TYPE GMDIENT
(MArN LOCATToN)
VALLEY SHAPE BED MATERTAT CHANNEL PATTERN SEDIMENT MOVEMENT
(N: NORMAL, F: FLOOD)
1A very steep
(Mountqins)
Norrow volley no
flood ploins
Rocks, very lorge
boulders
Si ngl e N
-
Sond in suspension
F
-
ravel. cobbles
qnd
boulders
IB Steep (Mountoins
ond hill regions)
Norrow volley,
irregulor norrow
fiood pioins
Rocks ond bouiders,
grovel ond cobbles
in shools
One moin plus flood
byposs chonnel
N
-
Sond ond grovel
F
-
Includes cobbles
qnd
smqll
boulders.
ic Steep (Mountoins
ond hill regions)
Norrow volley,
irregulor norrow
flood ploins
Rocks ond boulders,
grovel ond cobbles
in shools
Severol octive chqnnels
os well os floodwoys.
N
-
Sqnd ond grovel
F
-
Includes cobbles ond smqll
boulders.
A
,$
{
ry
Intermediote
(Hill regions)
Outwosh river,
confined by
volley sides
Some boulders,
moinly grovel
qnd
cobbles
Single plus limited
floodwoys
N
-
Sand ond fine to medium
grovel
F
-
Includes coorse grovel,
cobbles, perhops smqll boulders.
28. Intermediote
(Hillregions)
Ditto but less
confined volley
Some boulders,
moinly grovel
ond cobbles
24 octive chonnels
with floodwoys
N
-
Sand
qnd
fine to medium
grovel
F
-
Includes coorse grovel,
cobbles, perhops smoll boulders.
2C. Intermediate
(Hill regions)
Ditto but wider
volley
Some boulders,
moinly grovel
ond cobbles
Broided, severol octive
floodwoys.
N
-
Sond ond fine to medium
grovel
F
-
Includes coorse grovel,
cobbles, perhops smoll boulders.
Soune: Ref.5
19
33.2 EXAMPLE INTAXf,S
'typicol
intoke locotions for some ofthse rivers ore shown in
Figures 3.3 ord 3.4. It should be noted thot these ligures
illustrote only possibl locotions for iltoks, not the prefened
rype ofintoke.
fijver type 1A
Mountoin rivers of Type 1A prcvide fovouroble conditions for
intokes in trms ofpermonence
qnd
lqck ofinterference from
sdiment irl normol conditions.
Iigure 3 3 Slung ofinlokes rn mountoin rive6 ofType lA
(Soufte: ReL 5)
Nver
We
1B
Int0kes on Type 1B rivers con olso be locoted similor to 1A.
However. these riv6 provide o greoter choice ofintoke site, ond
prmit more permonnt irtok structurcs, either ftom the side
ofthe chqnnel or os
qn
ongld or frontol inroke built inro the
chonnel It is often possible to protect the intoke behind o rock
0utcr0p.
fjver
We
lC
Intoke selection in these rivn differs from 1A ond 18 oDly in
rcqui ng contrcl of one or more of the chonnels in order to
ensur thqt sumcient flow reochs the intoke. A possible
orrongment is shown in Figurc 3.4.
Figure 3-4 Siting ofintoke in mouDtoin or step hill rivers ofType lC.
(Soufte: Ret. 5)
crsvel bed rtvers
These or cotegory 2 rivers (2A, 28 & 2C) which hqve less steep
chonnels compord to cotegory 1 types. The riverbeds ore
moinly ofcobbles ond grovel, togther with some boulders.
Intoke siting follows the some generol principles os in cotegory
]. However, these vers provide more flexibiliry For exomple, it
is posslbl t0 use morc permonent river control structures such
os concrete or mos0nry werrs ond l i ver rroi ni ng wol l s.
Post,ua
l
t_
tr00d
I
' \
Flow dircdim
Ro c l c l i f f ,
loce
Route of
feeder cqlol
O
Phoro 3 I Ar?o olrnrole in o rype 28 river
(Dhoding)
20
3.4Intqke types
3.4.1 DESCRIPTION
lypes 0fintoke structure ore chiefly distinguished by the
method used to divert wqter from the river. In micro-
hydropoweq moinly two types of intoke
qre
used os follows:
r Side intqke
o Bottom intoke
Toble 3.2 Selection criteriq for side und bottom intoke
Aport from the obove types,
qn
innovotive intqke colled
"Coqndq intoke" hqs olso been field tested in o micro-hydro
scheme in the UK. This is discussed in Chopter 10 (lnnovotions).
3.4.2 SELECTION CRITERIA
Tqble 3.2 oids the choice between side ond bottom intokes for
grven conditions.
SEI^ECTION CRITERIA SIDE INTAKE BOTTOM INTAKE
Amount ofwoter: Fqvouroble site selection necessory
(outsi de ofo bend, or
qn qrti fi ci ol
bend
by groins) if the omount of diverted
woter i s greoter thon 50% of the woter
suppl i ed.
The bottom screen drqws off the river wqter up to the
copocity limit of the screen (i.e. oll river flow if
screen is lorge enough).
Grodient ofriver:
r very high (i > 10%)
tohi gh(1070 >i >10l o)
o meon grodient
(tVo >i > 0.0170)
Fovouroble: mointenonce free operotion
ol'the intoke structure should be ensured
^ ^ f ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^ : L t ^
u) l ul u)
PU5) l ul ( .
Fovouroble
Fqvouroble for very high grodient; con be
mointenonce-free, if properly designed.
Unfovouroble ifi < 10o/o.
Unfovouroble: fine bed lood into the initiql heodroce
conol results in difficulty in flushing.
Plqn of river:
o stroight
r winding
o brqnched
Possible
Very fovouroble ifthe river chonnel is
stobl e; when orronged on the outsi de
bend.
Unfovourobl e; donrrni ng of the ri ver
i s requi red.
Very fovouroble,
qs
bottom screen is uniformly
l ooded.
Unfovouroble, os bottom screen is not uniformly
l ooded.
Unl ovourobl e.
Suspended sediment
c0ncentr0ti0n:
r high
o low
Sui tobl e i n combi noti on wi th very
el l l ci ent settl i ng bosi n.
Well suited
Less sui tobl e
Wel l sui ted
Bed lood tronsport:
. strong
r wok
Sui tobl e os l ong os sul fl ci ent
qmount
of Less sui tobl e
woter remoins in the river for flushing.
Well suited Well suited
Nopted fromRef. 3.
z l
3.5 Side intoke
3.5,I DESCRIPTTON
Side intokes ore simple ond less exPensive thon othr tyPes of
i ntqk. They ore eosy to bui l d, operqte ond moi ntoi rl Si de
intokes ore similor to formers' troditionol intokes for irrigolion,
ond hence the formrs con qurckly leorn the principles of
operoti on ond moi ntenonce ofthese i ntokes The sl de i nt0ke of
the 50 kw Golkot micro-hydro scheme con be seen in Photo-
groph 3.2. Note thot to mintmise flood flows in th conol, the
intoke is designd os on extension of the heodroce conol lt wos
felt thot the intoke could be vulnroble to flood domqge ond
therefore the coorse troshrock is locoted further downstreom
Phoro I2 Srde intote ofthe Coltot mrcro hydrc s.hme Boglung NPpol
{se
Appendrx C for lh dro!t'ing)
si de i ntokes must be s0fe ogqi nst boul der i mpoct ond
floodwqter entry. They ore m0sr effective when built on the
outr bend 0fthe ri ver (to mi ni mi se the omount ofsedi ment
drqwn i nro the i nrqke), neor norurol
Pool s
or si td l n such o
wqy thot they ore protecled os much os possible from river
fl oods (e g behi nd o permoDent rock outcrop) Si de i ntokes con
b used wi th or wi thout o wi r
side intoke without web
lnotursl Pondl
I[ some coses, orl xposed i ntoke structure moy be ovoi ded by
exrrocting
woter ftom behind the shelter ofo r0ck outcrop ln
other coses, therc moy be 0 notur0l cleft ln o rock spul 0r on
opeling btween o very lorge boulder 0nd o rock woll' thot c0n
be used os o notur0l intoke. wherever
Possible,
this type of
intok should be preferred, slnce it is the most economlcol one,
ond scfe from the domoge offloods ond debris moteriols. It olso
mointoins the principle of
"minimol disturbonce to Ih nqturol
stote of ver".
A side intoke withour 0 weir is unLkely to be suitoble for
ri ver l ypes 1C, 2B ond 2C, due to the strong
possi bi l i ty ofthe
river course shifting in the future.
side intske with weir
The function ofo weir is to rolse the woter level in oldr to
ensule o constont minimum depth ofwqter uPstreom ofthe
weir This ollows the required flow to be divrted to the
heodroce os long os there is sufncient woter in the river' Types
ofwei r ore desc bed i n Secri on 3.6.
3.52 TMSHRACKS FOR SIDE INTAXES
The troshrocks for side intqkes con be mo[ufoctured from flot
steel, ongles, tees or rould bors welded together ot flxed
intervols. The trqshrock
qt
the intok is
qlso
}clown os'coorse
troshrqck" since the bor spocing is wider hele compored to the
troshrqck ot rhe foreboy. For side intokes, Ihe functiol ofth
troshrock rs to stop boulders, cobbles, flooting logs ond
bronches from entering the heodroc Coorse troshrocks for side
intokes ore Dot designed to exclude
grovel ond sedrmnt This is
thej ob ofthe
grqvel trqp ond the settl i ng bosi n.
Th size ofthe troshrock should be such thot th woter
vlocity is opproximqtely 0.6 m/s
(o lower velocity is uneco-
nomic, whereos o high velocity tends to ottroct bdlood ond
dbris, ond results in increosed heodloss)
Photo.3.3 whre on intoke is lioble to ottroct llooting debris
o troshrock moy b necessory (Sn t.onlo)
22
Since boulde$ con frcquently impoct the coorse
uoshrock, it neds to be robust, i.. thick steel sctions should
be used. Depending on the length ond width ofthe opening,
notur ofthe sediment lood ond the required flow o cleor
spocing of50 mm to 200 mm con be used. The side intoke
coorse trcshrock ofth Golkot Micro-hydro Scheme is shown in
PhotooroDh 3.4.
Ptoto3.4 Coors troshrock for 50 kW Golkor MHq Boglung, Nepol. 55 mm x l0
nI! 00ts ot 75 mm centre to centlP. (Se Appndix C for rhe drowingl
3J3 ORItrCE DESIGN
Aside intoke normolly includes on orifice domstpom of the
Elihrock ot th riverbonl, thrcugh which woter is iniriolly
d$wn hto the heodroce. Sometimes, the side intoke isjust o
continuotion ofthe heodroce conol up to the riverbonk.
However, 0s for os procticoble, on orifice should be incorporoted
to limit excessive flows during floods. with
qn
intoke thot is
just
o continuotion ofthe heodroce conol to the riverbonl,
ress flow connot be controlled during floods. Such excess
fow col domoge the heodroce conol ond other structures
tlowastreom. Howevr, the orifice need not be 0t the intoke
0n0{i.e.0t the riverbonk). If it
qppeors
th0t rhe intqke is or o
ploin or susceptible to domoge from boulders, then the
fiiEce con b locqted downstrom. In such coses the conol
ofthe orilice ond the intoke would be temoororv ond
noy ltquft repoir ofter every monsoon.
An orific is on opening (Figure 3.5) ir the intoke from
which the river woter is conveyed towords the heodroce. The
orifice ollows the design flow to poss thrcugh it under normol
conditions (i.e.low flow) but restricts higher 0ows during
floods. The dischorge through on orifice for submrged
condition is:
q =
nc
fi(r';
rt)
v
:
c \E(4-hJ
where:
Q
is the dischorge thmugh the orilice in m3/s
V is the velocity thmugh the orilice
A is the oreo oforifice in m,
dotum.
hh is the woter Ievel in the heodroce cqnol meosured iiom the
some dotum os h,.
g is the occelerotion due to grqvity
=
9.8 m/s,
Figure 3.5 Side intoke
C is the coemcient of dischorge ofthe orifice ond is
dependent on th shope of orifice. The volue ofC decrcoses with
the omount ofturbulence induced by the intoke. For o shorp
edged ond mughly finished concrete or mosonry orilice
structure this volue is 0s low os 0.6
qnd
for corefullv hnished
operture it con be up to 0.8.
(h,
-
hh)will vory occording to the dischorge in the river
since o higher woter level in the ver will produce o groter
heod ot the orifice.
The moximum velocity for o well constructed concrete/
mosonry orifice is 3 m/s: ifthe velocity exceeds this volue. the
orifice surfoce will be scourd. For micro-hydro, the recom-
mendd velocity (V) through the orifice during normol flow is
1.0
-
1.5 m/s. Stortirg with o smoll orince opening for normol
flow (i.e. high velocity) will limit excess flow during floods,
since th dischorge through th orifice is proportionql to the
hh
h n
23
squore root ofthe difference between the wcter level in the river
ond the heodroce conol (h.
-
hn). However, if the orilice is
directly ot the river (without o troshrock) the velocity should be
less thon 1.0 m/s to ovoid drowing bedlood into the intoke.
The size of the orifice is colculqted
qs
follows:
r Assuming o moximum velocity of 1.5 m/s through the
orifice, colculote the required oreo of the orifice opening
us i ngQ=Vx A.
r For or ect ongul or openi ng, A
=
WxHwher eWi st he
width ond H is the height ofthe orifice. Set H occording
to the river ond ground conditions ond colculote W.
. To ensure submerged condition, orronge the orifice
opening such thot the woter surfoce level ot the
heodroce conol is ot or slightly higher (scy up to 50 mm)
thon upper edge ofthe orifice. Note thot the design of
heqdrqce cqnol is covered in Chopter 4. Hence the
design of different micro-hydro components ore interde-
pendent.
Now colculote h, for the design flow conditions.
The h, is the woter level thot needs to be mointqined in
the river during normol conditions. If the octuol level in
the river is less, repeot the colculotions with lorger
width
qnd
smqller height of the orifice. If the sctuql
river level is still less provide o weir with weir crest level
ot h,
o Cclculote the flow through the orifice for flood condition
(h,
=
design flood level). The excess flow (i.e. flow
during flood less the design flow) will hove to be spilled
bqck into the river or neorby gullies in the initiql reach
ofthe heodrqce. This is discussed in the next Chqoter.
An exomple of on orifice sizing is shown in Exomple 3.1
ii,
l l
I
i'l.
I
I,
ll
ff
I
;
I r
I
I
Choose c suitoble size of on orifice for o design flow of 250 l/s. The normol woter level in the river is
0.8 m obove the bed level. The design flood level is obout 0.7 m obove the normol woter level. Whot
is the dischorge through the orifice during such o flood?
Q
=
0.250 mr/s
Set V
=
1.2 m/s
:
- o 0.25
Orifice oreo (A)
=
i: LZ
=
0.21 mz
set orifice height (H) =
0.20 m oni'*iArn of orifice (U =* =
**
=
t.os m
'
H 0.20
Set bottom of orifice 0.2 m obove the river bed level. This will minimise the bed loqd. Also, set the
dotum ot the river bed level.
Set wqter level ot heodroce conol, hn
=
0.5 m with respect to the dotum os shown in Figure 3.6 (i.e.
100 mm above the upper edge of orilice to ensure submerged condition). Note thot loter the heodrace
canol will hsve to be designed occordingly.
q =
6g \Dsq-
hJ
Assume C
=
0.6 for roughly finished mosonry orifice.
Q
=
0.2t x 0.6ffi3466-
ss)
=
0.31 m3/s or 310l l s
Q
*ouioo
=
250 l/s: Therefore orifice size is 0K.
Discharge through the orifice during flood flow:
h,
-
hn
:
0.8 * 0.7- 0.5
=
1.0 m;
Qn*o
=
0.21 x 0.6 {2x9.8x1.0
=
0.56 mrls
Qn*o
=
550 l/s
The dimension of the orifice ond the levels cre shown in Figure 3.6. Note thot the excess flood flow
con be dischorged vio o spillwoy st the grovel trop or onother suitoble locotion. A second option is to
instoll onother orifice
{double
orifice system) downstreom.
24
Flood level (1.50 m)
#
Oriflco
Not to scalo
Normal wator levol (0.80 m)
s
0.40 m
s7
0.20 m
Rlver bed lsvl (0.00 m) / Datum
Fioupl6 Dimensions ofth orillce ond levek
Plloro 1.5 Timber plonks ploced horizonrolly in grooves pmvide o low-cost gote in o chonnl In this cose,
th dnbrs hove bn liftd to oct os o restricting orillce (Mhopung)
whether the river is eroding (o generol lowering ofthe river-
bed), oggroding (o generol building up ofthe riverbed), or
shifting its course. The heodworks design, ond in pqrticulor the
choice of weir, must toke occount ofpossibl future chongs.
When it becomes
qpporent
thot o weir is required, the
following foctors should be considered for both permonent ond
temporory weirs:
. lf0 weir ocross port ofthe river lngth is sumcient, then
it should not b extnded 0crcss the ntirc width. Aport
from 0dding extro cost it olso encourogs sediment
dposition upstreom ofthe weir-
. The wi r hi ght shoul d be os l ow os possi bl e (i .e. wei r
crst lvel
=
h,,
just
sumcient to m0intoin the w0tr
level in th intoke). This mokes the structur more
stoble, less susceptible to flood domoge ond olso
mi ni mi ses sedi ment deposi ti on.
3.5.2 TEMPOMRY WEIRS
A temporory weir is typicolly con-
structed using boulders plcced octoss
pon or oll of the river width. A diqgonol
olignmnt mcy rduce the Rquircd
height ofthe wir obov the rivrbd.
This is the tr0ditional method used by
Nepoli formers to feed irrig0tion conols
or woter mills (ghqttos). ond is used
quite extensively in micm-hydro schemes
in Nepol. For micro.hydrc schems in the
l ower ronge such os those used for ogro-
processing only, this type of weir is often
oPProPnqte.
Though
q
temporory weir is
simple and low cost, it hos o few
Iimitotions: for example it is not possible
to di vert ol l ofthe ri ver fl ow even i n the
dry seoson. Therefore this t]?e ofweir is
bst suited to situotions where the dry
seoson flow ofthe river exceeds the plont's design dischorge.
3.6 Diversion weirs
3.5.I GENEMI.
A weir is Rquired ifthe flow cqnnot be diverted towqds the
side intole without roising the river woter level, especiolly
during the low flow seoson. Th weirmoybe oftemporory
semi-permonent or permonent construction, A temporory weir
is the prefened option for micro-hydro schemes.
In pl0millg o weir, ottention must be given t0 the
geomorphology ofthe river, ond ony chcnges tiot moy be
toking ploce. Alwoys consult with locol people ro esroblish Photo 3 6 A lemporory weirin o Type 28 river{Dhqding)
During the high flows, even if the weir is woshed owoy, it moy
still be possible to divert the required flow towords the
heodrqce si nce the woter l evel i n the ri ver i s hi gh.
A proposcl lor c temporory weir constructed ofstone
mqsonry in mud mortor is shown in Figure 3.7. This is
intended to ollow diversion ofo higher proportion of the dry
seqson flow, but would still get woshed owoy during the
qnnuol
floods. Constructing temporory weirs with boulders
os lorge
qs
con be hqndled monuolly ond including cut-off
wqlls and riprop con minimise flood domoge. As con be seen
rn Figure 3.7, cut-off wolls ore downword extensions of the
weir ct th upstreom ond downstreom foces thot reduce
seepoge post the wei r. Ri prop i s on engi neeri ng term used to
denote the pl oci ng ofo l oyer ofboul ders for scour protecti on.
The omi ssi on of scour protecti on woul d resul t i n scouri ng of
the ri verbed, eventuol l y l eodi ng to the foi l ure of the wei r i tsel f.
Once the ri ver di schorge decreoses, o temporory wei r
con be usuol l y reconstructed ot l i ttl e cost. The repoi r ond
moi ntenonce work on o temporory wei r con be mi ni rni sed by
bui l di ng the wei r usi ng rock outcrops, Iorge boul ders ond
other noturol protecti on ofthe ri ver. Good monogement of
cosh for the onnuol weir "rebuild" is required.
ln rnost coses, o temporory weir is suitoble only for the
diversion of flows below 1 nrr/s. This fits well into the mrcro-
hydro dischorge ronge, since the moximum flow in micro-
hydro schemes rorely exceeds 500 l/s. For micro-hydro
schemes, o temporory weir is the preferred option over more
permqnent structures. This is becquse most rivers flowing
through the mountoi ns ond the mi ddl e hi l l s of Nepol corry
lorge boulders during the m0ns00n ond therefore ony
structure built ocross such rivers is not likelv t0 survtve.
3.6.3 GABION WEIR
Gqbions hove been used extensively in the post, for both
micro-hydro ond irrigotion intoke weirs, but the result hos
not been very encouroging. The gobion wires ore vulneroble
to domoge by boulders moving during floods, ond ofter o few
qre
broken the entire gobion structure moy collopse.
Gobions ore therefore unsuitqble in river Types 1B
qnd
1C.
However, if there is no significont boulder movment
olong the river stretch ot the intqke oreo o gobion weir moy
be possi bl e. Ifproperl y desi gned
qnd
constructed, the
odvontoge ofo gobi on structure i s thot, unl i ke concrete ond
mosonry structures, it con tolerote some ground movement
without significont domoge. TheJhonkre mini-hydro weir is
on exomple of o gobion weir structure (see Figure 3.8 ond
Box 3.i ). The wei r desi gn shoul d i ncl ude checki ng:
o sofet! ogoinst scour (by founding 0n rock or lcrge
boulders, or by constructing o
'counterweir'
down-
streom to lorm o stilling pool)
seepoge control (by using on impermeoble mem-
brone)
st0bility ogoinst overturning ond sliding
sofety on beoring copocity ofthe foundotion.
a
a
Temporcyweir,
stone
Locolion of -0225-cb-ssT--rc
Al l di mensi ons ore i n mm.
Fi gur e3. 7 At empor or ywei r pf oposedf or t hel SkWThor ongphedi mi cr o- hydr oscheme, Monong. Nepol
Note the cut' ol fwql l s ond ri pr(p at downstreom foce.
LO
@
o
(9
o
{
(o
t \
o
MMO MS
HDP f l ush
oi
140fflnfr HDPE
for i rri goti on
For e b
G rovel t ro
I n t oke
Pool
G obi on wei r
i i i gur e3' 8[ l eodw0r k s of r ongc n] ent 0| t he500k WJ i l 0nk r enl i nj I t y dr os c 1t eme, Nepol . Not et hot t hei nt ok e, s et t l i ngbc s i n
structure ond there i s no hecrdroce. the topogr0phy i s such thct 0 pel )stock ol i gnnl ent coul d be storted ri i tht 0t the heodworks.
I
I
I
, \
r\
Qt
lti
7/
4,
27
Figure 3-9 Cross section ofJhonke Mini'hydro drversion welr
ll
tr
rl
E&(
Photo 3.7 Diversion weir of rhe
Jhonlce
Mini-hydro Schme
The 500 kW
Jhonlar
Mini'hydropowr Schme, locotd 0n theJhonlqe river, Dolokha, Nepol, wos designedjointly by BPC
Hydroconsult
qnd
Development ond Consulting Services (DCS). The construction wqs undertoken by DCS. As con be seen in the
section through the weir, to minimise seepoge in the dry seoson, o heovy grode polFhene sheet hos been fixed
qt
the upstEom
foce of the gobion wir' T0 prvnt the sheet ftom being punctured by boulders ond other debris, stone bockfll hos ben
incorporoted in front ofit. Also to prevent the gobion wires from being nicked by rolling boulders, 150 mm ofploin concrete is
ploced olong oll exposed surfoce ofthe wir.
Dudng o 1995 monsoon flosh flood (esdmoted to b o 1:30 yeqr return period flood), this weir wos portiolly domoged. It wos
then repqired. Since then, the weir hos foced two onnuol floods without ony repoirs. occosionql repoir ofthe concrete topping
ondtlle gobionwires oreexpected (i.e. during the onnuol mointenonce period.
28
3.6.4 PERMANENT WEIR
Sometimes if there is o scarcity 0f woter, especiolly during the
low flow seoson, ond the river does not corry lorge bouiders, o
permonent weil moy be built ocross the river. Micro-hydro
schemes in the higher ronge (50 kW or obove) ond mini-hydro
schemes (100 kW to 1000 kW) often hove permonent weirs.
Permonent weirs ore generolly c0nstructed of moss
concrete (1:1.5:3 with 400/o plums), or stone mosonry in 1:4
cement mortor. A reinforced concrete surfoce loyer moy be
considered to protect the weir from domoge by boulders moving
in flood. A permonent weir should only be considered if oll of
the following conditions ore met:
r Lorge boulders do not move in the river ot the weir site.
r The river bed is stoble (not eroding, oggroding or
shifting course)
o There is o scorcity offlow, especiolly in the dry seqson.
r Skilled mosons ore locolly ovoiloble for both construc-
ti on ond moi ntenonce.
r There ore suflicient funds for both construction ond
future mointenonce work.
Even if
qll
of the obove conditions ore met. further
considerotion should be given for remote sites (3-4 doys wolk)
becouse of the cost ond difliculty involved in tronsporting
cement ond reinforcing steel. Besides considering the foctors
mentioned eorlier (use of lorge boulders, weir ocross port 0f the
river if possible ond low weir height), lor permonent weirs
scour protection should olso be provided. The toe ofthe weir
(i.e., downstreom foce of the weir) is most susceptible to
scouring since there is o drop from the crest ofthe weir.
Protection ogoinst scour is provided by cut-offwolls ond
plocing boulders (such os stone soling) or riprop downstreqm of
the weir cs shown in Figure 3.10. The cut-offwolls olso reduce
seepoge under the weir, which con increqse the flow ovqiloble
t0 the intoke during the dry seoson. Figure 3.11 shows onother
option for 0 permonent weir in cose bedrock is found
qt
the
proposed site. When the weir is on bedrock, deep cut off wolls
ond riprop ore unnecessory. As shown in Figure 3.11, shollow
cut olf wolls ond onchor rods con be used to fix the weir on the
rock surfoce: the anchor rods should be grouted into the rock.
An ulternotive design is described in Box 3.2.
200rhk. Rc c
T 12
@
ZOOdc t bothways
12C-
V
-2.OO
V
o. 45
v
I
l mo
I
3560
|
t ooo
I
Note: All dimensions ore in mm. levels ore in m.
Fi gure 3.10 A stone mos0nry permonent wei r proposed for Ghomi mi crotydro scheme, Mustong, Nepol . The 1:3 sl ope ol l ows rol l i ng boul ders to tr0vel dOwnstreom
t hr ought hewci r ondt heRCCbl onket hel pst ost r engt l i ent hewei r sur f oceogoi nst obr osi onduet or ol l i ngboul der s. Al sonot et hecut ol f wol l sondr i pr opot
downstreom foce.
Stone cement mosorry
(
29
Figure I 11 A plum concrete permonent weir proposed for chdmi micro.hydro scheme The lil slope ollows rolling boulders to trovl downstreom rhrough the
wr ond th RCC blonket helDs Io strnathn Ih weif surfoce oooinsr obfosion due to rollino boulders
Ph.rm concrele
(
| : 3 : 6, 4OoloPlums)
2OO l hk RCC
(t
: 1.5:
t500,
r-1
Tl2
@
2OOczc bof hwoys
A.,.
- 3-
v
t 20
v
o. @
16 onchor rod
l onS
@
3 OOc, t , gort ed
wi t h l : I : O. 4(cement , sond
Note: All dimensions ore in mm, levels ore in m.
rvoler)
qrot
| .
lnPeru, rTDG hosbeenusing on opprooch to design
ofintokes which uses plonks slotted in piers
perpendiculor to the dilction offlow ofthe rivr
Short reinforcd con(ete piers or constructed ot o
spocing of2 metres. Eoch pier hos verticol grooves
olong its full depth. Then timberplonls ore insfted
betweenthe pirs by inserting th ends ofplonks
onto the slots. During the roiny soson, one or more
spons con be removed to regulqte the flow ot the
intoke orilice
qnd
to ollow river-bome debris to llow
olong it without cqusing domoge to thewhole
stntcturc.
Photo 3 8 slortd conrrere piers
30
I
3.6.5 HEAD OVER WEIR
As stoted eorlier, plocing
q
weir ocross the river roises the woter
level. Any excess flow thqt is not withdrown into the intoke
flows over the weir. The dischorge over the weir is given by the
iollowing equotion:
Q
=
C* x L
*.,
x (hou.noo)t
t
where:
Q
=
Dischorge over the weir in mr/s
L
*",
=
Length of weir in m
hou.nop
=
Heqd over the weir crest level in m
C*
=
Weir coeffrcient which vories occording t0 the weir profile.
C* for different weir profiles is shown in Tqble 3.3. In micro-
hydro, the weir is usuolly brood with round edges
qnd
therefore
C* i s 1.6..
Table 3.3 C... for different weir profiles
The weir equotion is olso useful in colculoting the flood
levels ot the intake ifthe flood dischorge is known or cqn be
calculotedbosed on the river hydrology. Once the flood levels
ore known, the flood protection wolls ot the riverbonk con be
designed. For hrown dischorge over the weir, the heod over the
weir (ond hence the woter level ot the intoke) con be colculqted
by rewriting the weir equotion os follows:
. l Qf " '
!
:
I
- - l
"ovef,op
\ c* x L*",, I
Colculotion of heqd over o weir con be seen in Exomple 3.2
3-Z Bottom intokes
3.7.I DESCRIPTION
The bottom intoke,
qlso
known os o Tlroleon or trcnch intoke, is
o grille-like opening thot coptures woter from the bd ofthe
river ond drops it directly into the heqdroce. The flow generolly
posses through on opening in o wing woll of the intqke
structure ond owoy from the river. in some coses the grille moy
cover o smsll chomber, but generolly the bottom intqke is
designed os o trench, perpendiculor to the direction of the river
flow.
The bottom intqke is most oppropriote in Iocotions where
there is no opprecioble sediment movement olong the riverbed,
becouse it withdrows bottom woter in preference to surfoce
woter. This type of intoke wos first used for smoll hydro ond
irrigotion systems eorly this century in olpine oreos ofEurope.
Ptofile of crest of welr cw
n
ln
A
_r
h
broad; sharp edges
broad; round edges
round ovedal l
sharp-edged
rounded
rool-shaped
1. 5
1. 6
2.1
1. 9
2.2
2.3
A brood crested weir hos been ploced ocross o river for a
micro-hydro intqke os shown in Figure 3.12. The weir
height is 0.5 m snd the length 5 m. How high should
the-
flood protection woll be for o 20 yeor return flood of 11
*,/j?_
,
C*
=
1.6 for bmod crested weir
Fl ood l evel
Figure 3.12 Brood crested weir
h
-/
a
J*'
"ovenop
\ c. x Lr.o ,
Note thot C* is 1.6 for brood crested rveir
t 7l \0'657
h"""n"o
=(--i;Fl =
1.24 m
Height offlood protection wolls from river bed level
=
0.5
m + ho",noo * 0.3 m (ollow 300 mm of freebootd)
=
2.Oa
31
Worl dwi de
procti ce shows thot i t i s 0ppl i cobl e i n smol l ri vers i n
mountoi nous ond hi l l y regrons, where the fol l owrng condi tj ons
exl st:
. steep ri ver bed ofbore rock or boul ders whj ch rorl y
move (they or sui tobl e for fl ow vel oci l i es xcedi ng 3
m/s);
. Mi ni mol bed l ood ofsond
qnd
grovel :
. surplus Ilow ovoiloble for continuol flushing To dote
oni y o few bottom i ntokes hov been constructed i n
Nepol , s0 Nepql ese formers ore not l om i or wi th them.
The dsign ofbottom rntokes must be done corefully to
ovoid becoming blocked with sediment. Bottom intokes
for Thome ond
Jhong
micro-hydro scheme ore shown ill
Photogroph 3.9 ond 3.10.
3.7.2 TRASHRACKS FOR BOTTOM INTME
Srmi l or to si de i ntokes. the troshrocks of bottom i ntokes con be
monufqctured from flot stel, ongles, tees or round bors welded
together ot intervols. The sectlon chosen must be strong
enough to withstond impoct by ony bed lo0d moving dunng
floods. lrs shope is olso very imponont, stnce this
qffcts
the
chonces ofcl oggi ng. Round bors, for exqmpl e, ore more
Prone
to cl oggi ng, bcouse the openi ng i n the mi ddl e ts smql l er thon
on the top. From the poi nt ofvi ew ofcl oggi ng, th secti 0ns
l i sted bel ow ore orronged i n the order ofbest to worstl
Tees
Angl es
Chonnels
Flots
Round bors
The recommended cl eor spocrng between these fl ots,
ongl es or bors i s 6 to 15 mm ond o commonl y used sPoci l g i s
12 mm. The rcoson why these bors ore cl oser thon those ofthe
si de i rl toke troshrock i s thqr grovel ol so needs t0 be exc]uded
from the bottom i ntake. Si nce the i ni ti ol heodr0ce for thi s type
ofintoke is covered, it would b dimcult to rmove ony grovel
thot obstructs the flow. It should therefor be excluded The
spqcing ofthe flots or
qngles
depnds on the prtdominont
porticle siz ofthe sedlmnts coffied by the river flow (i.e. bed
lood) ond the provision for o settling bosin ln the conol
systm. The lorger the spocing (oPening), the lorger the
pofticls thot will enter the heodroce. on the othr hond, if
the Openilgs ore too norrcw, theP is o high chonc of
clogging necessitoting frequent cleoning ofth troshrock. It
is 0lso importont to ploce rhe troshrqcks such thot the bors
or olong the dircction offlow This mlrumises the risk of
cl oggi ng.
Phoro 310 Bottom intok wrth the gnu rPmoved (Jh0n9)
on ofthe drowbocks ofthe bottom i ntoke i s the
cl oggi ng oftroshrock by pebbl es ond dry l eovs. EsPeci ol l y
duri ng the dry seoson, the ri ver moy corry
q
l ot ofl oves,
which become tropped in the trqshrqck ond reduce the flow
through lt Therefor the troshrock needs to be cleoned
periodicolly during the dry seoson During morlsoon, this is
not o problem; the river Ilow sweeps the grqvel ond leoves
before thy con clog rhe troshrocks.
3.73 DESIGN OF BOTTOM INTAJG
The foilowing equotion is used for the design ofo bottom
intok:
cpbr.fih
where:
Q^
=
design dischorge into the intoke in mr/s,
b
=
wi dth ofthe bottom i ntoke i n m.
L
=
l ngth ofthe rroshrock i n m. l n procti ce, i t i s recom-
mendd thqt the troshrock l ength (L) be i ncEosed by 20%, i .e.,
L=1.2xL.".,r,,.d. Thi swi l l ensur thot there wi l l be odequc te
flow when the troshrock is portiqlly blockd by wedgd
stones ond brcnches.
2
w
Photo I9 Botronr intoke ofThome mkro hydro schem, Npol
Bottom intok with the griu rPmoved (Jhong)
32
.>
L -
" , k
1 "
Tqble 3.4
1
vclues for
p
ho
=
Initiol woter depth in m in the river upstreom of the
intqke.
h,
=
ho * vo'/29. Note thqt os con be seen in Figure 3.13 h, is
cctuolly the initiol woter depth in the river plus the velocity
heod ofthe river (v"'/2g). For steep rivers, the flow velocity
should be meosured since the velocity heod con be high.
X,
=
0 function ofthe inclinotion ofthe troshrqck (p) cs shown
in Tqble 3.4.
c
=
Conection foctor for submerced overfqll.
0
=
cleqr spocing of the troshrock bors in m.
d
=
centre t0 centre distonce between the troshrock bors in m,
p =
ongle ofinclinotion ofthe troshrock with respect t0 the
horizontol in degrees.
p
=
c0ntroctiOn coefficient for the trqshrock, which depends on
theshope ofthe bors os shown i n Fi gure 3.12. Al so i n the fi gure,
Q
is the river flow upstreom of the intoke ond
Q.
is the excess
flow in the river downstreom of the intoke.
Note thot to solve the bottom intoke equotion, either the
length or the width ofthe intoke opening needs to be set
qnd
the other dimension con then be cqlculoted. The selection of
one ofthese dimensions depends on the site conditions. For
exomple, if the length of the trashrock is too smqll, the
heodroce ccnol will require deeper excovqtion in the riverbed,
which moy be difhcult. Generolly, the length of the bottom
intqke should be equol to the width of the heodroce canol, ond
the width should motch the river chonnel.
It is importont thot the culvert beneoth the trosh rock is
steep enough t0 convey the moximum conceivoble sediment
lood to the grovel trop: o grodient ofot leqst 1:20 is recom-
mended. The grovel trop moy require continuous flushing,
which meons thot sufhcient heod ond surplus flow hos to be
ovoiloble. The design must be oble to corry ond spili bock to
0o
20
40
6o
8o
100
720
1.000
0.980
0.961
0.944
0.927
0.910
0.894
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
0.879
0.865
0.851
0.837
0.825
0.812
0.800
=
0.6
,
cosrj20
l l l
o.zs-o es
\ t
???l oso_oeo
fooz-
ooa
t
J
o 6s
gqg
o ?o-o es
conlrrctlon corf f lcirnt g
fin'
III
TTT
ITI
Figun 3.13 Symbols used in the bottom intoke equ0tions
the river the moximum flow entering the intoke r.rnder flood
condi ti ons.
Enoi neers desi oni nrt o botton i ntoke shoul d refer t0
References 3 ond 5 for further informotion.
A suitoble site hos been locoted for o bottom intoke. The river width ot this oreo is 5 m ond the depth is 0.5 m (i.e. h.
:
0.5 m). A velocity of 3 m/s wos neosured ot the intoke site. The design flow (Q^) required for power generotion is 0.40 mr/s.
Sel ect on
qppropri ote
si ze for the bottom i ntoke.
Design cqlculotions
Choose 20 rnm di ometer round bors for th troshrock.
p
=
0.85 for round bors (from Fi gure 3.i 2) Set the cl eor spaci ng between the bors,
o=12r nm
Centre t0 centre di stonce between bors,
d: 32 mnt
Set the i ncl i nati on ofthe trcrshrack
0
:
8" (The i ncl i nati on ofthe troshrock shoul d be equol to or sl i ghtl y greoter thon the
r i r t or nr nAi onl \
For p =
8u,X
=0.927
2
h
- _ . y. h
3 ' " t '
h,
=
0.5 + 3'z129
=
0.96 n'-
2
0rh
--
x0.927 x0.96
:
0.59 m
3
o
c
:
0.6
;*
cos' tf)
0
I
0.012
\
c =0. 6x 1
_ l x c os ' j ( 8' 1: 9. 22
\ 0.032 I
Now use l he bot t onr i nt oke equot i on:
2
n - - - , , k r E - , -
Y a -
3
L f t u L \ l g n
2
Q.
:
^
x0. 22x0. 85xb*L . , Ei gS*OSS \ 4 3
Q^ =0. 42x bx L
With
QA
=
0.40 Inr/s:
0.40
bx l = 0. 95mr
0.42
0,95
^ F I - -
u t L
*
r
D
Select the width ofthe troshrock, b
=
2 m L
=
0.9512
=
0.48 m.
Increose the length by 200/o: L= 0.48 x 7.2
=
0.57 m. The
proposed dimensions of the bottom intoke ore os follows:
Wi dth of the openi ng, b
=
2.0 m (0t ri ght ongl es to the fl ow)
Length of the openi ng, L
=
0.6 m (porol l el to the ri ver fl ow)
Troshrock bor si ze
=
20 mm di ameter round bors
Bor sPoci ng
=
32 mm centre tO Centl e
The pl on of thi s proposed bottom i ntake i s shown i n Fi gure 3.14.
ffi
----1
r
Bot f cr n i nt r ke
-
u Do rs
qf p iTtri c,'c
Fi gur e 3. 14 Dt nr eusi ons f or t h0 bol t or n i nt oke of t i xt r mpl e 3. 3
t /
Note thot in this exqmple the width ofthe troshrock is less
thon the river wrdth, which is occeptoble becouse only 50lo 0fthe
river flow is required. Where most of the flow is to be diverted,
the troshrqck width should be quql to th mvr width.
3.8 River troining works
A flood protection woll olong the riverbonk moy be required if
there is c high probobrhry offlood domoge to the inrliol heqdroc
ond 0ther structures such os th grovel trop ond settling bosin.
Such wqlls ore
qlso
cqlld river lroining structurcs since they
confin the river chonnel. The woll height should be groter
th0n0rot l eost equol l o the desi gn fl ood l evel .
The foundotion ofony ver troining wolls must be
protected from undermining by the river. This con be done by
one ofthe foilowing methods.
(o) Founding the wqll on rock or lorge boulders. For gobi0l
wolls it mqy be necessqry to first build up o level bose
using stone mosonry or moss concrete.
ft)
Foundi ng the wol l bel ow possrbl e scour depth.
(c) Using o gobion mottress olong the dver side ofthe woll.
This method is not opprcp ote in dvrs corrying o he0vy
bed lood, becouse the gobion wires will be domoged by
boulders moving during floods.
0n olluviol dvers (i.e. deep deposition ofsond ond cobbles),
gobion flood protection wolls ore usuolly more oppropriote for
micm-hydro schme. This is becouse the grould ofolluviol fivers
tends to chonge ond flxible structures con cope better in such
conditions Gobion wolls moy require onnuol mqintenonce
(especiolly ofter monsoon) therefore skilled mcnpower should
either be
qvoiloble ql
site 0r some locol peopl should be troined
du ng the consrruction phose.
Gobion wolls con olso seNe the function ofretoining wolls
ond stobilise the slopes behiDd it. Ifslopes ot lhe olluviol
rivrbonk ore unstobl, thn gobion wolls con olso be designed
os ntoining wolls. Photogroph 3.11 shows the use ofo gobion
woll to stobilise the bonk slope. Refer to Section 9.4 for rctoining
woll design.
on stqble riverbonks, such os exposed bedrock, o mosonry
woll cqn be built provided thot rhe river dos not corry lorge
boulders thot could domoge mosonry structurcs. In lorge
hydopower ond irrigotion projects even concrete flood boder
w0lls ore used but usuolly such solurions ore economicolly
unjustifi obl for micro-hydro schemes.
Figure 3.15 shows the use ofo gobion woll to prevent the
riverbypossing the diversion weir ond domoging the heqdroce
pipe during floods.
Photo 3.11 Gobion wqlls ot $e heqdworks ofthe 30kwJhorkor micro-hydro
scheme, Mustong, Nepol
3.9 Checldist for diversion works
Refer to Toble 3.1
qnd
find out whqt cotegory the
source river folls in.
Refer to Tqble 3.2 ond decide on whether o side intoke
or o bottom intoke is suitoble.
Is o weir rquired or is it possible to divert the dver
wotr without one? Remember the concept of
"minimol
disturbqnce to the nqturol stote ofthe
wotr".
Does the river course oppor stoble or does it look like
it will meonder? Think 0bout flood ond flood levls.
Also, ifthe river cqrries Iorge boulders during the
floods,
qnd
o weir is requiEd, think obout temporqry
diversion works rother thon o permonent weir
To minimise flood dqmqge the intoke locotion should
be such thot it is possible to set the heodroce olign-
ment immediotely owoy from the ver course.
Ifo side intoke hos been selected
qlong
o river bend,
Iemember to locote it on the outside ofthe bend.
Hove the flood levels ond history ofthe river course
been discussed with the locol community members?
Firlolly, consider th cost ofdifferent options. Is it more
economic to construct temporory diversion works
qnd
incur some onnuql lobour chorges or to choose more
permonent diversion works?
35
-
Efiq
. . t ]
l I
i , l
Wei r
l nt oke
Gobion
Fro
@ 4oOnrn closs II
Fi gur e3. l S Heodwor ksor r ongement 0f t he80kWBhuj ungMHP, under const r uct i oni nLomj ung, Nepol . Not i cet hef l oodpmt ect i ongobi onwol l sondr i pr opot
downstrcom foce of the weir.
36
4. Hecdrace
4.1 Overview
The heqdroce ofo micro'hydropower scheme is o conol or o
pip th0t conveys woter from the inloke to th foreboy. The
heodroce olignment is usuolly on even to gendy sloping ground
ord the flow is coused by grovity. A h0droce pipe is generolly
not subjected to significont hydr0uhc pressurc.
Since c0nols ore generqlly less expensiv th0n pipes, they
on used more often for heodroces in micro-hydro schemes. The
generol rule is to use conols os ofterl os possible ond ro use pips
ordy for the di mcul t stntch ofth heodroce ol i gnment, such os
t0 ngo(i0te cliffs or unst0ble oreos.
Micro.hydro heodroce conols
qre
similor to fqrmer
m0n0ged smoll irrigotion conols in thof they ore designed to
keep sep0ge, friction ond erosion to
q
minimum. Howevr,
thett 0r olso some bosic differrnces os follows:
. lnigotion conols ore used only 3-6 months in o yeor
whereos micro-hydro schemes rcquire woter throughout
the yeor
. In inigotion conols, some voriotion in flows does not
crcote problems, ond temporory repqirs (e.9. plocing of
bronches ond leqves ot o leoking section ofo conol) con
be mode, The heodroce conol in o micro'hydro scheme
needs to be mol relioble.
r The loss ofheod ovr th lngth ofthe heqdroce should
b minjmised so thot power output cqn be optimised.
Some micro-hydro texts use lhe term power c0n0U
conduit for ither the length belween rhe intoke ond the
sdtling bosin (when thrs structure is seporote from the foreboy)
0rfor the ntire heodroce. ln this rext the term heodroce is used
i n ol l coses.
The velocity in th iniriol heodroc lngrh reds to be
high enough to corry grovel ond sedimert up to the grovel rrop
ord settling bosin respectively. where thel is o sporote
seftling bosin ond forboy, the velocity in the heodroce between
these structures con be lowered since it will corry sediment free
Ilow.
Photo: 4 1 Eorth Chonnel(Dhoding)
4.2 Conol types
Heodroce cqnols con be clossified occording to the moteriols
used to construct them. Vorious types ofheadroce conol used
in micro-hydro schemes ore os follows:
4.2.1 EARTH CANAIS
Ths ore constructed by simply excovoting the grcund to the
required shope. Such conols ore used on stoble ond gently
sloping ground. seepoge con be high in such conols depending
on soil
rype
If therc ore signs ofinstqbiliry in o heodrace
section, or ifseepoge from the conol is Iikely to contribute ro
slope instqbilily such os londslides, this type ofcqnol should not
b slcted. However, for heodroce olignmnts on stoble ground
where seepage is not likely to couse instobiliry eorth conols ore
the most economic option.
Where cloy is locolly ovoiloble it could be considered
qs q
lining to reduce seepoge from eonh conols. Howver, o scheme
in Syongjo successfully used o cloy Iiring protected by srone
pitching for the peoking reservoir (which wos fenced off) but in
th heodrqce cqnol the Iining wos destrcyed by cottle.
4.2.2 STONE MASONRY IN MUD MORTAR CANAIS
Ifon eorth c0nol does not oppeor to be feqsible, the scond
option to be considered should be stone mosonry in mud monor
type. Compored to 0n onh conol, there will be less seepoge
from this type ofconal. For similor llows, the cross sction of
this type ofconol c0n be smoller thon the eqrth con0l becouse
q
higher velocity is occptobl (without cousing erosion) os will
3?
be di scussed l qter An exompl e ofo stone mosonry conol i n
mud monor con be seen in PhotooroDh 4.2.
4.2.3 STONE MASONRY IN CEMENI MORTAR CANAIS
In terms ofcost, this is usuolly the leost preferobl option for o
heodroce conol. Th odvontqge with this type ofconol is thot
seepoge is minimol (i-e. significontly lss th0n stone mosonry in
mud mortor conols). A stone m0sonry in cement mortor conol
should be used ot locqtions where the soil type is porous
(leoding to losses ofunocceptoble omounts offlow) ond/or
sepoge is likely to triggr londslides. For micro'hydr0 sites
locoted 3-4 dqys wolk from the roodhe0d, the need for o long
cement mortor conol con mok o micro-hvdro scheme uneco-
nomic due to the high cost ofcement.
An exompl e of o sron mosonry i n cement mortor
heodroce conol con be seen blow ilr Photo0roDh 4.3.
Photo 4-4 Reinforced concrpte cover dobs provide protection from folling debds
( Eol i vi o)
4.2.5 OTHER TYPES OF CANAI
ln certoin or0s there moy olso be other typs ofconol thon
thos mentioned
qbove.
For exomple, on irrig0tion c0nol in
Ecuodor constructd ofused oil drums cut into two semi-
circulor holves con be seen in Photogroph 4.5. Such o conol moy
be useful for short ond diflicult sections or for oqueducts where
used drums ore 0sily ovailoble ond economicol.
Another exomple is the use oftimber conol os con be
seen in Photogroph 4.6. This requirs the use ofhordwood ond
skilld lobour Similor to oil drums, timber cqnols con be
possible for shon crossings ond oqueducts or where timber is
obundont ond inexpensive.
Exompies ofother types ofconol or pEsented in Boxes
4.1 to 4.5.
4.2.4 CONCRETE
CANAI.s
Most micro-hydro
schemes do not hove
heodroce conols
constructd of
concPte since they
orc very exPenslve.
Thre is virtuolly no
seepoge through
such conols. some-
times, rcinforced
concrete conols ore
used for short
crossings. Generolly,
HDPE heodroc prps
ore more economlc
thon concrcte conols.
Photo 4 3 Stone mosonry in cement mortor
heodroce conol ofthe 50kw colkot MHB
Colkot, Boglung, Nepol
Photo 4 2 A rorsed mosonry chonnel supplying o mill (Mustong)
38
Photo 4 5 An oi l drum rrri goti on conol , Ecuodor Photo 4 6 Ti mber conol wi th broci ng supporti ng the si des, Thuptenchul i ng
39
Ferrocement pilot projects hove been promoted by the
Andhi Kholo Idgotion Pmject (A(IP) ond the Internotionol
Lobou Orgonisotion (lLO). Fefiocemetrt structures ore
mode of thin cement sond mortor (1:2 to 1:3)with thin
steel mesh os reinforcement. ILO hos used ferrocement for
Iining frigotion conols in th SindhuD nood Rehobilitotion
Projct.
Th ILO ferrocement conol cost wos US$ 31 per lineor
meEe ond the cement mosonry desigl of similor copocity
wos US$ 28 (1989 prices). The tlo
justifies
the odditionol
cost by ottributing it to befter durobility snd little
mointenonce whidr fe[ocement conols requA. other
odvontqges ore smooth finishing which reduces heod
losses, resistonce to obrosion, ond very low seepoge
Iosses.
The frrocement flum used in AKIP (designed by BPc
Hyftoconsult)is shown in Photogroph4.6 ond Figure 4.l.
colvonised shets with intermediote steel fromes werc
used for the formwork. Multiple loyen of 10 mm to 15
mm thick, 1:3 cement sond mortor were ploced onthe
formw0rk. The Enol inside loyer (i.e. woter retoidng
surfoce) wos prepored using o mix of 1:2 cement sond
mortor. Golvonised thin wiE mesh (olso }amwn os chicken
wire mesh)wos ploced between ecchloyer os
reinforcmnt.
The Andhi Kholo ferrocemnt flume hos been functioning
wU since its commissioning in 1993. This design wos
more economicol thqn the conventionql stone mosonry in
cement mortor co[ol with drop structufts. However, it
should be notd thot the construction offnocement
conols requirs skilled ond well troined monpower
(mqsons) to ochive the requird quolity of work ond
therefore moy only bejustified where o very long ccrol is
to be instolled in poor soils. Furthermore, ifskilled lobour
is expensive, ferrocement conols moy cost more thon th
conventionol design, osinth cose ofSindhuli Flood
Rhobilitqtion Proiect.
Fioure 4l Andhi Kholo Proiect fermcemnt llume
I : 2 CEMETTT SATO, MORTAR
Y' 3 . 5 X
2
40
ln the Andhi Kholo ldgotior Project (AKIP) designed by BPC Hydroconsult, soil-cement wos tested os on option for ir gotion
conols. Th soifcement wos prpqred using o mix ofone pon cemelt ond one port sqnd to ten ports oflocol red coloured
cloyey silt soil. The red colour of the soil indicotes o high iron content, which rocts with cement to form o hord loyer on the
excovoted surfoce ofthe conol.
1^,/o opplicotions of soil-cement werc tested in 1990 ond 1991. The first test used sorl which wos grqded using o 4-mm
sleve, with l0rgr lumps ond soil broken up with o tomper After mixing the dry ingredients ofcement, sond ond soil, woter
wos odded ond rnixed thoroughly until the mortor reoched the desired consistencyforplostering. The excovoted surfoce ofth
corol which contoined permeoble soil ond grovelwqs first modemoistby sprinkling woter ondthen the mix wos opplied
firrr y to o thicleess of
40 mm
qnd
pocked
tightly to eliminot oir
pockets. The surfoce wos
trowelled smooth
qnd
therl cured for
q
week.
In 1991, o 15 mm
sive wos used to grode
the soil over o test
section of 140 mu Loter
moredemonding
conditions were used for
o furthr test over o
section of25 m length, o
grcdient of 1:20
qnd q
velocity ofopprox. 1.3
m/s. A section of the
Andhi Kholo soil cement
conol ccn be sen in
Photogrqph 4.10.
To dqte, the
performonce ofthe soil-cemnt linilg ot Andhi Kholo hos been good. The 1990 test section developed some crocks ofter o
week. opporntlydueto on excess ofwqterin the mix, whichthen coused crqcking
qs
the soil-cement dried up ondhordened.
These crocks hove not worsened. The 1991 section hos not shown oly crocking. The lining inst0lled irl th step conol section
hos olso been performing well.
Th odvontqge ofthis technique is thqt it is low cost. Befween 20yo ond 40% ofthe cement requted for o conventionol
concrete mix is reploced by soil. The procedures
qre
eosy to leorn oIId ore similor to those used for troditionol houses con-
structed in the Andhi Kholo oreo. Howvr, one prpquisite for this typ ofcorol is the ned for high iron content ir the soil
usedto prpore the mix.other soils will not perform well. Arother conclusion thqt hqsbeen drown fiom th Andhi Kholc
expeience is thot soil-cement conols ore not oppropriote for turbulent flows. Thy ore suitobl where seepoge controlis
required ond the grodient is gentle
{velocity
limited to
-1.0
m/s.)
Photo 410 Soil cmnr lined conol sction ot AndhiKholo, Nepol
42
The method developed by IT Peru ond dscribed here is generolly known os th
'formers
mthod' for constructing conols,
The formers method prmits sovings in time ond moteriql in constructing concrete chonnels by reducing the need for
pouring concEte into conventionol formwork. Precis plocement of formem ond lines tied betwen them enoble the
concrpt to be plosterd to the insides ofthe trench ond lirished with o trcwl
{se
Figup 4.4).
Th method involves plocing o loyer ofconcret on the bottom ond sides ofthe conol to form o uniform thickness ond
o smooth finish. Lvllirg ond finishing th surfoce is done occording to th former.
Procedutt
. Setting out for the forme$.
Locqte pegs very 10 metrcs ul
stroight sections ond every 5
metPs in curvd secttons, toking
into occount the slope ofthe
dsign. It is preferoble to use o
builder's level to ochieve the
Iequircd precision.
. Fixing the formers. Locote formeE on eoch peg ot right ongles to the centreline ofth conol, verticol ond exoctly in line.
They or fixed to th pegs using No. 16 goug wil ond noils, ofter which intermedidte formers oI locotd every 2.5
metrs in stroight sections, the requird slope bing checked with d pipe levl to give 5 mm drop evry 2.50 metres (o slope
of 2 ir 1000). Eoch former is checked for lin, Ievel, thot it is prpndiculor to the conol centreline ond fixed firmly.
. Lining the conal. PRpore o 1:1.5:3 concrete mix
After mokirg the dry mix, tuming the mix o minimum of thrc times to mix thoroughly, odd woter, which should
hqve o quontity no gRoter thon on'holfof th totol weight ofth cment (i.e. for mix with 1 kg ofcement put % litre of
woter). Next the sides ofthe conol ore plosteRd ond compocted. The pegs ore tokn out ofter the linish is completed.
TheB Iine sond is sprinlded with cemnt to give o mix of 1:3 ond o plosterirg bo0rd is used to give o smooth, impermeoble
firish to the lining. When the sides ofthe conol ore completed the some procedup is followed for the bottom. To finish the
dges, corc is rquired to ensure thot the formers rcmoin in line, They should be checked using o cord or rule.
. L\trscting the foBnrs. Formrs sre tskn out oftr 24 hours io cold climotes. To moke extroction eosy, o loyer of oil or
petro) is ploced 0n the formers before c0rrying out the Iining. This olso 0ssists with the pRservotion oftbe formers. CoIe
should be token to ovoid domoge to the dges ofthe lining when the formers ole token out.
. Curing the concrefe. To roch the required strength ond durobility, fresh concrete should be cured. This is ochieved by
filling rhe suffounds with woter so thot the linings remcin sooked for o priod ofo minimum of 10 doys. Thisiseosyto
c0rry out by locoting runs or eorth bonks ot eoch end, which retqin the woter. During r0iny periods 0 spjllwoy con be
formed to ollow excess wotr to scope, which will olso offer o check on the slope. The curing of concrete is very impor-
tont ond should not be overlooked.
. Exponsion
joints.
Exponsionjoints ore required i[ the spoces thot or left when the formrs or tokn out
-
very 2.5
metrcs in sroight sectiOns orld vorioble in curved sections. Thes permit the concrete to expond ond controct without
crocking the linings. To fill thjoints the following work is required:
o) Cleon thejoints ofdebris ond unwonted moteriols with on ongulor polette whose dimensions ore suitobie for the
wi dth ofthej oi nt.
b) Prime th iBside surfoce 0f th
joint
with o solution of tor with kerosene ln propc ions l:3 so thot it hos the
viscosity ofpoint. This solution should be opplied with o brush.
c) Ploce o hot mix oftor with line sond, in proportions ofl con oftor to 4 cons ofsond. First heot the tor ond then
groduolly odd the sond while mixing until it hos rhe consistncy ofblock sugor This mixture is pldcd first ot th
sl opi ng si des ofthe chonnei ond then ot the bottom. l t i s pl qced i n l oyers ond compoctd wi th th angul or pol tte.
The finished level ofthjoint should not exceed the level ofthe conol liring.
Figure 4.4 Formers method oflining conols
{
I .
{ l i
l t j
i
I
l i ,
;
ti,
r i f r
' {
't
i l i
l i
4.3 Conoldesign
{.3.1 DESIGN CRITERJA
The fol l owi ng cri teri o ore used for the desi gn ofheodroce
ccnolsi
Cspocity
The heodroce c0Dol shoul d be obl e to corry the desi gn fl ow wi th
odequote freebocrd. Fr<ebood is th dillsrerce in elevotion
between the conol botl k t0p ond ti r dsi gr wcter l vel .
Duri ng monsoon, the ri ver woter l evel i s hi gh ond
therefore l l ows hi gher thon the desi gn l l ow con enter the
intoke. Spillw0ys and scopes cr required to dischorge the
excess fl ows. Si mi l orl y i f fql l i ng debri s or other obstructi ons
bl ock the conol , the enti re fl ow needs to be sol eLy di schorged
i nto o neorby gul l y or stl l oIn before i t i nduces funher
j nstobj l
i ty probl ems.
Velocity
The velocity shou)d be Iow enough to elsure th0t ths bed ond
the wql l s 0fthe conoi ore not eroded. The rec0mmended
moxlmum velocity f0r different types of conol is shown in Tcbie
4.1. Ifthe vel oci ty i s too l ow 0quoti c pl onts ond moss wi l l stort
i0 grow on the conol ond reduce the cross sectiono) 0reo. A
mininum velocity 0f0.4 m/s should be mointqined to prevent
the growl h ofoquoti c pl onts. Al so, the vei oci ty i n the heqdroce
coaol up to the settl i ng bosi n needs to be hi gh enough to
prvnt sedirnent depgsition.
Eeodloss ond seepsge
As meoti oned eorl i er he0dl oss ond seepoge need to b mi ni
mised. Heodloss is governed by the conal slope. Seepoge cor be
controlled by choosing the construction nloteriois (eorth, mud
or cement monor conol s etc.) oppr0pri ol e for rhe ground
condi ti ons.
Side slopes
Theoreticolly, the optimum cross sectionol shope for o conol is o
semi-circle, since it ccn convey the moximurn flow for o given
tross sectronol oreo. Si nce l t rs dl mcul t
(o (onstruct
o 5nl i .
ci rcul or conol . i n procti ce, o tropezoi dol sh0pe (whi ch i s cl ose to
o semi -ci rc)e)i s used. F0r mosonry conql s i n cement moftor or
ploil concere concls thot
qre
continuous, Iertongulor shopes
(i.., verticol wolls) ore rccommended unless the bockfill con be
wel l compocted or excovoti ng the requi red tropezoi dol ' shope i s
possible. This is becouse tropezoidol cement mosonry ond pioin
concrete conql s' si d wol l s wi l l hove to depend on the bockfl l l
for support. The wolls moy crock 0t lhe conoi bd level
(cousing seepoge) since it moy be difncuh to conpoct th
.
F Lr r r . l
s l dJ J r | " ul ) , oc hr r l i . r or f l g) dl . Ll pT. r dul onol s
bockfi l l properl y behi nd the wql l s, os showr i n Fi gur 4.5.
Recommended side slopes for different conol types 0re shown
in Toble 4.2.
Stobility
Not onl y shoul d the conol be on stobl e ground but the oros
obove 0nd bel 0w the ol i gnment 0l so !eed to b stobl e. when
detrmi ni nq theconcl route ot si te, the si gns ofstobj l i ty ond
instoirility discussed in Chqptr 2 should be referred to.
The conol design should
qddress
stobility issues such
os protction ogoinst rocl'folls, londslides ond storm runoff.
covering conols by plocing concrt slobs (or flot stons) ond
some soil cover (to obsorb the impoct offolling rocks) con b
on oppropri ote sol uti on i fo smol l l ength ofthe conol i s
vulneroble to rocHolls. Exomples of concrcte slobs con be
seen in the superpossoq drowings ofthe colkot schme in
Appendi x C.
Economics
si mi l or to ony orher engi nedng strucrure, the desi gn ofth
conol should be such thot th cost is minimised. This is
especi 0l l y i mportont i n the cose of o l ong heodroce conol
si nc opti mi si ng the desi gn wi l l resul t i n substonti ol sovi ng
i n the totol proj ect cost. Desi gn opti mi soti on or mi ni mi si rtg
costs requires keping lhe conol olignmelt
qs
short os
possi bl e
l unl ess
l onger l engths ore needed to ovoi d unstqbl e
oreos ond crossi ngs)os wl l ds mi ni mi si ng excovoti on ond
the use 0fcorstructi on moteri ol s, speci ol l y cement ond
stones. FOr exomple, in 0 mjcro-hydro schem, cement
masonry canol could be used only ot sections where the sojl
is porous ond/'or sepoge is likely to trigger landslides. ln the
sqme scheme, eorth ond stone mosonry in mud monor
conols could be used ot sections whre problms
qssociotd
with seepoge oI not expected.
43.2 MANNING'SEQUAIION
The desi gn ol 0 heodroce conol i s bosed on Monni ng' s
equqtion. Monning's quotions for flow ond velocity ore os
follows:
' . 1
l ;
l ,
AR4'VS
wher:
Q
is the flow in th conol in mr/s
V is velocity in the conol in m/s
is the roughness coeflicient ofthe conol (olso colled
Monni ng' s n)whi ch i s dpendent 0n the moteri ol s ofthe
cqnol . The vql ue ofn for di ffernt typs ofconol i s gi ven
i n Tobl e 4.1.
is the cross sectionol oreo up to the woter surfoce lvel
in m'?.
is the slope ofthe energy grode line. The invert slope of
the conol is used for s since it is porqllel to the energy
grod lin 0t loogr lergths. For exomple i:500 (1 in 500)
irvrt slope is I m ofdrop in lvel in 500 m ofhorizontol
conol length.
Sometimes percentqge (0/o) or froctions orc olso used to
denote the slopes. For exomple o slop of 10lo meons thot thr
will be o difference in levl of I m every 100 m of horizontol
distonce.
The equivolents ofthe slop in froctions or decimols ore
given by the following exomples;
2%=2l 1OO=0. 02=1i n50
2 in 1000
=
2/1000
=
0.002
=
1in 500
1. 50, 6
=
1. 5/ 100
=
0. 015: 1i n67
3.5 in 1000
=
3.5/1000
=
0.0035
=
1 in 286
is the hydroulic rodius. R
=
A/P
is the wtted primter in m. This is the totol length 0f
the bottom ond th two sides ofth conql up to the
woter surfoc level.
n
RPl F
I1
R
P
{3J SEDIMENT DEPOSMON IN CAI{AIS
The velocity in eoch sction ofthe heodroc conol should be
high enough to trcnsport ony sediment entering thot section.
Betwen the intoke ond the grovel trop o velociry of 1.5
-
2.0 m/s
is recommended. Between the grovel trop ond the settlipg
bosirl o lesser velocity is possible, but the sediment tronsport
copobility should be checked usirg o simplified version of
Shield's formulo: d= 1lRs
where:
d is the size ofporticle tronsported in o conol, in m
R is the hydroulic rodius, in m
c i c r h , . n h ^ l h d < l ^ n ,
Ifthe grovel trop is designed to settle porticles lorger
thon 2 mm, then th conol downstftom ofthe grovel trop must
b oble to tronsport pofticles up to 2 mm.
Tqble 4.1 Roughness comcint
qnd
o-llowqble mqximum velocity
See note below for advice an chanftels where the water dcDth is less tha7 one metrc.
CHANNELTYPE DESCRJPTION
MA)C
vELOcITY (mlsl
Eorth chonnel Cl ay, l vi th stol es ond scnd. ofi er ogei ng
Grovel l y or scndy l ooms, mqi ntoi ned wi th mtni mum vegetoti on
l i red wj th coors st0nes, moi ntol ned wi th rni nl mun vegetotj 0n
For cqnol s l ess thon 1 metr deep, use the equoti on i n N0te
' 1.1
for n e.g.:
Vegetated (usful to stobi l i se soi l ); woter depth 0.7 nl
rvoter depth 0.3 m
Heoviiy ovrgrown, woter depth 0.1 metrcs
0.020
0.030
0.040
0.050
0.070
0. 150
0.8
0.4
1. 0
0.8
0. 8
1. 0
Rock cut
0.015
0.045
0.060
Smooth ond uniform
Jogged
ond i rregul or
Very j oggd
ond i fngul qr
1. 5
1. 5
1. 5
Mosonry
qnd
concrete
Stone mosonry i n mud morto( dry st0ne mosoory
Stone mosonry i n cement mortor usi ng rounded stons
1:4 cement scnd mortor
1:3 cement sond mortqr
Stone mosonry in cement rnort0r using split stones (drcssed)
1:4 cement scnd mortor
1:3 cemnt sond mortor
wl th l :2 poi nti rl g
Concrete (occording to finish)
1:3:6 pl oi n concrete
1i 2:4 pl oi n concrete
1:1.5:l rei nforcd concrete
1:l :2 rei nforced concrci e
Cement pl.rster
0.015
0.030
0.020
1. 0
l . l
2. 0
3.0
5.0
1. 5
2.0
1. 0
5. 0
3. 0
5. 0
0.013
-
0.017
0. 013
1 : l
1:2
wooden conols Pl oned, wel l j oi nted boords
I l n h l n n p a h ^ ^ r / (
Ol der wooden conol s
0. 011
0.012
0.015
3.0
3. 0
1.0
Mtol conols Ail types
Mountoin stroms DominoDt bed moteriol :
Crovel (up to 60 mm)
Cobbls
{up
to 200 mnr)
Boulders (up to 600 mm)
Lorge boul ders (> 600 mm)
Note 4.I Roug,ilrlss efi:ct [or shoi]ow channels
Resecrch ot Wogeni ngen Uni versi ty i n th Netherl 0nds demonstroted thot the roughness i s i ncreqsed for chonnel s under 1 metrc i n
depth, becouse oi rhe turbulence creoted by the side ond bd suifcces. The rcsecrch showed thot the follorving equotions con be
used to hnd rhe roug\ness coriirii.,r. i.\i\\,i dt!'.f. cl\cler
0.020
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
3. 0
n- o. o3i \ E H<1m
n=0. 0{ / \ F H<1nr
n=0. 08/ { F H<l m
wel l tnoi ntoi nrd channel s u' i th l i ttl e veget{rti o!:
Chonnel s wi th si ron vegetotl orl :
Heovi l y overgrol vn chonnel s:
I
i,l,
In procti ce i t i s sensi trl e t0 l l l oi ntoi n short vegtoti on i r o er t0 protect the bonks of conol s.
Toble 4.2 Re(ommnded sidc slopes for heodroce conols
CANAL MATERIAI
stDE sLoPE (N =
h/vl
R0ck/congl omerqre (hord t0 l oose)
Ii rm cl oy
Loom
Sondy cl oy, scndy l ocnr
Si l ty sond, sondy eofth
l oose sordy orth. porous eorth
Grovel y e0rth, sri l Tor l oose congl omercte
Grovel ond boul der mi xed wIh eonh (soft ond Ioose)
Stone mosonry in mud rnortor
Stone mosonry i n cement mortdr
Pl oi n I onr r Pi e
Notesl
1. These vol ues orc for conol s excovoted i n s0i l ofl 0w nl 0i sture cortent wi th woter tobl e bel ow conal bed. sl opes need to be
fl ottened i fthese condi ri ons or not ochi evd.
2. The si des ofl i ned conol s rtl cy b vni col (desi gned
qs
rtci ni ng wol l s)or ot the sl op reronmended for the uDderl yi ng so)l
0 (verti col ) to 0.5
0.25 rc 4.5
1. 0 t o 1. 5
1. 5 t o 2. 0
2.0 to 2.5
2.5 to l
0. 5 t o l
1..5 ro 2
Sec Not 2
Se Note 2
5(e Note 2
43.4 DESIGN PROCEDUR"E
the heodroce canol desi gn procedul " i s os fol l ows:
L Deci de on coDol type os per si l e condrti ous
i e.g.
eorth
corol , st0ne mosonry i n mud monor or stone mosonry
rn cement mofi or).
2. Choose o sui tqbl e vel oci ty (V) such l hot i t i s l ess thon the
mcxi nurn vel oci ty gi ven i n T0bl e 4.1. N0te l h0t
unoccept0bl e heodl 0ss moy resul t i fchosen vel oci ti es ore
cl ose to m0xi mum vel oci ty Al so choose the correspond
i ng roughness coel l l ci ent (n) fron Tobi e 4.1.
l hen col cul ote cross secti onol orpo (A) from the
o
fol l owi ng equoti on: A
=f
Free boord
l el
Figurp 4.6 Symbols used rn conol sizing
3. Usi ng Tabl e 4.2 deci de 0n the si de sl ope (N). Note rhot N
i s th rati o 0fth hori zontol l ength di vrded by th
verti col hei ght of tbe sj de wol l (i .e. N
=
h/v os shol vn i r)
Fi gure 4.6).
Col cul cte the opti n]um conol hei ght (H). conol bed wi drh
(B), ond th conol top wi drh (T)usi ng the i ol l owi ng
equoti ons:
x =2
\ ' [ +Nj
2N
r - A
, ,
V X + N
B=HX
T=B+( 2HN)
Note thot i n cose of o rectongul or conol , N
=
0 ond
X=2, s 0:
i ^
H=/ , ! ondT=t =21H
\ 2
I{ence, for o rectongul or conol the hydroul i col l y
opti mum shop i s whn the wi dth i s twi ce the hei ght.
These symbol s ore schernoti col l y shown Ln Fi gure 4 6
l fon opti munl cor)ol shope i s not possi bl e due to
si te speci l i c condi ti ons (such os norrow wi dth ol ong o
cl i fl ) then ei ther the wi dth or th hei ght shoul d be
sel ected to 5ui i the si t condi ti ons. Then the other
dunensi on con be col cul oted.
To ensure stobl e ond uni form fl ow i n o l ong conol , the
vel oci ty must be l ess thcn 80% ofthe "cri ti col vel oci ty
l ^ "
l i mi r" V,
=J
' =
,
where V. rs l h cri ti Lcl vel 0ci ry
thot for o rectongulor cqnol V.
=
fit
Ifthe conol vrl oci ty
j s
greoter
thon 0.8V then rcpeot
colculqtions with Lowr velocity.
6. Col cul ote the wetted pri meter (P)usi ng rhe fol l owi ng
equoti on:
P
=
B + 2H .' ,i 1
1,11
,
note thot for recrcngul or conol ,
P=B+2H
7. Col cul ote the hydroul i c rodi us (R)os fo)l ows;
8. The slope (S) cot now be found from Monning's equo-
ti on:
/
nt
\ '
S= I I
Now ol l di mensi ons requi red f0r the c0nstructi on ofthe
ranol ore knorvn.
9. Heodl oss
=
L S (L i s the l ength ofthe conol secti on).
Someti mes S i s fi xed by th conol route, whi ch hos
oi reody been decrded ond survyed. Another xornpi e of
fi xed sl op (S) si tuoti on i s when on exi sti ng i ni goti 0n
conol is proposed to be used for o miclo hydro scheme
(ond hi gher fl ows 0s wel l 0s l ss l eokoge orc requi rd).
In such si tuoti ons di fferent cr0ss secti o!l 01 0reos shoul d
be ossumed (i .e. tri ol
qnd
error) such that the vl oci ty i s
less thon the ollowoble moximum velocjty for the
desi gn fl ow ond i he type 0fronol proposed. Thi s con be
done by rwri ti ng Mol roi ng' s equoti or) os fol l ows:
^
(BH + NHl"
\!
v -
r - x l
n
[ (B
+ 2] r\ (r +N1
I
with o known design flow (Q), select the oppropdote
si de sl ope (N) 0ccordi ng to the typ ofconol chosen.
Then fi x ei ther B or H ond col cul ote the 0ther usi ng the
dbove equoti on. Fi nol l y from Tobl 4.1, check thot the
velocity (V
=
Q/A)
is lss thon lh moximum velocity for
the conol type.
10. Col (ul qte rhe si ze of the l orgest pq(i cl e rhor wi l l be
trqnspol ted i n th conol :
d
=
11RS
Ifthi s i s l ess thon the possi bl e
si ze i n the conol , repeqt
the desi gn usi ng o hi gher veLoci ty.
11. AlLow o freeboord os follows:
300 mm for
Q
<
500 lis
400 mm for 500l l s <
Q
< 1000 i i s (such fl ows ore
unusuol i or mi cro' hydro schemesJ.
Such freeboord ollows for:
. Uncrtoj Dti es i n the desi gn
{e.9.
the vo)ue of n' moy
diffr by 5olo to t0% from estimote).
. Woter level being obove the design level due to
obstructl on rn the conol or durrng emergenr i es.
.
Dtri oroti on of th conol embonkment.
12. Check thqt possi bl e fl ood fl ow i n conol con be occommo'
d0ted without using more thon 5070 ofthe freeboord.
13. Fi nd the totol hod l oss. If thi s i s too hi gh or too smol l ,
repeot the col cul ori on( wi th o dl ferenr vel ocLty.
Consider using different typs ofconol keepiug the
overol l cost i n mi nd.
Avoi d o conol wi dth ofl ess thon 300 mm os n0rrow
c0n0l s con b eosi l y bl ocked. Al so fbr stone mqsonry conol s,
smol l er si zes ore di ffi cul l Io construct.
Th existing irrigotion conol ot Colkot needs to be modilled
qs
o heodrace conol for o powr outpur of 50 kW The exist ing
inigotion conol's cornmond olo is 20 hectots. The community hos requsted thot the conol be sized such thot it would b
possible to ir g0te
the filds ond produc 50 kW simultoneously.
The following informotion wqs collcted through site invstigqtion ond d dtoiled survey:
Gross heod
{h)
=
22 m
{forebgy
to powerhouse)
lntoke to 130 m downstreom: 1:50 slope
(s) with on drop srructur.
131 m to 231 m downstreom: 1:92 sl ope.
232 m to 405 m downstreom: 1:365 sl0pe.
406 m to 730 m downstreom: l:975 slope with 3 crossings.
731 m to 1119 m dowostredm
{forboy)r
1:400 sl op wi th on crossi ng.
48
site conditions dictote thot the entire heodroce olignment be constructed out ofstone mosonry in cement mortor_
Note thot I m goP hos been provided ot chonge o[slopes. This is the tronsitionol length thot connects the rwo diflerert
slopes.
ln this exomPle, the lequired design 0ow will be colculoted 0nd the heodroce conol from chojnoge 406 m to 730 m will b
slzd.
Dsign fl ow colculotions:
Assume 550/0 overoll mciercy (e"
=
0.55)
P
=
Q
g h, (power equoti on)
Q=P/ ( s he" )
=
s0l{9.8 x 22 x 0.55)
=
0.421 mr/s
Therefore flow required for powr genrotion is 421 l/s
Assum on i r goti on
rcqui rement of1.5 i /s/ho for exi sti ng i l ri g0td l ond.
kdgoti on dmond (Q) =
1.5l /s/ho x 20 hq
=
30 l i s
Tot0i dsign flow for the hecdroce cqnol
=
4zl
Us
+ 30lls
=
451 lls. Thertfore use o dsign llow of455 lls to size tlle
heqdrqce conol.
conol sizing
c0n0l type: srone mosonry in cement mortor
n
-
0.020 for dRssed stone mosonry
{from
Tobl e 4.1)
Q
=
0.as5 mr/s
s
=
l /975
From Toble 4.2 choos N
=
0.5 (1h/2v)
Set lh botlom widih
{B)
=
0.450 m which is the size of the existing irrigotion conol. This miDimises excovotion works.
Now use the foll0wing form ofthe Monning's equotion where only the woter depth, H. is unknown:
^
(BH+NHz)5' ,\i ;
Y
r , - t r 3
nl ( B+2H! ( l +N1
l
10.450i i
+0.5H11
rx\ti E75
u,r'))
=
- -=-
o.o2o[o 4so+2H
' ' (r
+051
]"
By triol ond rror meth0d, the obov equotiot is boloncd when H
=
0.268 m for o flow 0f455 lh.
Therefore, the wqter depth will be obout 768 mm. N0w check thot rhe velociry is less thon the moximum ollowoble velocity
of 2.0 m s ffom Tobl e 4.t.
v=
Q/ n
\
0.455
(BH+NH1
0.455
(0.450x0.768 + 0.5x0.768')
or V
=
0.7 m/s < 2.0 mi s OK.
The drowing
qnd
dimensions for this concl sertion con be sen in Drowing 420/04/2A01 (Conol type B) ofAppendix
C. Not
thot the originol design wos bqsed on on ossurned volue of0.()17 for Monning's n, giving o woter depth ofZ05 mm, rherefore
octuol freboord mqy be less thon recommodd. The othr conol sctions ofthis scheme con be verilled by simiior colculo-
tions.
3.4.1 IOCATION OF SPIIIWAYS
As mentioned eorlier, spillwoys ore required in heodroce conols
to spill excess flows during the monsoon ond in cose ofobstruc.
tion in the conols. Similorly, spillwoys ore olso requird ot the
foRboy to spill the entire design flow in cose ofsudden volve
closure ot the Dowrhouse.
Note thot when the conol olignment hos oLody been flxed (i.e. fixed conol bd dope, s) os in the c0se of the C,olkot schem,
there is little control in the velocity. The velocity con be slightly modified by chonging the cmss sectionol oIPo but it will b
difficult to moke significont chonges. For exomple, the velocity in the
U92
slope conol section ofthe C,olbt scheme is obout
2 m/s. However, this wos found to be mol economicol (i.. reshoping the existing conol) thon roligning the conol olignment
to reduce the slope. This implis thot the steeper sections ofthe conol moy require more mointenonce work thon the gentler
sections. This is one Eoson for plostering the inside surfoces of th conol.
Also, note th0t earth inigotion conols or
gmerolly
steper since lf (mughness coefficient) is higher. when such conols or
modified os heodroce, they become smoother (use ofcemnt mortor, ploster, better shope, etc.) ond hence con hove higher
vdocities.
3.4 Spillwoys The excss flows rhot ore dischorged vio o spiliwoy
should be sofely diverted into the streom or neorby gully such
thqt they do not couse ony ercsion or dqmqge to other struc-
tures. Sometimes, this moy requiR the construction ofo
chonnel to the noturol woter cou$e. Locoting spillwoys close to
o gully will sove the cost ofchonnel construction os con be seen
in PhotooroDhs 4.11 ond 4.12.
Photo412 spillwoyon o crossing where the excess llow is dischorged intoo
gully, Colkot micm.hydro schem, Boglulg. NeDol
4.4.2 SPTIIWAY DESIGN
Where woter is ponding ot o downstrom regulotor such os in o
foreboy, the design ofspillwoys con be bosed on the weir
equotion discussed in Chopter 3.
0
=C
t . .
( h
) ' s
Photo4.1l overflow from the forpboy dischorcd overo rockdiff, Dhoding
micro-hydrc, Npol
50
where:
Qpir.oy
=
dischorge over the spillwoy in mr/s
L,pir*oy
=
length of the spillwoy in m
hou.noo
=
heod over the spillwoy in m (i.e. height of wcter
over the spillwoy)
C*
:
o coefficient (similor to weir coeflicient) which
vories occording to the spillwoy profile. C* for different weir
profiles is shown in Toble 3.3 (Chopter 3).
The design steps
qre
os follows:
o Colculote the flow through the intqke during floods os
discussed in Chopter 3. The spillwoy should be sized
such thot the entire flood flow con be diverted owoy
from the conol. This is becquse the micro-hydro system
could be closed during flood or there could be on
obstruction in the conol.
r Choose o spillwoy profile ond determine C*. In the
Nepolese context, o brood, round edged prohle (C*
=1.6)
is suitoble since it is eosy to construct.
r Spillwoy crest level should be 0.05 m obove normol
cqnol woter level. No more thon 500/o of the freeboord
should be used. Therefore, with o generolly used
freeboard of 300 mm, the ovqilqble hou"no, is 0.5 x 0.30
-
0.05
=
0.10 m. The required length con then be colcu-
loted for the chosen hou.noo ord flood flow.
Where there is no ponding immediotely downstreom,
such os in the heodrqce conol, the spillwoy length colculoted
using the weir equotion should be multiplied by 2: this occounts
for the groduol decreqse in heqd over the spillwoy, until the
required level is reoched at the downstreqm end of the spillwoy.
ln this cqse only the excess flow (Qn"o,
-
q.,,nn) should be used
for
Qp,u,oy.
Note thot in such coses, locoting the spillwoy
immediotely upstreom of on orifice will increose the flow
through the weir. The design of o spillwoy is presented in
Exomple 4.2.
Design o heodrqce conol to convey o flow of 285 l/s. Site conditions indicqte thot the conol would be stoble if stone mosonry
in mud mortor is used. The expected flow through the intoke during o Z0-yeor return flood is obout 480 lis. Design an
odequote spillwcy.
Design procedure:
Ccnol type: stone mosonry in mud mortor
Q
=
0.285 m3/s
From Toble 4.1:
Roughness coeflicient n
=
0.035
chooseV
=
1. 0m/ s
From Tqble 4.2, for grovelly eorth, select side slope, N
=
0.5, (1h/2v).
Cross sectionol sreo, A
=
0.285/1.0
=
0.285 mz
x
=
2{f f i
-2*
X
=
2{i 1"r-gf r)
-2x0. 5
X
=
1.236
Cqlculcte the woter depth in the cqnol, H:
,r= fT-.
"
{ ( x+N)
u = f__Q285_
"
{ (1.236+0.5)
H
:
0.405 m
Calculote the bed width, B:
B=HX
' I
i
B
=
0.405 x1.236
B
=
0. 50m
Colculcte the top width up to the design woter level, I
T: B + ( 2HN)
T
=
0. 50 + ( 2x0. 405x0. 5)
T
=
0.905 m
Check if V < 0.8 V,
.. tTo- | o285xe3-
v
I
r
-
= r -
c
\ i T v 0. 905
V,
=
1.76 m/s
0.8 V.
=
1.41 m/s > V
:
1.0 m/s OK
Colculote the wetted perimeter, P:
P: B * ZxH{ f f i
P=0. 5+2x 0. 405\ F+Oy )
P
=
1.406 m
Colculote the hydroulic rodius, R:
A 0.285
R=_- =
- =0. 203m
P 1.406
Colculote the required consl bed slope, S:
/ nv\ '
q = f - l
-
\ R0f67 I
/
0.035x1
\'
s- |
_t
\ o.2o3o*' I
S
=
0.0103 or 1:97 (i .e. 1 m ofdrop i n 97 m ofhori zontol
ccnol length)
Finolly ollow 300 mm of freeboord. The cancl dimensions
con be seen in Figure 4.7.
Check the flow depth for maximum flood flow in the
canol.
(BH+NH1t3{;
a-
n[to+zHr4r+r.r1
]"'
0.480
=
(0.sH+0-51x3
xfi-Oto:
[ , - I 2, r
o.o3s
[o.s
+ 2H v(1 + 0.51
J
By triol ond error method, the obove equotion is balanced when H
=
0.55 m. Therefore, the flood flow occupies 500/o of the
freeboqrd (the moximum
qllowed,
os discussed eorlier) ond the heod 0n the spillwoy (hou,noo) wiil be 100 mm.
Check the size of porticle thot will settle in the canal ot o velocity of 1.0 m/s.
Fi gure 4.7 Proposed i nternol canol di nl ensi ons for Exompl e 4.1
52
D=11 RS
:
l l x 0.203 x 0.0103
=
23 mm
I.e. porticls lorgr thorl 23 mm would settle in this heodroce cono]. Therefore, to ovoid deposition upstrcom ofthe settling
bosin, the grovel trop must be designed to remove oll porticles grcoter thon 23 mm.
Design of spillwoy
Note thot 2 conditions need to be chcked os follows:
1. The spillwoy must be oble to convey the entire flood flow of480l/s in cose the hodroc conql downstrcom gets obstmcted
{ponding
cose).
2. The spillwoy should be obl to spill the excess flow (48014
-
2851/s) when there is no obstruction downstrom.
The colculoted m0ximum spillwqy length should be used in the design.
cqlculotions
Choose
q
bro0d crested weir with round dges profile, so C,
=
1.6
Cose 1: qe,[*"y
=
480 l/s
h",.""e
=
100 mm colculoted eorlier
Now colculote lhe length ofthe spillwoy,
.
Qp'rr*v
L,p,rr*oy
=
[1fr--p
.
0.480
"r pr [ eoy
l . 6x{ 0. 1) r r
Cose 2: qoijr""y
=
480
-
285
=
0.195 lh
20
c x{h
2x0.195
l .6x(0.1)r5
L
Therefore o spillwcy lngth 0f9.5 m is requiEd for the
obove conol
{Cose
1).
Pholo 4 l3 HDPE prpes provide 0n overflow from o timber chonnl (Mhopung)
4.5 Crossings
Sometimes the heodroce or rhe penstock olignmnt mqy ned to
cross gul i i es ond smol l sl reonrs. Crossi ngs ore such structurs
thot convy th flow over streoms, gullies or
qcross
unstoble
te oin subject to londslides
qnd
erosion
The cql kof crossi ng wi rh o spi l l woy wos shown i n
Photogroph 4.10. Thi s i s o 1.2 m l ong oqueduct thot i s con'
structed from reinforced concrete. Its size ond slope ore similor
to the upstreqm heodroce conol. In micro-hydro schmes,
reinforced concret crossings moy be feosible ifthe lngth is
short. Such structures ore expensive ond complicoted for longer
l engths.
53
The
Jhonke
mini-hydro penstock crossing cqn be seen in
Photogroph 4.14. ln this cose the penstock olignment hod to
troverse o 12.6 m wide gully This gully is octive only in the
monsoon ond 0t other times it is dry. A series of mosonry wolls
wele designed to support th penstock (similor to the suppon
piers) olong the gully. All ofthse wolls rest on o continuous
foundotion pod. During the monsoon, the surfoce runoffflows
between the wqlls.
Photogroph 4.15 shows the chondruk cmssing. The 50
kw chondruk micro-hydrc scheme hos o long HDPE heodroce
pipe (see Box 4.6) ond ot one locotion, the olignment hod to
cross o gully. As con be seen in the photogroph. 0 mild steel
Phbto415 Chondruk micm-hydm heod roce crossmg.
chondmk, Npol
pipe wos used for the crossing with onother verticol pipe
supPorting it.
Aport from the types ofcrossings discussed obove,
inverted siphons ole olso sometimes used ocross gullies,
Invertd siphons
qre
pipes thot ore buried ocross the gullla They
trqverse down to the lowest point ofthe gully ond then come
up ot the other side (hence the nome inverted siphon). As long
os there is suflicient heod ond the pipe is below the hydroulic
grqde line, the flow con be conveyed through such siphons. A
Ilush out volve must be incorporqted ot th low point ofthe
siphon (since sediment con be deposited ot the low poinr).
4.6 Heodrcce pipe
4.5.1 GENERAL
Pipes moy be rcquipd olong the heodroc olignment where
slops ole unstoble ond wher londslides moy occur Although
mosonry ond concrete conols con minimise seepoge induced
londslides. they ore rjgid structures ond in the event ofslope
foilures, such conols con be swept owoy- These conqls will olso
crock ifthre ore sm0ll slope movements. Where soil instobility
prcblems ore expected, flexible pipes moy be 0n oppropriote
solution prcvided thot the required pipe length is not too long
(se Box 4.6). Anotherc0se for the use offlexible pipes is when
the entip hillside is slowly sliding (i.e. moss movement is
occurring)ond port ofthe heodroce olignment needs to
troverse it.
In Nepol HDPE pipes ore often used to oddress th obove
pmblems. These pipes ore flexible enough to occommodote
some ground movement ond con bejoined by heot welding,
which is described in Box 4.7. HDPE pipes should be buried to
protect them from sunlight, cottle ond vond0lism.
The reoson why PVC pipes hcve not been used for
heodr0ce in Np0l is bcouse olthough they ore eosy tojoin
(with o PVC cment solution), they ore olso very gid. Therc-
fore, they connot occommodote ground movement.
Appendix B includes doto on stondod pipe sizes ovoil-
oble in Nepol.
4.62 DESIGN CRITERIA
The design criterio for heodroce pipes ore similar to those of
heodroce conols. specificolly, the design should oddress the
following issues:
. The pipe diometer should be such thot for the ground
slop ofthe olignment, it should be oble to convey the
design flow. Ifthere is o possibility offlood llows
entering into th pipe, moke provision for spilling srlah
excss flows.
Phoro 4 14
Jhqnlce
mlni hydro penstock crossing, Dolokho, Nepol
54
The inlet to eoch section ofheodroce
pipe should be protected with o
troshrock, so thot debris does not get in
ond block the pipe. The spocing ofthe
troshrqck bqrs should be no more thon
one third ofthe pipe diometer, ond the
velocity through the troshrock should
not exceed 1 m/s.
Wherc o section ofheodroce pipe ends
in on unlined conol, o mosonry
tronsition strucNr is recommended, to
ovoid scour by the high velocity flow.
Heodroce pipes
qI
emcient when they
orc flowing full, but ifthe heod on the
pipe exceeds the roted pipe heod (i.e.
ollowoble heod on the pipe) breok
pressur tonks ned to be provided. Such tonl6 dissipote
the heod over the pipe ond ovoid the need to use o
higher pipe roting. Howeve4 in proctice, repeoted use of
bEok pEssure tonks hos sometimes induced cyclic surge
(i.e. periodic chonge in heod ond hence the llow).
Another option in such coses is to selct o lorger pipe
diometer such thqt open flow condition prcvqils. Brok
prtssule tonls should be provided with lockoble covers,
so thot debris connot gt in ond block the pipe.
Photo 4.15 BlPoI prEssuR tonk with ice orcund lhe wols (Jhonq)
o As for os possible, th pipe olignment should be such
thot it is olwoys sloping downhill. This ensures thot
therc is olwoys o positive heod ovr the piPe
qnd
the
chonce ofit being blocked is olso reduced.
. Ifthen is o need for invrted siphons
(or the piPe neds
to go uphill for some length due to the gmund profile),
oir Eleose volves should be providd
qt
high points
olong the olignment. similorly, flush volves should
qlso
be pmvidd 0t low points to flush sedimnt from the
pipes
qnd
henc prvent them ftom being dogged.
Photo 4 l7 Flush-outs should b provided ot low points in pipeliner so
thot hedvy debris cdn be priodicoly rEmoved (Siklis)
Note thot the setting out ond preporotion ofthe bendl for
heodroce pipe is similor t0 the heodroce conol discussed in
Section 4.4. As mentioned eorlier, HDPE pipes should olwoys be
buried. A minimum buried depth ofl m with sieved soil
150 nun t0 300 mm oround the pipe is Ecommended os shown
in Figun 4.8. The use of sieved soil ensuRs thqt the pipe is not
punctuEd by pointed rocks during compoction, distributes the
loods evenly ond prevents futurc diffeftntiol settlements obove
the pipe. The 1 m depth minimises the overburden loods over
the pipe such os when people or coftle wolk over it. Also, in
olos wher freezing is expected during mid-winter, 1 m is
usuolly sumcient to be below the ftost line.
At inlet ond outl4 sections ofo heodroce pipe, it is
Rcommended to provide ir et ond outlet structurs ofstone
mosonry or concte.
55
The 50kW Ghondruk micro.hydro scheme wos one ofthe first micrc-hydropower
projects thot fmc Nepol wos involved in
HDPE pipe hos been used successfully for the long heodroce through forest, but lessons shouldbe leomed from the
Problems
exPnnced:
. Sticks ondleoves entering the piPe
qt
the heodworks
get wedged ot the weld beods, cousing pipe blockoge.
. Vondols thrcwing stones into thebreokprcssul tonks,
. Pipe collqpse du to negotive pressure ot o high point
(where th pipeisbelow the hydroulic grode line).
. Surging flow due to oirbeing drown intothe pipe ot
breok
pressure tonks.
At one short locotion, th hillsid wos not very stoble
qnd
the HDPE pipe hos been supported by golvodsed wires tied
to trees os con be sen in PhotogroPh 4.18. A.lso notlce
thot the HDPE pipe con be bent wher the bend rodius is
loJge. However, it would hove beentechnicolly sounderifo
gobion woll hod beer built downhill of the
PiPe
0lignment
ond the pipe covered with soil
qs
shown in Figure 4.8
Photogrqph 4.19 shows o mitred bnd on the chondruk
HDPE heodroce pipe. This wos mode by cutting piPe
sections ot on ongle ond them by heot welding. It hos storted leo]cing ot the bend ond the villogers hove wroPPed it with
plostic sheets ond golvqnised wire. Bends tiot ore constmcted by cutting ond welding pipe sections require core during the
?hoto 4 18 IIDPE heodroce pipe olong unstoble oligrunmt, Chondruk
mrcro-hydro scheme, Nepol
joining process (i.e., the more
joints,
the higher
the likelihood ofleotoge). fthere is some
hqd over the heodroce pipe, then there con be
significqnt forces ot the bend os will discussed
in Chopter 7. Such forces cqn weoken the
joints
ond couse leol<oge. Also note thot tI
pipe section shown in the photogroph should
hove been buried.
Photo 4 19 Bnd
prepored by cuning ond welding
the IIDPE hodroce pipe ot Ghondruk
IIDPE pipes ore ovoiloble in th mqrket in fixed lengths (e.g.46 m pieces)qnd need to be
joined
ot site. Unlike
pvc
pipes, there
is not o liquid solution thot con be used to
join
HDPE pipes. The only economicol method ofjoining thes pipes is by heot
welding them. This involves heating the ends (thot need to be
joined)
sucl thot they become soft ord molleoble ond then
ioining
them by applying force from close to both ends ofthe pipes, This
joining
temperqture is reoched
qt
obout 200"C. The
following steps orercommended whenjoining HDPEpipes ot
slt:
. First heqt the welding plot until the required temproture
is reoched. The welding plote (olso lglown os the heoting
plote) is o mild steel disc with o rod welded ot the edge ond
q
wooden grip ot the end ofthe rod. Heoting the wlding
plote con be done by either using o kerosene burner (os
shown in Photogroph 4.20) or by heoting the plote over o
chorcool fire. A speciol chqlk colled tiermo-croyon con b
used to ensure thot tlrc plote hos reodrcd th required
joining
temperoture. A few lines should be morkd on the
plote while it is being heated. When the plote reoches the
joining
temperotue the dlolk colour tums blue t0 block
within one second.
. The welding
Plote
should then be removed and ploced inside o Teflon bog (the bog con be mode by stopling Teflon fobric).
The Teflon bog ensults thot the heoted I-IDPE pipe ends do not stick to the heoting plote ond distort the slnp ofthe pipe.
Teflon is o speciol fobric thot cqn withstond higher temperotuj.
. Thn with the heoting plote inside the Tflon bog, the pipes should b pushed together until thet is o uniform beod oround
the outsideioint surfoce. The heoting plqte olong with bag should then be removed ond the pipes quickly pushed ogainst
eoch other. This Pquircs ot leost thr people (one t0 hold the plote ond two to push the pipes.) os shown in Pbotogroph
4.21. once the plote is placed betwen the pipes. the entire process should be completed within 15 minutes since the plote
temperoture will stort decreosing. One prcblem in ttris metlod is thot th two pipes moy not be straight sinc it will be
difficult to opply uniform forces orould the pipe circumfEnc monuolly- An oltrnotive is to use collot flonges os shown in
Photogroph 4.22 These flonges ore mode in two ho.lves such thot they fit on the outside circumference ofthe pipe. In this
method, th collo$ ore fitted obout 50 mm to 100 mm from the heoting mds ofthe pipes, bfore inserting t}re heoting
Plote.
As soon os the required temperoture is met, the heoting plote is tolen out, ond bolts ore inserted olong the flonges
ond tightend everdy. This ensures thot the two pipes oft stroight. Once thejoint cools, tle collors ore removed by
unbolting them. As Gn 0lternative to tlle obove methods, o mechonicol
j
ig is commoDly used, which serves both to olign the
piPe ends ord to opply the requiredjoining force. The pipe monufocturers con odvise the requird force for different pipe
diometers ond grodes.
Refer to Oopter 10 (lnnovotions)
section 10.3 concerning o de-becder tool to ftmove the ctcumferntiol beod corrsed by heot
welding.
photo
422 Collors used rojoiD ItDpE pipes
Phoro 4.21
Joining
HDPE pipes by pushing
them while hot- Notice
the Tellon bog.
Ph0t0 4.20 Heotitrg the widing plote
Generol bockfi | | cornpocted
in 25O mm loyers
Sieved bckfill mori rnm srze 5mm)
conpocled In mm hyers
Pi pe
Dr yst one mosonr y
to retoi n bockfi l l
I
\z
c
E
o
o
I
I
I
I
[5dmn
-Tr
Generol bocKi l l
Si eved bockfi l l
Pi pe
hsd
mn
-1-l--
58
i
{
I
4.63 DESIGN PROCEDTJRE
The design procedure (i.e. selection ofon oppropriote pipe
diometer) for o heodroce pipe is os follows:
1. Choose o stondord pipe size from Appendix B, such thqt
the velocity V is less thon 3 m/s (to minimise woll
obrosion ond to ovoid excessive heodloss) ond greoter
thon 0.5 m/s (to ovoid sediment being deposited in the
pipe). In generol, for HDPE pipes o velocity of 2.5 mls to
3.0 m/s is found to be economicol.
2. Colculqte the octuol velociw:
40
r t - . -
rId,
where:
V is velocity in m/s
Q
is design flow in m3/s
d is the pipe internol diqmeter in m.
3. At the entronce ofthe heodroce pipe set the submer-
gence heod os follows:
. 1.5v'z
n) -
s -
29
where h, is the submergence heod in m os shown in
Figure 4.9. Note thot this is the heod from the crown of
the pipe. If the submergence heod is less thqn required,
then the pipe will not be oble t0 convey the design flow
(Q becouse oir will be drown into the pipe.
Figun 4.9 Submergence heod for o pipe
4. Cqlculote the heodloss in the pipe length bosed on the
inlet, woll friction, bends, volves ond exit losses os
follows:
Totol heod loss
=
woll loss * turbulence losses
The woll losses result from the friction between the flow
and the pipe woll. Woll losses ore colculoted os follows:
First determine the roughness volue, k in mm from Toble
4.3. Note thot the values of k iq this toble ore bosed on
normql oge (5-15 yeors) or condition.
Then use the Moody Chort in Figure 4.10 to find
the corresponding friction loctor ffor the selected pipe
mqteriol, diometer ond the design flow.
The wqll loss cqn now be colculoted from the foilowino
equotion:
LV2
h = f
_
"wol l l oss
dX2O
In terms of the flow, diometer ond length, this equotion
con
qlso
be rewritten cs:
,
fLQ.
n =
' ^wql l
l oss
12d5
furbulence losses
qre
colculoted os follows:
h
=V' z l 2s ( K
+K +K +K )
t ur D l o\ s
I v '
enl r on( e Dand ( onl r ocuon vol ve?
where heqd loss coeflicients, K, ore
qs
shown in Tqble 4.4.
Note thot HDPE pipes cqn be bent (by hond) without
cousing ony domoge if the bend rodius is
qt
leost 50
times the pipe diometer. This should be done wherever
possible, becouse:
o) it ovoids the need for mitred bends;
b) it ovoids the need for onchor blocks to restroin bend
forces (discussed in Chopter 7); ond
c) ot such Iorge rodius,
\"n,
becomes negligible.
Where o long rodius bend is not possible, o shorper bend
is required, ond the volue of
\.no
should be tqken from
Toble 4.4. Mitred bends will normolly be used for steel
qnd
HDPE pipelines: these
qre
fobricoted by cutting the
pipe ct on ongle (moximum 15")
qnd
then welding the
ends together to creote o bend ofup to 30". For bends of
more thon 30", two or more mitre
joints
ore required.
Check if the totol heqd loss for the design flow is less
thon the loss in heqd due to the pipe grodient (S) ond
thot the pipe profile is below the,hydroulic grode line
everywhere. If not, repeot cqlculotion with lorger pipe
diometer.
Determine the woter level ot the control structure ot the
end ofpipe such os the breqk pressure tonk, grovel trop
I
I
I
I
I
6.
59
or the settling bosin. Allow 100/0 morgin by ossuming
thot the totql heod loss is 10%o higher thon colculoted
(i.e. woter level is l0%o lower thon colculoted). This is to
ollow for uncertqinties such os the woll losses beino
higher thon ossumed.
7. Repeot colculotions with higher submergence heod due
to flood flows ond colculote the corresponding losses ond
pipe flow. The excess flow will hove ro be spilled from o
control structure (grovel trop, settling bosin etc.) ot the
end ofthe pipe.
Tqble 43 Roughness volue for differrnt pipe moteriols
MATERIAT
ROUGHNESS VALUE, k (mm)
Smooth pipes
PVC,HDPE, MDPE. Glqss fibre
Concrete
0. 15
Mild steel
-
Uncooted
-
Gqlvqnised
0.06
0.06
u. l )
(
I
i
i
I
;
I
1. 2 O / m3/ s , r
; \ , "
/
. 2 . 5 t 2
l 0 20 5 0 1 0 0
6
(o
't
()
ll_
0 l
. 09
. 08
. o7
UO
. 05
. 04
. 03
.025
.o2
. 0r 5
0. I
. 09
. 08
0 7
. 06
. 05
. 03 s
. 9
. 02s 6
LL
. 02
. 01
.o09
.008
. 01 . 02 . 05 . t . 2
1. 2
. 5 I
*(#)
2 s
/ r o\ z o s o roo
rvd - 000.00t ud-.999.005
Fi gure4.l 0 Moodychort
60
Tqble 4.4 Turbulence losses in pipes
Heod loss coefficient for intokes
lK-*j
Entronce prohle
z
7
k
v
K-c** 1. 0 0.8 0.5 0.2
Head loss coefficints for bends (Ko..of
Bend profile
r/d MITR-ED-
{o
l0
=
20'l
k-o
l0
=
45"1
k".",
l0
=
90"|
Q.20
0.40
0.75
0. 15
0.30
0.50
0. 12
0.25
0.40
0. 10
0.20
0.30
0.10
0.22
0.45
.Mitred
bends with
4d
:
1.5, maximum 30 per mitred joint
Heod loss coemcients for sudden controcrtions
lK_.*.*l
Controction profile
5.0
) \
2.0 1. 5 1. 0 d,ld,
0.50 0.40 0.35
Heod loss coefficients for volves (\",.f
K.
SPHERICAI.
0. 1
o t
BUTTERFLY TYPE OFVALVE GATE
I
i
I
Fl ood l rvcl
J$.m3BodioHDpE
160 Us i n 2r?8O
GRAVEL TR.Aq
l{ol fo rcolc
rivcr levrl
Figur 4.ll Heodworb of the tffi kW Siklis micro-hydm scheme (Siklis. Nepoli
A sketch of the heodwork of the existing 100 kw Siklis micro-hydropower
scheme is shown obove in Figure 4.11. colculore
the following:
1. Heodloss in intoke pipes
Z. Design woter level in grovel trop
3. Flood flow through intoke pipes
4. Spillwoy length ot grovel trop
l. Hecdlocs in lntake pipes ct design 0ow
nl Pinp frictinn
For 280 mm di0'meter, Closs II HDPE pipe monufocturcd in Nepal, internal diameter =
262 mm
FIow perpipe (Q =
160/2
=
80 l/s
From thble {.3, sssurne k
=
0.06 mm
k 0.06mm
't;-=Em;- =
o'ooo23
l.zQ 1.2x0.08
;--= fl l 6z
=0.356
.'. f
=
0.0166 (from Moody Chort, Figure 4.10)
. fLtr
" hmur os : l 2di -
_
0.0166x40x.0.08,
=
Ol9 m
12x0.2625
b) Inlet heodloss
K**
=
0.8 for this cose (Tcble 4.4)
62
I
I
I
I
v2
. ' . h. .
- K
x
ror( toss emmftc
29
Check velocity;
40
,1x0.08
V=i -
=- =1. 5mr s
-
fld2 nx0%t
0.8x1.52
of hintnl.,
=
Z*9f
=
0'qLE
c) Exitheodloss
- \lz
h.
=l ( . 1-
srr6r &t
Zg
1.0x1.5'z
z-9f
=
o'11 m
.'. Totol heodloss tn intok pips
=
0.29m * 0.09m * 0.11 m
=
0.49 m
2. Ilesign water levd in grovel trcp
This should be ot leost 0.49 m * ltl% (sofety mcrgin) i.e.0.54 m below the low river level ot the intoke, or "o"
=
0.54 m in
Figure 4.11.
3. Flood flow through tntala pipes
Flood level is 1.5 m obove low river level.
Allow 0.2 m heod over grovel trop spillweir (i.e. b
=
0.2 m in Figure 4.ll).
Then net heod on intoke pipes
=
0.54 + 1.5
-
0.2
=
LE4_8.,
or
'c"
=
1.84 in Figure 4.11.
fiol ond error solution for flow:
o) TrY
Q
=
200 l/s in eoch pipe
7.20 7.2x0.2
-
a
: i . 262- =o' 916
+ f
=
0.0152 (from Moody Chort)
0.0152x40x0.20'?
t i-^...^,,,-.:-::--:-:-::---
=
1.64 m
wour*s
72x0.2625
v
=
4Q
-
4xo'2
=
3.71 m/s
lld'z llxQ%:t
Inlet & exit losses (0.8 + 1.0)
+
=
1.26 m
' 29
Totol heod loss
=
2.90 m
This is more thon 1.84 m (net heod on intoke pipes for flood level), .'. ossumed flow is too high.
Try interpolotins: 2oo
U,
-
(#
)"=
,r,
U,
OJ
b) Check for
Q
=
159 l/s in each pipe.
l.zQ 1.2x0.159
*a
=Tf f i ' - =0. ?30
-+f =
0.0i54 (from Moody Chort)
0.0154x40x0.15f
Jh*otrrorr=
l17p1AZG2t
=l'05m
40 4x0.159
v=fr,
=
;oo%z,
=2' 95ml s
Inlet ond exit losses (0.8+1.0)
*
:
*rn
Totqlheodloss
=
1.E5 m
This is neor enough to 1.84 m
Therefore flood flow through the two intoke pipes is: 2 x 159I/s
=
31E
Us
4. Spillwcy length ot grovel ftop
Weir equotion:
Qpimoy
=
C* x Lrpitt*oy x (ho"rno/t
t
Required spillwoy weir length,
- Qoittwov
l _ =
-spuwoy
c*x(ho""noo)rt
Toke C*
=
1.5 ond
Qp'rwoy
:
318
Us
to ollow the entirc flood flow to be spilled over in cose the turbine needs to be closed
during such floods.
hou.noo
=
0.20 m (heod over weir, ossumed eorlier)
0.318
. . . L . .
=- =2. 22m
spurwoy
1.6x0.20,.t
or' d"
=
2.22 m i nFi gure 4.11.
Note the following:
1. To limit the inlet velocity, two porallel pipes hove been used from the intoke to the grovel trop. Downstrom of the
grovel trop there is only one pipe and the veiocity is doubled. The rroson for using a lower velociry in the initiol pipe
length wos to lower the submergence heod so thot excovotion work ot the intoke could be minimised. With lower inlet
velocity there less chonce of ottrocting flooting debris which could block the inlet.
2. The spillwoy weir length is reosonoble, but note that on olternotive ossumption for heod over the weir would give o
di{Ierent onswer. The wolls oround the grovel trop must be high enough to contoin the flood flow over the spillweir.
3. The grovel trop hos to be locoted sufliciently for downstreom ofthe intoke to ensure thot the grovel trop spillweir is
qbove
the moximum river flood level ot thqt point: in this cose the 40 m intoke pipe Iength is more thon enough to meet
this criterion.
4.7 Construction of conols
4.7.1 DESCRIPTION
Once the conol type hqs been selected ond the design corried
out, there
qre
four stoges in the octuol construction os follows;
. setting out ofthe course ofthe conol,
. preporing the bench for the conol,
. excovoting the conol,
qnd
o lining the conol.
These secticns describe 0 gnersl nethod 0lc0ncl
construction ond offer exomples of other proven methods thot
moy be suitoble under certoin conditions.
4.7.2 SEIIING OTII
Setting out the conql requires the following equipment ond
sto{I
r Bosic equipment:
.
Level mqchine (or Dumpy level)
.
Meosuring tope
.
Tripod
.
Wooden pegs
.
Mqchetes
.
Mqllet
.
Pick
.
Hoe
.
Point
. Pqintbrush
o Stqff:
.
Surveyor
.
Chcinperson (ossistont to surveyor)
.
Helper to cleqr vegetotion
qnd
prpore pegs
The setting out ofthe cqnql is done by plocing pegs olong
the olignment. Depending on the topogrophy, such pegs should
generolly be ploced ot 5 t0 20 m intervols olong the olignment.
Pegs should olso be ploced
qt
bends, structures such os drops,
ond the beginning ond end of crossings ond superpossoges.
Some intermediote pegs or reference pegs should be
ploced just
outside the conql olignment using o level mochine
(or o Dumpy level). With the use of the level mochine, the
difference in levels between these pegs con be cqlculoted. Such
pegs will serve os reference levels for the excovqtion work. An
olternqtive to this is to point morks ot exposed rocks just
outside the olignment ond colculqte their levels.
4.73 BENCH CUT
The bench of
q
conol is like o rood of uniform width ond slope,
see Figure 4.12. The bench is prepored by excovoting o strip of
lond ofeven width olong the pegs ploced eorlier on the conql
olignment.
The bench width should be the top width of the conql
plus on ollowonce for berms on eoch side of the conol. On the
hill side,
q
berm of 300 mm is recommended. so thot moteriql
woshed down by rqin from the slope obove is not deposited
directly in the conol. A 1.0 m wide berm is recommended on the
nt t t Sl de nf t hq henr h t n r pdr r Cp sppnnnp t hr nr r nh t hp r nnnl hnnl z
! r . r v g 5 ^ ^
ond to provide occess for construction ond mqintenonce. A
lesser berm should only be used in conjunction with verticol
cement mosonry wqlls founded on rock. Note thot
q
berm
width less thon 500 mm is diflicult to wolk olong.
The slope ofthe bench should be the some os the slope (S)
ofthe conol section. Therefore, where there is o chonge in the
conol slope (in the design) the bench slope should olso chonge
occordingly. The levels of the cqnol ond the bench ot different
locotions con be verified using o theodolite or o level mochine
qnd
the intermediote pegs thqt were ploced outside the conol
olignment eorlier.
Once the initiql level ot the intoke is fixed, the subsequent
levels cqn be colculqted bosed on the slopes. The initiol level
con be estimoted bssed on the contour mops of the oreo or by
on oltimeter. Another method is to use the trigonometric points
estqblished by the survey deportment, but this moy toke longer
ond require more resources.
The initiol level does not hove to be very occurote (i.e. the
exoct elevotion from the seo lwel) but the differences between
intermediote pegs should be occurote, since it is these differ-
ences thqt determine the slope ofthe conol.
An exomple of o level colculotion is presented below:
The designer hqs recommended o slope of 1.520 for o
certoin cqnol section. The topog rophic mop of the oreo
indicotes thqt the elevotion ot the intoke is
qround
1600 m
obove meon seo level (MSL).
In this cose the first peg thot is ploced ot the intoke oreo
con be ossumed t0 be ot o level of 1600 m
qbove
MSL. Ifthe
second peg is to be ploced 20 m (horizontol length) downstreqm,
the bench level here should be:
20 m x 1.5/100
:
0.30 m down from the intoke or 1600 m
-
0.30
m
=
1599.70 m obove MSL.
The subsequent reodings between intermediote pegs (i.e.
reference points) con be noted in sequence with similor
calculotions.
65
a
{
exceeding the top width ond meeting the bottom width ot the
required depth. Thus, the required tropezoidol shope con be
orrived ot. This method of excovotion minimises the use of
construction moteriols ond the need to bqckfill. Note thot, os
mentioned eorlier, the side wolls of o tropezoidol cement
mosonry conql ore more likely to crqck if constructed on
bocklill.
It is
qlso
helpful to prepore
q
wooden "former" to check
the cross sectionol shope ofthe cqnql for tropezoidol shopes.
This involves constructing o wooden frome (using rectongulor
sticks) ofthe required tropezoidcl shope.
The cqnol invert slope should be constontly checked
using o level mochine. Note thot on inqccurote slope con be
very costly: if the slope is less thqn required, the conol will not
hove the copccity to convey the design flow; ifthe slope is
steeper thon required, the velocity moy exceed the mqximum
vqlue for the conql type ond stort eroding it.
4.7.5 CANAI. UNING
Once the excqvotion work has been completed, the octuol
construction ofthe cqnol con commence. The construction of
the cqnol depends on the type thot hos been chosen. For
- . . ^ * - l - : f ^ - ^ ^ + L ^ ^ - - l L - - L ^ ^ - - L ^ ^ - * ^ t l . L - . : - - - ^ - - : - - j
cxul l l pl t , l l ul . l t ul Ll l Lul l ur l l uJ uccl l Ll r uscl l , ul l ur ur , t 5 l cqut l cu
is to trim the side wolls
qnd
bottom width
qt
some ploces where
the excovqtion work hos been poor. However, if o mosonry
cqnol hqs been chosen, then this will require collecting stones,
dressing/sizing them ond then plocing them ot the excovqted
surfqce occording to the design.
For stone mosonry in cement mortor, the following is
recommended:
o The minimum thickness for bed ond side wolls should be
300 mm, since thinner wolls require more stone work
(dressing ond sizing) ond moy not hove the required
strength. This olso opplies to stone mosonry in mud
mortor conqls. Recommended designs ore shown in
Fi gure 4.13.
r Sond used for preporotion ofthe mortor should be clean
I
I
1
Fi gur c4. 12 Conol bench
4.?.4 CANAL EXCAVATION
0nce the conol bench hos been prepored, the excovotion lines
need to be set out os follows:
o Plqce pegs olong the centreline ond the top ond bottom
widths of the conol. The centreline is on imogincry line
thot posses through the centre ofthe conql ond porollel
to the sides. Note thqt the top ond bottom widths should
include the side woll thickness os well (i.e. outside edges
ofthe finished cqnal).
r
Join
the pegs using thin ropes. Then mork seporote lines
for the top
qnd
bottom widths (for tropezoidol sections)
using powdered lime or
qshes
so thot they ore indicoted
on the ground. Note thot for rectangulcr sections, the
top ond bottom widths ore equol ond two porollel lines
qre
suflicient for the excqvqtion work.
o Check the dimensions ogoinst the design specificotions.
Once the excovotion lines hove been prepored the conol
should be excovoted to the required shope ond slope os per the
design. For o rectongulor conol, the excovotion should stqrt
from the sides down to the required depth. For tropezoidol
sections, the excqvotion should stort ot the centrql port without
exceeding the bottom width lines verticolly down t0 the
required depth. Then the sides should be excqvqted without
1. 00
h>
0
min,
'
o
)
Woll height <0.46
Note: All dimensions ore in metres
b
)woll
heighr >0.46
Figur 4.13 Conol lining with stone mosonry in cement mortor
66
ond free from orgonic moteriols
qnd
fine porticles. The
sond porticles should be gronulcr (like ordinory sugor)
ond not floky. Sond mixed with fine porticles should be
thoroughly woshed before use.
The rotio ofthe mortqr should not be less thon 1 port
cement t0 4 ports sond by volume (1:4 cement/sond
mortor). This opplies to
qll
wqter retoining structures
such os the settling bosin ond the foreboy tonk. The
stones should be wetted before construction (dry stones
obsorb wqter from the cement mortor, stopping it reoch
full strength).
1:3 cement sqnd mortqr moy be used for plosterwork in
the heqdroce conol ond other wqter retoining structures
such os the settling bosin ond the foreboy.
plostering
the
conol lining is normolly unnecessory, but could be used
to reduce hydroulic losses (refer to Tqble 4.1) or where
seepoge is occurring in bodly constructed mosonry. The
thi ckness of the pl oster shoul d be obout 12 mm (1/2
inch).
Immediotely ofter the construction of o cement mo-
sonry portion ofthe conol length, it should be kept moist
for ot leost four doys. This is colled curing ond is done
by gently pouring woter on the wolls of the conql. The
use of hession (wet socks) to cover the mosonry helps to
retoin moisture cnd cures the cqnql structure better. An
uncured conol will not goin full strength. During hot
ond dry weother pouring woter on the mosonry conol
will be required frequently to ensure thot the conol wolls
remqin moist ond reoch their full strength. Curing is
more importont for plosters since they ore thin surfqces
ond con eosily crock ifthey dry up quickly. Note thot if
the ploster is done ot o loter stoge (ond not immediotely
qfter
the mosonry work), it will require further curing
for ot leost onother 4 doys. Also, the mosonry should be
wetted before opplying the ploster.
o For ploin concret lining, use 80 mm thickness. A
minimum curing period of Z doys is recommended.
o For reinforced concrete see Section 8.5.2.
4.8 Checklist for heodrqce works
o Check the heodroce olignment for stobiliry. Is the orea
obove ond below the heqdroce olignment stoble? Refer
to Chopter 2 for signs of instobility. Remember thot
eorth conols ore the most economic option where the
heodroce olignment is on stoble ground ond seepoge is
not likely to contribute to slope instobility.
o To minimise costs, stone mosonry in cement mortor
cqnals ond heodrqce pipes should only be used clong the
difficult stretches of the olignment.
e While fixing the heodroce olignment do not moke the
invert slope steeper thon necessory since ony loss in
heqd here leoves less heqd for power generotion.
Minimise the length unless longer length is required to
ovoid costly crossings.
\
different options so the
design is economicql ond the construction is procticol.
r Hqs the heodrqce cqnol or the pipe size been colculoted
bqsed on the ovoiloble site doto? Ifon inigotion conql is
being refurbished into o heodrqce, note thot there moy
not much control over the invert slope. Decide on the
rype ofconol by trying different cross sections ond
colculoting the corresponding velocities such thot they
qr
within the limit shown in Toble 4.1.
r For HDPE heodroce pipes, be sure to follow Figure 4.g for
pipe buriol detqils. HDpE pipes should not be exposed.
r For the construction work refer to Section 4.7.
+ -
b l
5. Grovel trop, settling
basin ond foreboy
5.1 Overview
5.I.1 THE SEDIMENT PROBLEM
Most ri vers corry o substonti ol quonti ty of sedi ment i n the
form ofgrovel , sond or fi ner rnoteri cl dependi ng on the ri ver
chorocteri sti cs, geol ogy ofthe cotchrnent oreo ond the di s-
chorge. Steeper ri vers such
qs
those thot ori gi note from the
Iiimoloyos corry cobbles ond even move lorge boulders during
onnuol fl oods. Intokes ore l ocoted ond desi gned to l i mi t the
omount of sediment entering the micro-hydr0 system, but such
sediment connot be entirely eliminoted. Intokes con only
prevent boulders ond cobbies from entering into the system
ond minimise the influx of grovel ond finer sediment.
l-orge porticles con block the heodroce ond reduce its
copocity. Suspended sediment con couse severe weor on the
turbine runner, seols ond beorings, since the flow velocity ot
the runner i s hi gh. Such weor couses o reducti on i n the
efhci ency of the turbi ne ond eventuol l y l eods to i ts compl ete
foi l ure. In ei ther cose, moi ntenonce i s necessory, requi ri ng
hi gh expendi ture i n terms of repl oced ports, mon-hours ond i n
l oss ofpower producti on. There ore obundont exompl es of
turbi ne runners compl etel y destroyed wi thi n o few yeors ofter
i nstol l crti on ot mi cro-hydro pl onts thot l ocked settl i ng bosi ns.
The rote of weor of turbi ne ports due t0 sedi ment
obrosion is governed by the following foctors:
o Concentroti onofsuspendedparti cl es
r Hordness ofporticles
r Si ze of porti cl es
o Shope ofporti cl es
o Resi stonce ofturbi ne runner
r turbine heqd
It is not necessory to exclude oll sediment ot the settling
bosin. This is virtuolly impossible ond would not be economi
colly vioble, especiolly for micro-hydro schemes. A smqll
concentrotion of fine sediment is often permissible os will be
discussed lqter. The design should be such thot the size ond
concentrotion of sediment possing the settiing bosin
qre
within
occeptoble limits.
5.1.2 FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURES
Grovel trcps, os the nome denotes ore designed to trop grovel
thot enters the intoke olong with the diverted flow. If o river
onl y corri es fi ne sedi ment ond not grovel (even duri ng fl oods),
then thi s structure i s not requi red. However, most mountoi n
rivers in Nepol corry grovel, especiolly during floods. In the
obsence ofo grovel trop, grovel wi l l settl e ol ong the gentl er
sections ofthe heodroce or in the settling bqsin, where it is
difficult to flush out.
A settling bqsin is o bosin whose function is to settle the
suspended porticles present in the diverted river flow. Since
rivers
qre
never free from sediment, oll micro-hydro schemes
should hove o settling bqsin. For smoll schemes, this moy
simply be a widened section of the conol. The flushing mecho-
nism moy be rudimentary, which is occeptoble provided thot
domoging sediment does not reqch the turbine.
A foreboy is o tqnk locoted
qt
the end of the heodroce ond
the beginning of the penstock pipe. It is o structure thot ollows
for the trqnsition lrom open chonnel to pressure flow condi
tions. The woter Ievel ot the foreboy determines the operotionol
heod of the mi cro-hydro scheme.
5.1.3 LOCATION OF THE STRUCTURES
Whenever possi bl e the grovel trop, settl i ng bosi n ond l oreboy
shoul d be combi ned. Thi s mi ni mi ses the constructi on cost.
Sometimes, either the grovel trop ond the settling bosin or the
settling bosin ond the loreboy ore combined, but the topo-
grophic conditions ore rorely oppropriote to be oble to combine
oll three structures. The
Jhonkre
mini-hydro is
q
rore exomple
where it wos possible to combine oll three structures os
described in Box 5.1.
Selection ofon oppropriote settling bqsin site is governed
by the following criterio:
o The locqtion should be such thqt it is possible to flush
the sediment ond spill excess flow from the bqsin
without cousing erosion problems or damoge to other
structures. There must be suflicient heod to flush the
sediment
qnd
druin the bosin.
r The settling basin should be locoted
qs
close to the
heodworks os possible, especiolly ifit is seporote from
69
the foreboy. The eorlier the sediment is removed the less
the mointenonce of the heodrqce. Furthermore, the
heodroce olignment downstreom of the settling bosin
con be gentler (hence less loss in the cvoiloble heod)
since the flow will be sediment free. A locotion close to
the intoke ollows ecsy dischorge of sediment bqck to the
river. From on operotionol viewpoint, it will olso be
eosier for the operotor/helper to combine work ot the
intoke, such os cleoning the coqrse trqshrock,
qnd
flushing ofthe settling bosin.
r There needs t0 be odequote spoce to construct this
structure os designed. Note thot it cqn be o relotively
wide ond long structure. Therefore, locoting this
structure on foirly level ground minimises the excovo-
tion costs.
The foreboy is locoted immediotely uphill of the
tronsition oreo where the ground profile chonges from
level to steep. The following odditionol foctors should be
considered before decidino whether o site is suitoble for
o foreboy:
r It should be possible to spill the entire design flow from
the foreboy without cousing erosion or instobiliry
problems. Ideolly if this structure con be locoted close to
o gully, it moy be possible to sofely divert the spillwoy
flows into it.
o Similqr to the settling bosin there needs to be odequote
spqce to construct this structure os designed. However,
the foreboy is usuolly smqller in size.
5.2 Grovel trap
A grovel trop is recommended for oll micro-hydro schemes in
Nepol. In the obsence of o grovel trop, the settling bqsin must
be close to the intqke ond
qble
to flush the grovel thot enters the
bosin. Grovel trops differ from settling bqsins in thot they
hondle coorse moteriql thot enters neor the bed, rother thon
suspended moteriql thot needs to be settled. The moin design
principle for o grovel trop is thot the velociry through it should
be less thon required t0 move the smollest size of grcvel to be
removed. The lorgest size ollowed to enter into the intoke con
be controlled by the spqcing of the coorse troshrock bors. In
generol grovel trops should settle porticles lorger thon 2 mm
diometer. Smoller sized porticles will be settled ond removed in
the settling bosin. The following criterio should be used for the
design ofthe grovel trop:
o To be oble to trop porticles down to 2 mm diometer, the
velocity in the grovel trop should be limited to 0.6 m/s.
o lfthe grcvel trop is hopper shoped, the floor slopes
should be obout 30" (1:1.7). Such on orrongement will
focilitote eosy flushing ofgrovel. Ifit is not possible to
construct such o shope, the floor should siope towords
the flushing end, with o longitudinol slope of 2-5%0.
o
JIq
lgnglh
of the grovel trop should be ot leost three
.
times the width of the heqdroce colol or 2 m, whichever
is lorgg. With this fixed length ond o velociw of 0.6 m/s.
the required width of the trop con now be determined.
.
Note thqt this is o generol rule of thumb, but if a
significont bed lood con enter the intoke, then o longer
length moy be required. Since studies regording the
movement of grcvel in rivers ore rore (rorer thon
sediment studies), it is usuolly diflicult to estimote the
storoge required in o grovel trop. Note thqt the storoge
must be provided below the normol flow depth.
o To minimise blockoge of the heodrqce or domoge due to
obrosion in the heodrqce, grovel trops should be locoted
os close to the intoke os possible.
Crovel trops con be emptied vio flushing gotes or by
lifting stoplogs (i.e. wooden plonks). Since grovel enters the
intoke only during high flows, incorporoting stoplogs is
generolly more convenient
qnd
economic.
The Golkot grovel trop is shown in Photogroph 5.1 ond in
Drowing 42010/.12C02 of Appendix C. Although o grovel trop,
this structure hos oiso been designed os o primory settling
bosin. This is becouse the heodroce conol is long (1.1 krn) ond if
significont sediment lood con be tropped in the grovel trop, the
mqintenqnce requirement will be less fqr downstreom in the
heodroce conol. Furthermore, once the sediment is removed.
the heodroce conol slopes con be gentler os discussed in Chopter
4. Since this is o combined structure, the colculotions ore
presented ofter the discussion on settling bosins.
Note thot os con be seen in Drowing 420lCF.l2A0l
(Appendix C), the Golkot grovel trop is locoted 35 m down-
streom from the intoke. This is becouse the initiol length of the
intoke wos felt to be vulnerqble to flood domoge. For the some
reoson the coqrse troshrock is
ploced qt
the end ofthe orovel
Irop.
In the Golkot micro-hydro scheme, significont grovel lood
is not expected for the following reosons:
o The diversion weir is of o temporory noture ond does
not extend throughout the river width.
r The intoke is locoted on the outside ofo bend.
70
53 Settling bosin
53.T DESIGN CRITERJA
Suspended sediment thot is not settled in the grovel trop is
tropped in the settling bosin. The bosic principle ofsettling is
thot the greoter the bosin surfqce orq ond the lower the
through velocity, the smoller the porticles thot con settle. A
settling bosin hos o significqntly lorger cross sectionql oro
thon the heodroce conol ond therefore the flow velocity is lower
which ollows the settling ofthe suspended moterioJs.
A settling bosin must sotisry the following thre c terio:
Scttling copocity
The length ond width ofthe bosin must be lorge enough to
^r r ^Lr . r ^mo nor onr . ^o ^. r h6 nno . o. r i . ne- t
t C f 0] l oul Cf u' wr r e r ur 9!
l l l ! r ' r r ugL
u. r r l r r ur l I ur
suspension ond be deposited on the bed. The sediment concen'
trotion pqssing the bosin should be within occeptoble limits.
The geometry ofth ir et, the width ofthe bosin ond ony
curvotur must be such os to couse minimum turbulence.
which might impoir the effrcienry
Stomge corcity
The bosin should be
qble
to storc the settled pqrticles for some
time ur ess it is designed for continuous flushing. continuous
flushing mechonisms ore however not incorporotd in micro-
hydro schemes due to the complexity ofthe design ond the
sconity of woter during the low flow seoson. Hnce, the
stomge copocity must be sumciently lorge thot the bosin does
not require frquent flushing.
Flushiry cspcity
The bosin should be oble to be operoted so os to rcmove the
stored porticles from it. This is don by opening gotes or volves
ond flushing the sediment olong with the incoming flow in the
bosin. The bed grodient must be step enough to clot
vlocities cqpoble ofremoving oll the sediment during flushing.
532 THE II'EAL SETruNG BASTN
The theory behind the design ofo strling bosin is derived on
the bosis ofon ide0] bcsin. Therefore, before proceeding tothe
design phose. the concept ofthe ideol bosin needs to b under-
stood. Such on ideol bosin is shown in Fioure 5.1.
tuint X
Plon oreo A
FigurE 5.1 An ideol sttling bosin
Consider o porticle entering the'ideol settling bosin" on
the woter surfoce ot point x (i.e.
beginning ofthe settling zone)
os shown ill Figurc 5.1. In this figure:
L
=
length ofthe setrling zone (m)
B
=
width ofthe settling zone (m)
mpnn wnt pr dpnt h i n t hp <pt t l i nn znno l ml nl cn
colled hydroulic depth
t
=
time for porticle to trovel the length L
{s)
vp
=
horizontol velocity component ofthe ponicle (m/s)
w: vrtico.l velocity component ofth porticle (m/s), i.e..
'foll
velocity" which is discussed loter
Q:
di schorge (mr/s)
Then the following equotions must hold for the pqrtide
to reoch th end ofthe seftling bosin (point Y):
y : wt ( ol
L=v pt ( b)
Q:
Bv py ( c )
substituting for y, vpond t ftom (o) ond (b) into (c) Rsults
i n: q: 91*
Phoro 5.1 Colkor grovel trop
71
Therefore, for o given dischorge
Q,
the plon oreo ofthe
settling bosin con theoreticolly be determined for sedimentotion
of o porticle with foll velocity w However, in prcctice, o lorger
bosin
qro
is required beccuse of the following foctors:
r the turbulence of the woter in the bosin;
o imperfect flow distribution
qt
the entronce; ond
o the need to converge (sometimes curve) the flow
towqrds the exit.
Therefore in
'reol
bosins" the through velocity is limited,
to reduce turbulence, ond the required plon oreo is obout twice
the oreo colculqted for the "ideol bosin".
533 FAII VETOCITY OF SEDIMENT AND PARTICI.E SIZE
The foll velocity, w, chqrocterises the obility of porticles of
vorlous sizes to settle out under grovity. For o discrete pqrticle,
this volue depends on its size, density, ond shope, os well os the
temperoture of woter.
Figure 5.2 shows the foll velocity in woter, w, os o
function ofthe porticle diqmeter for reference quartz spheres.
This figure con be used to estimote w for the colculqtions
required in the design ofthe bosin. Note thqt the temperoture
effect becomes less for lorger diometer pofticles.
In micro-hydropower schemes, the settling bosin is
designed to trop 1000/6 ofporticles greoter thon o certoin size,
d,,,n. 0nly o proportion of smoller pqrticles will be tropped, but
d,
.,
is set so thot the smoller porticles possing though the bosin
will not couse significont obrosion domoge to the turbine.
For micro-hydro schemes the following procedure is
recommended for the selection of d,,.u:
r Low heod schemes, h < 10 m:
4,.n:
0.3 to 0.5 mm
o Medium head schemes. 10 m < h < 100 m:
d,,,,
=
0.2 to 0.3 mm
r High heod schemes, h > 100 m
d,,,
:
0.1 to 0.2 mm
where h is the gross heod.
The current proctice in Nepol is to use dr..., of 0.3 mm
regordless of the heqd of the scheme, which is somewhot
orbitrory. The opprooch outlined in this section is more logicol.
This is becquse for o given ponicle size, the higher the heod, the
more the domoge is to the turbine.
Th.4,-, ronge given obove os o function of heod ond
flow ollows the designer some flexibility in deciding the porticle
size to be settled.
J1l
l t
I
I
I
II
z
r
rf
I I
TT a
II t v
z
v
1 _
-Ternpelof
--ilrn -C
-7
r-//,
.-/
2
7
7-
t o
a
a
o
E
=
E
.s
3
e
.Y
o
ol
ool
I l o l oo
Fo l l Vcl oci t y, I n cent l nct r r
pe l econd
(
Rouse, 1937 )
ool ol
rooo
Figun 5.2 Foll velocity of quortz spheres in woter
72
.
I
I
I
t
I
t
The following foctors should be used while deciding on
the volue of d,,.u:
o If most porticles ore highly cbrosive (quortz sond or
minerols), then the lower limiting volues should be used.
Ifthe pcrticles
qre
softer less obrosive substqnces, then
the higher limiting volues moy be occeptoble.
r Crossflow turbines ore relotively less sensitive to soft
impurities such
qs
siit ond cloys. Other types such os
the Froncis turbines ore m0re sensitive to ony kind of
suspended motter. Pelton turbines ore intermediote.
r For exomple, d,,.u
:
0.2 mm should be selected in
q
cqse
where: h
=
50 m, suspended porticles are mostly pure
quortz or similor minerqls, ond o Frqncis turbine is
used.
5.3-4 SETruNG DESIGN
The oreo required for the settling bosin ond its plon shope ore
colculoted os follows:
1. Using the criterio discussed in Section 5.3.3, determine
what the ronge of the scheme is (i.e., low, medium or
high heod) ond decide on the corresponding minimum
porticle size to be settled, i.e. d,*,,.
2. Using Figure 5.2, for the selected d,
n,,,,
determine the fqll
velocity, w.
3. Colculote the required bosin surfoce oreo (A) using the
following equotion.
) i
A-
-::
w
Note thot o foctor of 2 hos been used to ollow for
turbulence in the bosin.
4. With the bosin
qreo
colculoted obove, fix either the
length, L, or the width, B, occording to site conditions
ond colculote the other dimension such thqt 4 < t/B <
10.
5. Check thot the horizontsl velocity (V
0.44 \q;, i.e. V < 0.24 m/s
=*, "
l ess r hqn
where d,,,,
:
0.3 mm. If not, increose the cross sectionol
oreo (B or y) to meet this condition.
53.5 STORAGE DESIGN
The concentrotion ofsuspended porticles in the flow con be
expressed os lollows:
Concentrction (C) =
kg of suspended motter
m3 of woter
Unfortunotely, there hove not been ony studies regording
the concentrotion of sediment in smqll mountoin rivers of
Nepol thot ore oppropriote for micro-hydro instollotion.
Therefore, in the Nepclese context, the designer hos to rely on
doto ovoiloble from lorge hydropower projects. The recom-
mended proctice in Nepol is to use C
=
2 kg/m3 for the design of
settling bosins for micro-hydro schemes
The sediment storoge requirement in o settling bosin is
colculoted
qs
follows:
1. Colculote the sediment lood using the following equotion:
S, - o
=
QTC
where:
S,*o
:
sediment lood in kg stored in the bosin
Q
=
dischorge in m3/s
T
=
sediment emptying frequenry in seconds
C
=
sediment concentrotion of the incoming flow in kg/m' .
A ressonoble emptying frequency (T) in the Nepolese
context could be obout once to twice doily during high floW
which results in less thon once
q
week during the low flow
seoson when the sediment concentrotion is low.
2. The next step is to colculote the volume of the sediment,
using the following equotion:
\
l / _
-l ood
' r e d r me n t -
S. XP-
oansnv tof,or
where:
V,.di..m
=
volume of sediment stored in the bosin in m3.
Sd"n,iry
:
density of sediment in kg/mr, obout 2600 kg/mr. Unless
other doto ore ovoiloble this volue should be used for So.*,r.
Prono,
:
pocking foctor of sediment submerged in woter.
When submerged in woter, porticles occupy mor spoce
thon when dry. This is meosured in terms of pochng foctor,
which is the ratio of unit volume of dry sediment to unit
volume of wet sediment (i.e. volume of 1 m3 of dry sediment
divided by the volume of this sediment when submerged).
Pocking fuctor for submerged sediment is obout 0.5 (i.e. the
volume of dry sediment is doubled when submerged).
Beiow the settling zone must be the copocity to store the
colculoted volume of sediment,
\.ain.nt.
This storoge spoce is
ochieved by increosing the depth ofthe bosin os follows:
t
ioaoqa
-
Where Yuo,on.is the storoge depth in the settling bosin
below the hydroulic depth (y) discussed eqrlier, ond A is the
plon oreo. The hydroulic depth ond the storoge depth ore olso
shown in Figure 5.3.
53.6 COMPONENTS OFA SETruNG BASTN
The settling bosin hos three distinct zones; the inlet, settling
\/
sedlment
---;-
lt
i
i
i
\
1
l
1
I
t
Fr eeboor d
TYPI CAL CROSS- SECTl ON
'
tvPrcAL Lor{GrruotuL sEcrro}J
I
lnlet zonc Sellling zonc
Oulht zone
Freeboord
f low
+
-!-
f l ow' ,
N
S.for.o99
z
I
Fi gure 5.3 A typi col sttl i ng bosi n ond i ts components
ond outlet zones. These ore discussed below ond shown in
Figures 5.3 ond 5.4.
Inlet zone
This is the initiol zone where the tronsition from the heodroce
to the settling bqsin occurs ond there is o groduol exponsion in
the bqsin width.
The design of the inlet is importont to the efliciency of
the bosin. For high hydroulic efliciency ond effective use ofthe
bqsin, the inlet should distribute the inflow ond suspended
sediment over the full cross sectionol oreo ofthe settling zone.
Vorious reseqrch doto show thot horizontol velocity
voriotions
qcross
the width of
q
rectongulor tonk offect the
hydroulic efliciency considerobly more thon velocity voriotions
in depth. Therefore, ottention needs to be given t0 uniform flow
distribution in the horizontal plone. The following methods ore
used in the inlet zone t0 ochieve o good flow distribution:
o Grqduql exponsion of the iniet chonnel. This is the most
commonly used method in micro-hydro schemes. To
determine the length of the inlet zone, set the horizontol
exponsion rotio ot obout 1:5 (cr =
110) os shown in
Figurr 5.4. This will ollow on even flow distribution ot
the beginning ofthe settling zone. The verticol expan-
sion rotio con be higher ot
qbout
1:2 (a
=
27) os shown
in Figure 5.3.
o Another option is to incorporote o weir os con be seen in
the Golkot settling bosin (Drowing 420/04/3C01).
r ftoughs with slots or orifices in wolls or bottom.
. Bofile wolls
Note thot orifices or boffle wolls ore often used in woter
treotment focilities where extremely low velocity is required but
these methods ore rorely used in micro-hydro schemes.
In some schemes in Peru, o sliding gote is instolled in
front of the settling bqsin os shown in Photogroph 5.2. During
flushing, the gote is initiolly closed, impounding woter behind
it. When the settling bqsin is emptied, the gote is opened ond
the sudden rush ofthe impounded woter flushes out ony
sediment thot hos remqined inside the bosin.
a^
Fiqure 5 4 Exponsion ond controction rotio in sttling bosin
Settling zone
The b0srn rcochs the required width ot the beginning ofthis
zone. Pofticles or settled, stored ond flushd in this zon. The
l ength ofthi s zone i s l onger thon th i r et or the outl et zones. It
should be noted thot long norrow bosins perfom better thon
shQft wLde bosins. A ronge of 4 to 10 is rccommended for the
r0 0 ofthe l ength Io wi dth (L/B). Bosi n shqpe con ol so be
improved by subdrvision with
q
longitudinol divide wcll, since
thrs d0ubles the L/B rotio for
q
given bosin length. Also, the
l ongi tudi nol di vi de wol l cqn ossi st i n the operoti on ofthe
scheme. For exomple, the sediment in one sub-bosin con be
fl ushed whi l e the othr i s i n operoti on, produci ng hol fthe
power 0utput. Wi thout the subdi vi si on, the pl 0nt w0ul d hove
to b closed during flushing.
Provision for flushing the stored sdiment should be
qt
the end ofthe settling bosin. A floor slope of1:20 to 1:50 in the
settling zone focilitotes flushing.
Outlet zone
This forms the trqnsition from the settling zone to th hodroce.
The tronsition con be more obrupt thqn the inlet exponsion (i.e.,
horizontolly 1:2 or
P
=
26.5"os shown in Figur 5.4, ond
verticolly 1:1 os shown in Figure 5.3). Note thqt ifthe settling
bosin is combined with the foreboy, then this zone is not
necessqry: the forboy structure con be dirctly downstreom of
The operoting woter level of the settling bosin is gener-
olly contrclled ot th outlt. somtimes by o weir which moy be
designd to operot 0s submerged in oder to conserve hod.
53.7 FLUSHING ARMNGEMENTS
verticsl flush pipe method
There ore vorious woys ofremoving the stored sdimnt from
the settling bosin. An
qppropriote
method for micro-hydro
settling bosins is the'vrticql flush pipe". This uss o detoch'
oble venicol mild steel pipe over o hole in the bosin floor A
droin pipe is lued below the bosin floor to convey the flow out
of the bosin. when the verticol flush pipe is lifted, the w0ter
stored in the bosin ond the incoming 0ow olong with the
sediment ore droined through the hole. Aport from being
si mpl e, th other odvontoge ofthi s system i s l hot i t con spi l l
some excess flow such os during floods when the wotr levl in
Pno o 5 2 SI dr n9 gor
p
or \ et l hng bosr n enl i once, Per u
Figurp 5 5 nushino o settling bosin using the venicol flush pipe method
?5
the bosin is
qbove
the normol level. This verticol flush method
is shown schemoticqlly in Figurc 5.5. The colkot settling bosin
is bosed on this method os con be seen in Drowing 420/04/3C01
ofAppendix c- similorly, theJhqrkot micro-hydro scheme olso
uses this method for flushing os con be seen in Photogrqph 5.3.
Photo 5.3
Jhorkot
settling bosin
The diometer of the flush pip is governed by the
following criteriol
o) overflow copocity
It needs to spill the excess flood flow thot enters the bosin os
shown in Figurc 5.6. This is governed by the weir equotion,
where the perimeter ofthe pipe is used for the length cs follows:
0" .
:
fI dC h^ .r1?
where:
Qn""d
is th expected flood flow in the bosin
hn""dis the depth ofwoter obove the verticql pipe during
Qn*d
This is the heighr between the top ofthe verticql flush
pipe ond the top ofthe settling bosin woll.
C" is the weir coemcient for o shorp edged weir, which is
1.9 (see Tqble 3.3, Chopter 3). The reoson for using the shorp
edged weir coefhcient is becous the pipe thickness is smoll
r ^mnnr od r ^ r h, h' ^, 1
In terms ofthe pip diometer, the obove equotion con be
rewritten os follows:
0" .
/ i = 4
1.9nh_
3i ,
To ensure droining ofexcess flow ond to prevent spilling
ofthe design flow the height 0fthe verticol flush pipe should be
such thot the top levl is 50mm obove the design woter level.
Also note thot ifthe settling bosir is combined with the foreboy,
it moy be mole importont to size the flush pipe diometer such
thot it is oble to spill the design flow. This is becouse ifthe
turbine volve is closed during emergencies, the entire design
flow will hove to be spilled from the foreboy until the operotor
reoches th intoke or other control structurcs upstreom ofthe
forebola
b) Flushing cqpocity
The pipe should be obl to divert both the incoming flow ond
the woter volume in the bosin, thus emptying it. This is bosed
on the following equotionsl
l . s0.
=
c, c \ 6 + t L
or O.
=
CAri l
{6i 9i
where:
Q.,in"
is the design flow. q.,ir" is multiplied by 1.5 in the
first qu0tion to ensurc thot therc is 0 drow down in the w0ter
Ievel inside the bosin during flushing
{i.e.,
both the incoming
flow
qnd
the flow in the bcsin con be droined).
C is the orifice coefficient
:
2.76 (opplis or y whre the
totol pipe length is less thon 6 m).
tL,t"is th depth ofwoter in the b0sin during the design
flow prior to flushing.
ho",n is the flushing heod when bosin is empty. This is the
diffrnce in level betwen th floor ofthe bosin ond the flush
pipe outlet os cqn be seen in Figurc 5.6
A is the oleo ofthe pipe section.
Th second quotion ensures thot the design flow con be
dischorgd through th system whn the b0sin is empry lt is
importqnt to check this condition especiolly ifthe hn",h is low.
Photo 5 4 Lifting the {lushing mec}onism
0hong)
76
In terms ofthe pipe diometer, the obove two equotions
con be rewritten os follows:
, - /
6a" ' . '
\ ' '
"
-
\ l l c.rG-+h /
^ . , - /
4Q' ' '
\ '
" ' " - \ ncVn
I
Not thot these equoti ons 0ssum thqt there i s free pi pe
fl ow ot the outl et ond the pl pe dtonteter i s constont
{verti col
ond hori zonrol pi pes ofthe system hove the some di ometer).
Al l of the obove three equotLons shoul d be used ro si ze the
drqmeter ofrhe fl ush pi pe. The pi pe shoul d be si zd usi ng the
equotron rhot resul ts i n the l orgest di qmeter l fthe totol pi pe
l ength i s m0re thon 6 m, the fl ow shoul d be col cul oted usi ng the
gui del i nes gi ven i n Chopter 4.
Sluice gste
Another conventi on0l mthod offl ushi ng i ncl udes the use 0f
sluicing gotes. This is more common in minr- ond lorge
hydrcpowr schems. In this system, gotes ore lifted either
monuol)y or mechonicolly, to droin the bosin. Th Solle
Chiolso mini-hydro scheme is bosed on such conventionol
flushing system os con be seen in Photogroph 5.6.
53.8 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Spillwsy requirement
Ifexcess flows con not be spilld from the upstreom heodroce
portion such os du to lock of o suitoble oreo (or if o pipe is
used), 0 spillwoy should olso be incorporqted ot the settling
bosin. The spillwoy should be sized to spill the entire llow
expected during the high flow seoson. This is becous the plqnt
moy need to b shut during high flows for rrpoir work. The
spillwoy should b locoted upstrom ofthe bosin to ovojd
excess flow (ond sedimnt) through the bosin. Note thot the
design ofspillwoys w0s coveRd in Chqpter 4.
However, in the cose where there is o verticol flush pipe
sized to divert the expected high flows, o seporote spillwoy is
not necessory
Cover
Someti mes thr con ol so be si te speci fi c consi deroti ons thot
need to be oddressed du ng lhe design ofthe settling bosin. For
xomple, th Ghondruk sertlirlg bosin is locoted in o forest oreo
qnd
lorge tree leoves were constontly blocking the troshrqck.
This problem wos overcome by plocing wirc mesh over the
bosin os con be seen in Photogroph 5.7.
Phoro 5 6 Solleri Chroko serrhng bosin
Figure 5 6 venicol {lush pipe scction in o serrling bosrn
Phot o 5 5 Ser t l ng bosr n or l hor l r ot
77
7
Pl ot o 5 7 Chondr uk ser dr ng bosi n
The Golkot grovl tropiprimory settling bosin is designed for
q
llow of455l/s. Noteth0t the gross heod ofrhe scheme (h)is 20
m.
As grovel trop or y. the minimum dimension should be os follows:
crcss sectionol olo requircd for V
=
0.6 m/s to trop porticle size down to 2 mm.
0' 0. 455
A:
- - - : = - =0. 758m2
v 0.6
With o flow depth
=
0.5 m:
Wi dth B
=
0.758/0.5
=
1.52 m, soy 1.5 m.
Using L
=
3 x heodroc conql width (B' =
0-6 m)
=
1.8 m. Use 2.0 m minimum length.
Therefore ifthis structure werc designed hs o grovel trop only the dimensions would hove been os follows:
B
=1. 5m
L
=
2. 0m
As o settling bosin, the dimensions rquired ore os follows:
since 10 m < h < 100 m, the scheme is clossified os medium heod. Recoll thot the turbine is o cmssflow type. Therefore, d,-,
:
0.3 mm.
With o meon river temperoture of15
0C
during the high 0ow seoson. fiom Figup 5.2, the foll velocity w
=
0.037 m/s for
78
rl .r,
=
0.3 mm
LB
=
2Q/w
=
2x0.45510.037=24.6m2t
Set B
=
2. 5m
L
=
24.61?.5
=
9.8 m, Set L= 10.0 m
LI B=+
Inlet profile due to spoce constroints set o
=
260,
B_B'
I = _ -
-islet
2 ton(a)
2.5-{.6
(2 ton 260)
=
1,94 m. Set Lnr"t
=
2.0 m
Check required depth ofsettling zone, y:
Msximum horizontol velocity
v
=
0.aa {Irr*
=
0.44i6-.3
=
0.24 m/s
a
0.445
"' Y=Tt =- - r E; , T=0. 76m
Sediment storoge rquircment:
Assume sedimentconcentrotion,C
=
2kg/mr
g. =
2600 ko/m3
qorny
P-
=
0.5
loaIor
Flushing frequency, T
=
8 hours wos chosen for this scheme (but 12 hours is recommended). 8 hours
=
28,800 s
S, * o=Qx TxC
=
0.455 x 28,800 x 2
=
26,208 kg
rr -
Sl ooa
v
sediment
-
sd.nrny x Pfo.,o,
=
26,208
/
(2600 x 0.5)
=29.16
*3
Actuol bosin oreo
=
LB
:
10 x 2.5
=
25 m2
Required storqge dpth,Y,,o,on.
=
20.16125
=0.81
m
Requireddepthofbosin
=
Freeboord *
Y
* Yuo,n"
=
0.3 * 0.76 + 0.81
=
1.87 m
Therefore, os con be seen in Drowing aZ0l0Al2C02 in Appendix C, the actuol internol dimensions of the basin sre os follows:
L
: 10. 0m
sfiillng
B .
=2. 5m
qruD9
79
Depthofbosin
=
1.9m
L**
=
2.0 m
Loou*
=
1.25 m
Since the heodroce conol is long, o secondory settling basin has been incorporoted upstreom ofthe foreboy os con be seen in
Drowing 420/0413C01 in Appendix C. As con be seen in this drowing, the settling bosin hos the following dimensions:
L .
: 7. 8m
setutno
B*,,*
=
2'4 m
Depth ofbosin
=
1.7 m (ovJ
L,r.,
=
4.4 m including the weir length
Lou,r.
=
0 m (outlet into foreboy)
Note the following:
Qesisn
=
421 l/s in the secondory settling bosin/foreboy. Recoll from Chopter 3 thot the flow required for power production
wqs 421 l/s ond the heodroce conol wos designed for 455 lis to provide extro irrigotion woter.)
As discussed eorlier, o weir hos been incorporoted ot the inlet zone to ensurc on even distribution of flow. Since the settling
bosin is combined with the foreboy, the outlet zone hos been omitted. Also notice the submerged weir ot the end of the bosin
which controls the velocity through the bqsin and provides sediment storoge depth. Since the grovel trop is expected to
settle most of the sediment, there hos been o compromise in the rotio of L/B (3.25) in the settling bosin: in this cose the weir
ond porollel sides upstreom ofthe settling zone give o good flow distribution ocross the bosin.
As discussed eorlief, note the flushing orrongement where sediment is flushed by removing the verticol pipe. The sizing of
this pipe is os follows:
Since there ore o number ofspillwoys along the heodroce conol (upstream ofthe settling bosin/forebay), flood flow is not
expected. Therefore, the criterion is to ensure thot the flush pipe is oble to divert both the incoming design flow and the
woter volume in the bosin, thus emptying it during flushing
Check the flush pipe diqmeter using the following two equotions:
Note thot cs con be seen in the Golkot drowing
$2010apC01)
h*,,n
=
1.3 m ond hnu,n
:1.7
m
, _{
6q. *n"
l "
d=\ RC.
,
=0. 410m0r 410mm
, - f
4Q. . "
\ " '
d
=
t n111;- ,l
=
o.rt6 m or 386 mm
Therefore, o diometer of 410 mm is required for the flush pipe.
The octuol flush pipe diometer thqt wos used for the Golkot scheme is 400 mm (slightly smoller thon colculoted). This wos
occepted becouse it motches the penstock diameter ond wos eosier to fobricote.
TheJhonke mini-hydro scheme is o rore exompl where it wos possible to combine the grovel trqp, settling bosin ond foreboy
into on structure os cor be seen in Photogroph 5.8 ond Figup 3.8 (Chopter 3). The intoke is locotd ot the left bqrk of o wide
pool and there wos odequote spoce to combine
qll
three structures herc. Also, the topogrophy wos such thot it wos possible to
stort the penstock olignmnt right ot the intqke.
The grovel trcp is ploced ot the curved
section immdiqtely behind the intoke.
The stroight sction behind the grovel
trop work os o settling bosin ond th
tqnk behind this is the foreboy Since
the initiql penstock
qlgnment
is buriec
it cqnnot be seen in the photogrqph.
Also note tlot os discussed eqrlier, the
structure hos been divided into two
bosins so thqt th plont need not be
completely shut during flushing.
Plotforms hqve been incorporoted ot
the end ofthe grovel trop, settling
bqsin
qnd
obove the foEboy to
focilitot flushing os well os deoning
of the troshrock. The flushing system for both grovl ond sediment is
q
modilicotion of th
'vrticol
flush pipe" method. As
shown in Figure 5.7, insteod ofo flush pipe o cylinder (topred ot the bottom) is used which fits snugly into the hol on the
bosin floor. Since the woter depth is high, the cylinders ole lifted witl spindle wheels (thus gaining mechonicol odvortoge)
thot rest on the slobs. However, note thqt with thls system, th excess flow cqnnot be diverted viq the cylindrs since they ore
closed on top.
The troshrock
qt
the foreboy is cleoned by roking thrcugh th
bors (flot plotes) with o speciql steel roke. To prevenr
vondolism th spindl wheels ore stord seporotely ond
instolled only du ng flushing. lnthe photogroph the
threoded ends (where the spindles ore insertd)conbe sen on
the grovl trop ond settling bosin plotforms
Figure 5.7 nushing system ofjhoDke miln hydro
Photo 5 E Grovel trop, settling bosin ond forboy ofJhonlae mini'hydro
n
81
5.4 Foreboy
5.4.1 GENEML
The foreboy ofo micro-hydro scheme serves th following
functions:
. It ollows for the tronsition from open chonnel to
prssurc fl ow conditions.
. It regulotes th flow into the penstock, porticulorly
through the releose ofexcess woter into o spillwoy.
. It releoses the surge pEssure os the wove trovels out of
t hp npn( t n. k ni np
. It con
qlso
serve os o secondory/fnol settling bosin ond
trop some porticles thot enter the heodroc downstrom
of the settling bosin.
. Although very rore in micro.hydro schemes, the foreboy
con olso provide woter storoge for use during peok
power demond period os discussed in Box 5.2.
Structurolly, the forboy tonl is similor to the settling
bosin xcept thot the outlet uonsition is reploced by o troshrock
ond the entronce into the penstock pipe
t i
Photo 5 9 A dry stone mosonryforeboy showing the connection with the
penstork
5.4.2 PIPE IJVEL
The foreboy ollows for th tronsition from open chollnel to pipe
flow by providing odequote submergence for the penstock pipe.
As discussed in Chopter4, ifthe submergence heod is nor
sumcient, the pipe will drow in oir ond be unoble ro convey the
design flow Similorly, rcoll from Chqpter 4 thot the minimum
submergence heod rcquired for the penstock pipe is os follows:
1
qlrz
h > _i::
' 29
whel:
h, is the submergence heod, ond
V is the velocity in the penstock.
5.43 I'ESIGN OF A FOREBAY
If the length ofthe heodroce conol between the settling bosin
ond the foreboy is long. tlen sediment con enter the conol, such
os when debris folls from uphill ofthe heodroce olignment.
Similorly ifon eorth conol
(or
stone mosonry in mud mortqr)is
constructed between the settling bosin ond the forboy,
sometimes high velocity in the conol, such os during the
monsoon, con couse emsion ond cqrry sediment to the forboy.
In such coses the foreboy should olso be designed to sewe os o
secondqry settling bosin ond the design method used for sizing
o settling bosin should be used. However, o lower sediment
concentrotion (soy C
=
0.5 kg/mr) con be used since only
porticles thot hove escoped the sttliq bosin or those thot hov
been eroded from the heodroce conol oIe exDected in the
foreboy
Ifthe heodroce upstreom ofthe foreboy consists ofHDPE
pipe or ofcement mosonry conol ond the settling bosin is
functioning well, there will not be ony need for secondory
settling. Howeve! os o prcoution, some storoge depth below
the pipe invert should be ollowed for. A depth 0f300 mm or
quol to the pipe diomter, whichever is lorger is rcommended
for this purpose.
5.4.4 FOREBAY SIZE
The minimum size ofthe forcboy should be such thot o person
con get in ond cleon it. The minimum cleor width rquircd for
this is I m. Even ifth sediment lood is not expected in the
foreboy, it moy sometimes reoch this structure such os when
the sttling bosin is filled in quickly during the monsoon or
there is 0 smoll londslide. lfo pe$on con get into the foreboy
ond deon it occosionolly or during the onnuol mointenonce
period,limited sediment occumulotion will not be o problem. A
storoge depth below the invert ofthe penstock should be
providd for this, os con be sen in Figure 5.8.
lfpossible, the foreboy should olso be sized such thot 15
seconds ofthe design flow con be sofely storcd in the tonk
82
obove the minimum pipe submergence level. This is more
imponont ifthe scheme consists ofo hodroce pipe insteqd ofq
conol. There con be smqll tronsient surges in the heodroce pipe
which rsult in uneven flow. The 15 scond storoge copqcity
hlps to bolonce such uneven flows.
0.6 m/s, but o moximum of 1 m/s cou]glgllgl-
It should olso b notd thot the troshrockbors should be
ploced vrticolly since horizontol bqrs ole dimcult t0 deon os
shown in Photogroph 5.11. The spocing between the troshr0ck
bors should be obout ho.lfthe nozde diometr for Pelton
turbines ond holfthe runner width for
crossflow turhine. This
Prevents
the
turbines from being obstructed by debris
ond minimises the chonces ofsurge.
Clqning ofthe troshrock con be
minimised by fixing it such thot it is
submerged during the design flow os in
th cose ofthe Sollri Chiolso mini-hydro
(Photogroph
5.12.). Here the top level of
th troshrock is below the dsign woter
level. Any flooting debris such os leoves
orr woshed by the flow obove the
troshrock ond spilled viq the spillwqy
Although this type ofqrrqngement
focilitotes self-cleoning of the troshrock,
some 0dditionol flow (thon the design
flow) will be constontly required.
Photo 511 Cleoning con be d'fficult wirh
horizontol bors.
FigurP 5 8 ForPboy
5.4.5 TRASHRACK
The troshrock
qt
the foreboy should be plcced
qt
1:3 slope for
both emcient hydroulic performonce ond eose ofcleoning (such
os by roking) os shown irl Frgure 5.8. To minimis heodloss ond
blockoge, the recommended velocity through the troshrock is
I
I
Photo 5.10 A cemenr mosonry chonnel ond foreboy ot the rop ofo step dope (Dhoding)
83
7
5.4.5 SPilIWAY
As discussed eorlier, o spillwoy should
qlso
be incorporoted ot
the foreboy. The spillwoy should be sized such thot it con
releose the entire design flow when required. This is becouse if
the turbine volve is closed during emergencies, the entire design
flow will hove to be spilled from the foreboy until the operotor
reqches the intoke or other control structures uDstreom ofthe
foreboy.
5.4.7 GATE AND VENT
Incorporoting o gote ot the entronce of the penstock will moke
the mqintenqnce work of the turbine eosy. The gote con be
closed, thus emptying the penstock
qnd
work cqn be done in the
turbine. However, o ropid closure of this gote will creote o
negotive pressure (i.e. vocuum) inside the pipe ond could couse
it to collopse. Plocing
qn qir
intake pipe os shown in Figure 5.8
will prevent such o situotion since oir con be drown through
the oir intoke pipe ond into the penstock.
The required size ofthe oir vent is given by:
A 2 -
where:
d
=
internol diometer of oir vent (mm)
Q
=
moximum flow of oir through vent (l/s)
=
moximum flow of woter through turbine
E
=
Young's Modulus for the penstock (N/mm'z,
see Toble 6.2)
D
=
Penstock diometer (mm)
t.n.,iu.
=
effective penstock wqll thickness ot upper
end (mm) (refer to Section 6.6)
F
=
sofety fqctor,5 for buried pipe or 10 for
exposed pipe.
+(#l
Photo 5.12 Submerged troshrock, Sol l eri Chi ol so mi ni -hydro scheme
Consider o 300 mm steel penstock of 3 mm woll thickness
connected to o turbine thot con toke 250 lis. The
penstock is obove ground.
Q
=
250 l/s
E: 2.0 x 105 N/mm'z(from Toble 6.2)
D: 300mm
t =3mm
t.r..tiu.
=
7.27 mm (from Section 6.6)
F
:
10 for obove ground pipe
0r, d
=
80 mm, i.e. the minimum internol diometer of
the oir vent should be 80 mm.
Photo 5.13 0verfl ow wei r for the senl i ng bosi n otJhorkot
84
Th dsign flow ofthe 50 kW Ghqndruk micro hydro scheme is 35l/s but the dry seoson flow is 0nly 201/s. Hence during th
dry seoson the power output wos obout 39 kW untll o pqkrng reservoir wqs bullt in 1994. Such
q
peqking reservoir bcome
necessory becouse ofthe demond for firll power (50 kW) ln the !'rllage during the morlings ond evenings. Thre is nominol
power demond rn the ofternoon ond even less du ng night time.
A suitoble site for the reservoir wos iocoted on the te[oce immedrote]y downstreqm ofthe old foreboy. Photogrophs ofthe
peoking reservoir dudng cnd ofter construction con be seen below.
The wolls ond the floor o[the reservoir were constructed ofstone mosonry in ceme[t mortqr. The reservolr hos been sized such
thot it cqn provide the design flow ol35l/s for ot leost six hours (3 h0urs in the morning ond 3 houn in th evening). The
colcuiotions ore os followsl
Storoge volume required
-
(Dsign flow
-
dry secson flow) x 6 (hr
)
x 60 (min/hr) x 60(s/min)
=
(35 20) x 6 x 60 x 60
-
324,000 litres 0r 324 mr.
Hence o reservoir wrth o minimum storoge copocity ofl24 mr is rquired to b
qble
t0 provide 50 kW for su hours. The octuol
dimensions ol the reservoir ore
qs
follows:
. Length
=
20 m
. Width
=
20 m
. Depth
=
1.2 m
Hence, the st0roge volume is 480 mr, obout 48rl0 lorger thon lhe minimum required voiume. Note thot th old foreboy hos
now bec0me redundont. Also, since the peoking reservorr is downstreom 0fthe old ibreboy, o ferv metres ofheod orc lost.
This is cOmpensoted by slightly increosing the dcsign flow
Any sedrment deposifed in the resrvoir is monu0lly cleoned du ng the onnuol mointnonce period. A flushing focility wos
nol instolled becouse 0fp0tentiol erosion ond londslide problems due to the lqrge volume ofwoter involved.
At preselt the power plont is shut when there is n0 demold for po',ver, then the reservoir is o]lowed t0 fill.
Ph0to 5 i4 Chondruk peohng reseruoir dudng construcrion Pho, 5. 15 Chondr uk ppoh. l g r cser yoi r ol l pr con. r r ucr r on
85
5.5 Construction of woter
retoining structures
Once the size ofthe grovel trop, settling bosin
qnd
foreboy hove
been colculoted, the type
qnd
dimensions of the wolls ond floors
need to be determined. For micro-hydro schemes, stone
mosonry in cement mortqr is generolly the most oppropriote
qnd
economic option. The construction detoils ond procedures
for this type of structure ore os follows:
o The ground should first be excovoted occording to the
bosin shope
qnd
then be well compocted using o
mqnuol rom.
o Since these
qre
woter retoining structures, 1:4 cement
sond mortor should be used for the wolls ond floors
qs
di scussed i n Chopter 4.
r The wolls should be built such thot they ore o minimum
of 300 mm thick ot the top ond increose with depth os
shown in Figure 5.9. Note thot in this figure, the woll
surfoce 0n the woter retoining side is verticql. This
increoses the stobility ofthe structure since for o
cOnstont depth the woter pressure i s Iorger thon the soi l
pressure. Ifthe verticql foce is towords the soil, the
woter volume in the bosin will increose but structurol
stobility will be slightly reduced.
o The internol surfoce (woter retoining surfoce) ofthe
wolls ond the surfqce ofthe floor should be plostered
using 1 :3 cement sond mortor to o thickness of 12 mm.
Thi s si gni fi contl y mi ni mi ses the l i kel i hood of seepcge.
r Finolly, the wqlls ond the floor should be cured os
discussed in Chopter 4.
Another option is to use reinforced concrete for the floor
ond wolls. However this is more expensive ond olso requires
skilled lobour, so is not generolly recommended for micro-hydro
schemes.
5.5 Chechlist for grovel trop, settling
bosin ond foreboy work
r Con the grovel trop, settling bosin ond the foreboy or ot
leost two of these structures be combined together?
o Are these structures locoted such thqt excess woter con
be spilled sofely, without cousing erosion or stobility
problems?
r Is the settling bosin sized such thot the emptying
frequency is once to twice doily during high flows? Also,
does d,uun correspond t0 the heqd ond turbine type?
Refer to Secti on 5.3.3.
o Is secondqry settling required ot the foreboy? Is the
foreboy lorge enough for mqnuol cleoning ond is o
spillwoy incorporoted in this structure? Hos the
submergence heod been checked?
r Once these structures hove been sized, refer to Section
5.5 for the construction detqils.
l soomtn
n.iilf
Stone moson
i n' l : 4 ceni enl
r Dr t or
Compocted eorth
l 2i nm t hi ck ol ost er
l : 3 cement mor f or
fi gure 5.9 Wol l s ond fl oors ofwoter retoi ni ng structures
86
5. Penstocks
6.1 Overview
A penstock is o pipe thot conveys the flow from the foreboy to
the lurbine. The penstock pipe stqrts wherc the ground profile
is steep os shown in Photogrqph 6.1.
Phoro 6l Penstock olignmnr ofthe 36 kWJhorkot micro-hydro scheme,
Mustong, Nepol
The potentiol energy ofthe flow
qt
the foreb0y is
c0nverted into kinetic energy ot the turbine vio th penstock
prpe. Since the flow is conveyed under prcssure it is importont
for the pipe design to be sofe. Coses hove ben reported whele
the penstock pipes hove burst. Since the pensrock is on steep
ground slopes, such pipe burst con instqntoneously couse
londslides ond other stobility problems. Furthermorc, penstock
instollohon is ofren chollenging ond requires sofe ond cqEful
work os shown irl Photogroph 6.2.
Photo6.2 Pnnock o lig nment of the 5r0 kw Borpo} micrD-hydro scheme,
C,orkho, Nepol
The penstock pipe usuolly constitutes o significont
portion ofthe totol micm-hydro construction cost. Therefor it
is worthwhile optimising the design. This irvolves o corfuI
choice of: pipe moteriol, such os mild steel or HDPE; on economi-
col diqmeter such thot the heod loss is within occeptoble limits;
ond woll thickness so rhe pipe is sofe for the design heod ond
ony surge effect thot moy result from sudden blockoge ofthe
flow.
6.2 Selection of the penstock
clignment
6.2-1 SrTE WORK
Selection ofth penstock oliglment ot site should be bosed on
the following criterio:
87
r
Fottbsy fio{.otion
The penstock storts ot the foreboy, for which locotion criterio
ore given in Section 5.1.3. In oddition, the foreboy locotion
should be chosen to optimis the lengths ofhodroce ond
penstock whilst ochieving the required power output from the
schme. Penstock pipe is generolly more xpensive thon
heqdrqce conql, thereforc in most coses th forboy locotion
should be chosen to give the minimum penstock length.
Howver, sometimes o longer penstock moy be economic, to
ovoid the need for the heodroce to crcss 0n unstoble sloD.
Procticol ground slope
An ideol ground slope for the penstock olignment is between l:1
ond 1:2
MH).
The flotter the ground slope the less economic is
the penstock since o longer pipe lngth is rquird for o lowr
heod.
Although o step slope minimises the penstock length, it
will be difficult to.monuolly loy the penstock, construct suppon
pirs ond onchor blocks ifthe slope is greoter thon 1:1. There-
fore, for penstock olignments on slopes steeper thon 1:1, the
Photo 6-3 Excovotion to rEduce the cost of the pnstock ond reduc the need fol
oncho$ (Siklis)
oddd site instollqtion cost moy outweigh the sovings mode on
the pipe costs.
Avoid o penstock pmlil thot storts ot o gentle slope ond
then becomes steepe! becouse ofthe risks ofnegotive surge
prcssures cousing sub-otmospheric pressurc. See Section 6.5.
For micro-hydro schemes with lss thon 20 kW of
instqlled copocity, the ground prof e ofthe pnstock olignment
cqn be meosured using on Abney Level os discussed in Miclo-
hydro Design Monuol (Ref l). For lorger micro-hydro schemes.
the use ofo theodolite ond o pmfessionol surveyor is rcom-
mended. This is becouse ifthe pRfobricotd bnds do not frt ot
site due to survey efiors, odditiono] cost ond time will be
required to omend these, especiolly ifthe sit is locoted for fmm
the roodheod ond the pipes ore flonged. Note thot som slight
odjustment con be mode ifthe pipes ore wlded ot site.
Errors in the design heod colculotion (due to survey
elron)will result in eithr oversizing or undersizing the electro-
mechonicol units, which will olso incrcose the project cost,
either in terms oflost power production or in xtro cost for the
oversized units.
Minimum numfur of Dnds
Bends increose the heodloss ond require odditionol onchor
blocks. Thrforc the selected olignment should be os stroight
qs
possible, both in plon ond elevqtion. Note thot smoll bends
con be ovoided by vorying the support pier heights for the
exposed section ond the trench depth for the buried section.
Spoce for powerhouse
qr"s
The chosen oligrment should be such thot it is possible to
construct o powerhouse ot the end of the penstock. A river
terroce wll obove the flood lvel is ideol for the powerhouse
oreo. A route thot is otherwis suitoble for the penstock
olignmnt but dos not ollow for the construction ofthe
powrhous is inopprcpriote.
Stsbihty
since th penstock olignment is on steep ground slopes ond the
pipe is under pressure, it is importont for the olignment to b
on stobl grcund. Any gmund movement cqn domoge the pip,
support piers 0nd onchor block,
qnd
in cose ofpipe bursts
unstoble slopes will couse further emsion ond londslides. slope
stobility is discussed in detoil in chopter 9.
88
Photo6.4 Penstock instollotionis oftn chollenging ond ftquir$ sole ond
corcful work
Other site qncifrc conditions
Aport from the obove criterio. there moy be other site specilic
conditions thot dictote the pnstock olignment. For xomple, if
the olignment cmsses o locol troil, this section should either be
buried or high enough obove the grcund such thot people ond
cottle cqn wolk undemeoti.
Th
Jhonlce
mini-hydro penstock olignmenr is on
exomple where o site specific condition govemed the penstock
olignment. Thre is cultivotd lond between the intok ond
powerhouse ofthis scheme, so the penstock wos oligned mostly
olong the edge ofthe culrivoted lond. At on section this wos
not possible ond the olignment hod to troverse the cultiv0ted
fields. Since it wos not possibi ro bury the pipes ot this section
{due
to downstrom olignmenr), o few ofthe support piers were
sized to be 2 m high
qs
shown in Phorogroph 6.5. This rcsulted
in
q
cleor spoce ofobout 2.5 m under the penstock, which
ollows formers ond cottle to w0lk undemeqth.
6.2.2 PROFII,J OF THE SELECTED ALTGNMENT
Bosed on the site survey. o plon ond pmfile ofthe penstock
olignment should be plepored ot the design office os follows:
The ground profile should firsr be drown using on
6<-
oppmpriote scole. Some scqle should used for both
horizontol ond verticol lengths so thot the bend ongles
ore true ongles, which minimises the likelihood of
ermrs. Ifthe olignment olso hos horizontol bends, then
o plon view should
qlso
be plpord to show horizontol
bend ongles.
Once the grcund prcfile hos been prepored, the penstock
pipe should b drown on it such thot the number of
bends is kept to o minimum. In gnerol for obove
ground olignment the support pier height should be
minimised unless some ofthem need to be incnqsd to
ovoid smoll 0ngl bends. Similorly. excovotion should
be minimisd for the buried section unless deeper
tftnchs or rquired ot short sctions to ovoid smoll
ongle bends. Optimising the olignment will require
some iterotions. An exomple ofo penstock profile is
shown in Figur 6.1.
For obove ground penstock sections, o minimum ground
cleoronce of300 mm is rcommended ro keep the pipe
dry ond for ease ofmointenonce such os pointing.
For buried penstock sctions, o minimum soil cover of1
m is rcommended os in the cose ofHDPE heodroce pipe,
ond th trcnch detoils should be similqr to those shown
in Figure 4.8 (Chopter
4).
Photo 5.5 ttnrtock olignmenr high obove th ground to 0llow oc(ess for people
ond
(otrle,
Jhonkl?
mini-hydro
89
Trorhrock
nd l rvrl
mo3onr Y l n
l :.1 c.nont mortsr
3OO mi n. r ound cl r or cncr
d
3
mml hl ck mi l d r t ccl pr nr t oct
Ponrhouse
- 2
O 2 4 6 m
Scol c
i oi nl
A nc hor
bl oc k
Fi gun 6.1
' l )rpi col
penstock prohl e
6.3 Pipe m0tefi0ls Peru (see chopter 10, Innovorions) cnd Sri Lqnkq, but hqs
not yet been used in Nepol. Toble 6.1 compores these three pipe
In Nepol the most commonly used penstock pipe moteriols ore moteriols.
mild steel
qnd
HDPE. Rigid or unplosticised PVC (uPVC) is
onother option thot hos been used in other countries such
qs
lioble 6.1 Advontcges ond disqdvontoges of different penstock moteriols
MATERIAL OCCURRENCE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Steel Most common o Verv widelv ovqiloble o Heovy, tronsport cost con be high
o Pipes con be rolled to olmost ony size o Rigid, bends hove to be speciolly fobricoted ot
o Con go up t0 olmost ony thickness workshop
o Eosy to
join
ond con withstond high r Hos corrosion problems
pressure r Cqn be expensive
o Con hove high surge requirement
HDPE Foirly common r Does not corrode o Diflicult to
join (solvent not ovoiloble)
o Light ond hence eosy to tronsport r Avoiloble in discrete diometers, moximum
o Flexible (occommodates smoll bends) diqmeter ovqiloble in Nepol is 315 mm OD.
o Low surge requirement o Must be buried (due to ultro violet (W) ond
thermol degrodotion) ond corefully bockfilled.
Limited pressure rotings ovoiloble in Nepol (up to
10 kg/cm'Zwhich is 100 m heod)
More expensive thon mild steel for lorge diometers
ond high pressures
90
PVC common in
other countries
but not yt used
in Nepol
Does not conode
tight
Eosy to instoll (solution ovoiloble
toj oi n pi pes)
Brittle, con b domoged during tronsportotion
Must be buried (due to W ond thermol
dgr0dotion) ond coEfully bocldilled.
Unsuitoble in flezing conditions
Not ovoilobl in diometers lorger thon 250 mm in
Nepol
Limited prssure rotings ovoilobl in Nepol (up to
10 kg/cm'z
=
100 m heod)
More expensive thon mild stel ot high pressures
The decision os to which pipe moteriol to use for the
penstock con be bosed on Toble 6.1, espciolly in Nepol. When in
doubt, it is recommended thot the designr undenoke prelimi-
nory designs for oll pipe moteriols ovoiloble ond compore the
c0sts.
To minimise costs, for long penstock olignments HDPE
pipes con be used for the upstreom length where the heod is
Ielotively low (see Box 6.1). Stondod couplings orc ovoiloble to
join
HDPE ond mild steel pipes os shown in Photogroph 6.6 0nd
Fi gure 6.2.
Photo 6 6 HDPE-mild neel coupling Note thqt excpt for rhe finol lenqrh. rhe
HPDE pipe isburied,Jhong micro-hydro scheme, Mustong, Nepol
Although steel pipe for micro-hydro in Nepol h0s
normolly been speciolly monuf0ctured locolly, stondord steel
pipes moy be choper in some cqses. Detoils ofsuch pipes ole
given in Appendix B.
6.4 Pipe diometer
Orce the penstock olignment ond pipe moteriol hove ben
decided on, the design involves choosing the diometer ond pipe
thiclaress. Selecting on opprcpriote pipe diometer is discussed
in this section ond the woll thickness is discussed in Section 6.6.
Note thot with o few exceptions th sizing ofthe
pnstock diometer is similor to thqt ofo heodroce pipe dis.
cussed in Chopter 4. For simpliciry the entip penstock diom-
eter selection Drocess is included in this section.
Choos o pipe size such thot th veiocity,
V
is between
2.5 mF ond 3.5 m/s. In genr01, o vlocity lower thon
2.5 m/s results in on uneconomicolly l0rg diometer
Similorly, ifthe velocity exceeds 3.5 m/s, the heodloss
con be excessive ond hence uneconomic0l in the long
run due to loss in powr output. Furthermore, higher
velocities in the pnstock will rcsult in high surge
pressure os will be discussed loter.
Note thot compored to the heodroce pipe, higher
velocities con be ollowed in the penstock pipe since it
conveys sediment fite woter
For steel penstocks, it moy be economicol to
choose the diometer so thot ther is no wostoge fiom
stondord size steel shets. For HDPE or PVC. ovoiloble
sizes must be selected. Pipes ole normolly specilled by
outside diomete! so 2 times woll thickness must b
subtroctd to obtoin the intemol diqmeter Stondod
pipe sizs orc given in Apperdix B.
Colculote the
qctuol
velocity:
Figure 6 2 Typicol HPDE-mild steel pipe coupljng
4i
t, _ --::-
' -
nd,
9l
I
r t 2
where:
V is velocity in m/s.
Q
is design flow in mr/s.
d is the pipe internol diqmeter in m.
Colculqte the heodloss in the pipe length bosed on the
inlet, woll friction, bends, volves ond exit losses os
follows:
Totol heod loss
=
wqll loss * turbulence losses
Wqll losses ore colculoted
qs
follows:
First determine the roughness volue,'k'in mm from
Toble 4.3 (Chopter 4).
Then use the Moody Chort in Figure 4.10 (Chopter 4) to
find the corresponding friction foctor ffor the selected
pipe moteriol, diometer ond the design flow.
The woll loss con now be cqlculoted from either ofthe
foilowing equotions:
LV2
h = f
-
^r
"wol l l oss
d X 29
"'
.
f Lx Q'
n =
"wol l l oss
l }ds
furbulence losses ore colculoted os follows:
1 " -
turD loss
t K +K. +K +K. )
.
entronce ueno conlrocuon votve,
where loss coefficients, K, ore os shown in Toble 4.4.
4. In generol ensure thot the totql heod loss for the design
flow is between 50lo ond 100/o of the gross heod, i.e.95o/o
to 90olo penstock efliciency.
5. Ifthe heod loss is higher thon 10%o ofthe gross heod,
repeot colculotions with lorger diometer. Similorly, if
the heod loss is less thon 50lo the pipe diometer moy be
uneconomic, therefore repeot colculotions using smoller
diometers.
Note thot in exceptionol coses o less efficient penstock
moy be more economic, such
qs
when the power demond is
limited, the penstock pipe is long
qnd
there is
qbundont
flow in
the river even during the low flow seoson. In such coses, o
higher flow con be
qllowed
in o smoller diometer pipe ollowing
o higher heod loss, which is compensoted by the flow. Hence
sovings con be mode in the cost ofpipes os discussed in Box 6.1.
However, this opprooch should be
justified by o detoiled
economic onolysis.
29
The 80 kW Bhujung micro-hydro scheme (Bhujung, Lcmjung, Nepol) designed by BPC Hydroconsult for Annopurno Conservo-
tion Areo Project (ACAP) is currently under construction. The design dischorge ofthe scheme is 150 l/s, the totol penstock
length is 860 m and the gross heod is 104 m. Since it is o long penstock, HPDE pipes ore used for the initiol length ond mild
steel pipe for the downstreom end os follows:
PENSTOCKTYPE IIIICT{NESS
lmmf
3
315 mm diometer. Closs III HDPE 16.1
300 mm diometer, mild steel 3
300 mm diometer, mild steel 4
Totql heodloss
% heodloss
Note thot the totol head loss is obout 120lo: though more thon 10%0, in this cose o higher heodloss wos found to be economic.
This is becouse the estimoted power demond for the villoge is 80 kW ond the source river (Midim Kholo) of the scheme hos
significontly higher flows, even during the low flow seoson (minimum flow of 0.5 m3/s in April) thon the required design
dischorge.
92
If the penstock pipe diometer wos sized for less than 10% heodloss (i.e. by increosing the diometers cnd decreasing the design
dischorge such thot power output
=
80 kW), the pipe cost including loying ond tronsportotion would hqve increosed by 15%.
Similorly if mild steel wos used for the entire olignment (for heodloss
=
72o/o), the pipe cost would hove increosed by about
30026. Note thot settling bosin ond hesdroce costs need to be included in the optimisotion.
6.5 Surge colculotion
5.5.1GENERAL
The thickness of the penstock pipe is determined by the gross
ond surge heods of the scheme. It is therefore importont to hove
some understqnding ofthe c0ncept ofsurge before colculoting
the pipe woll thickness.
A sudden blockoge ofwqter or ropid chcnge in velocity in
the penstock (or ony pipe thot hos pressure flow) results in very
high instontoneous pressure. This high pressure is known os
'surge'
pressure or often referred to os "woterhommer".
Surge
pressure trovels
qs
positive ond negotive woves thrOughout the
length ofthe penstock pipe.
Wqter hommer occurs os the surge wove trqvels lrom the
source 0r the origin ofthe disturbonce, olong the pipeline until
it strikes some boundory condition (such os
q
volve 0r other
obstruction) ond is then reflected or refrqcted. Ifthe pipe is
strong enough to withstond the initiol surge effect, the pressure
will ultimotely dissipcte through lriction losses in the woter
ond pipe woll os well os through the foreboy. The speed of the
surge wcve (wove velocity) is dependent on such foctors os the
bulk modulus of wqter, flexibility of the pipe ond the rotio of
pi pe di ometer to wol l thi ckness.
ln hydropower schemes, positive surge chorocteristics
ore different for different types ofturbines. Surge heod colculo-
tions for the two most common turbines used in micro-hydro
schemes
qre
discussed here. Note thqt these colculotions ore
bqsed on the initiol (i.e. undompened) positive surge heod.
In proctice there will be some domping of the surge
pressure os the wove trovels olong the pipe, ond whilst the
pressure fluctuotion is uniform in the lower portion it dimin-
ishes groduolly t0 zero ot the foreboy, os shown in Figure 6.3.
However, the pipe is normolly designed for stqtic heod plus
constont positive surge over the full penstock length.
Note thot the negotive surge con produce dongerous
negotive (sub-otmospheric) pressure in o penstock if the profile
is cs in Figure 6.3. Once the negotive pressure reoches 10 metres
the wqter column seporotes, ond subsequent rejoining will
couse high positive surge pressure sufficient to burst the
penstock. Sub-atmospheric pressures less thon 10 metres cqn
cquse inword collopse of the pipe wqll, so should olso be
ovoided. Ifthere is ony possibility ofnegotive pressure the pipe
wqll thickness must be checked for buckling (see Section 6.6.2).
To ovoid negotive pressure, move the foreboy to Point A
in Figure 6.3. Alternotively toke meqsures to reduce the surge
pressure.
"Bursting disc" technology could provide o reliqble meons
ofsofely releosing excess heqd in cose ofsurge pressure without
increosing the pipe thickness (which is the convention). This is
discussed in Chopter 10.
Fi gur 6.3 Surge pressures
6.5.2 PELTON TUNBINE
For o Pelton turbine use the followino method to colculqte the
surge heod:
1. First colculote the pressure wcve velocity
'o'using
the
equotion below.
1M0
m/s
f{el
wnere:
E is Young's modulus in N/mm'z. The volue of Young's
modulus for mild steel. PVC ond HDPE con be seen in
Toble 6.2.
d is the pipe diometer (mm)
t is the nominql wqll thickness (mm), Dot t.n.,iu.
t
L
93
2. Then colculote the surge heod (h,,*"), using the following
equotl on:
where:
n is the totol no. of nozzles in the turbine(s).
Note thot in o Peiton turbine it is highly unlikely for
more thon one nozzle to be blocked instontoneously.
Therefore, the surge heqd is divided by the number of
nozzles (n). For exomple if o penstock empties into two
Peiton turbines with two nozzles on eqch turbine.
n=4
The velocity in the penstock (V) is:
. ,
4Q
v
- -
no'
3. Now colculqte the totol heqd:
h
: h
+h
lotol grc1s surge
4. As o precoution, cqlculote the criticol time, T., lrom the
fol l owi ng equoti on:
T.
=
(21)/o
where:
T, is the criticol time in seconds,
L is the length of penstock in m,
'q'is
the wove velocitv colculqted eorlier.
lf the turbine volve closure time, T, is less thon T,, then
the surge pressure wove is significontly high. Similorly, the
longer T is compored to T , the lower the surge effect.
Note thot this colculotion is bqsed on the ossumption
thot the penstock diometer, moteriol ond wqll thickness ore
uniform. If ony of these porometers vory, then seporote
colculotions should be done for eoch section.
Also note thot when the T
=
T,, the peok surge pressure
is felt by the vqlve ot the end ofthe penstock. lfo pressure
gouge is not instolled upstreom ofthe volve, o volve closure
time of ot leost twice the criticol time (i.e., T > 2T") is recom-
mended.
The design engineer shouid inform the turbine monufoc-
turer of the closure time (T) so thot if possible the monufocturer
con choose the threod size ond shoft diqmeter such thot it will
be dillicult to close the vqlve in less thqn twice the colculoted
closure time. The operotor ot the powerhouse should be mcde
owore of this closure time ond the consequences of ropid volve
closure.
If the gross heod of the scheme is morc thon 50 m, it is
recommended thot o pressure gouge be ploced just
upstreom of
the volve. Compored to the cost of the turbine ond the
penstock, the cost ofsuch o device is low (obout US$50 in Nepol)
ond is worth the investment. When the operotor closes or
opens the vqlve, his speed should be such thot there is no
observqble chonge in the pressure gouge reoding.
6.5.3 CROSSFLOW TURBINE
In o crossflow turbine, instontoneous blockoge ofwoter is not
possible since there is n0 obstruction ot the end of the monifold
(i.e. crossflow turbine hos o rectongulqr bore opening insteod of
o nozzle). Therefore, surge pressure con develop only ifthe
runner vqlve is closed ropidly.
For o crossflow turbine use the followinq method to
colculqte the surge heod:
1. Cqlculote the prcssure wove velocity
'c'
(using the sqme
equotion os for Pelton turbine).
2. Now colculote the criticol time
l,
similor to the Pelton
turbine cose:
r.
:
(zr)/o
3. Choose o closure time, T (in seconds)
,
such thqt: T > 2T
"
Similor t0 the Pelton turbine cose, the design engineer
should inform the turbine monufocturer of the closure
time (T) ond the operotor ot the powerhouse should be
mode owqre of this closure time.
4. Now cclculote the porometer
'K'
using the following
equotion:
K:
I
Colculote surge heod by substituting the volue of'K' in
the equotion below:
h' u* '
=
[ ; '
If
'K'is
less thon 0.01 (i.e. closure time (T)is long
enough), then the following simplified equotion con olso
be used:
hru*,
:
hnr*{ K
Note thot ifthe vqlve is closed instontoneously, the entire
length ofthe penstock will experience o peck pressure os
o v l
surge
g n
*i*r-l'
v.l
follows:
h,u,r.
:
ov/g (i.e., some os in the cose 0f Pelton turbine
with one nozzle).
However, in proctice it wiil take 0t ieost five to ten
seconds for the operotor t0 close the volve, therefore in o
crossflow turbine instontoneous surge pressure is not o
problem.
If the gross heod of the scheme is more thon 50 m,
q
pressure gouge should be ploced upstreqm 0fthe volve to
control its closing/opening speed, os in the cqse ofo Pelton
turbine.
6.5.4
QUICK
METHOD FOR SMALL SCHEMES
WITH CROSSFI.OW TURBINES
For smoil micro-hydro schemes using crossflow turbines (such
os milling schemes) where the power output is less thon 20 kW
ond the gross heod is less thon 20 m, this quick method moy be
used.
Add20o/o to the gross heod to
qllow
for surge heod, i.e.
h,u",
:
1.2 x hq,.,. This results in o more conseryotive volue for
the surge heod but its contribution t0 the increqse in the
thickness would be insignificont since the h0.,, is iow.
6.6 Pipe wall thickness
6.6.1 POSITTVE INTERNAL PRESSURE
Once the surge heod hqs been determined, the nominql woll
thickness (t) con be colculoted os follows:
1. If the pipe is mild steel, it is subject to corrosion ond
welding or rolling defects. Its effective thickness (t.o..,,u,)
will therefore be less thon the nominol thickness.
Therefore, for mild steel, ossume
q
nominql thickness (t)
ond to colculot t.,T,,,,u, use the following guidelines:
o) Divide the nominql woll thickness by 1.1 to ollow
for weldina defects.
Divide the nominol woll thickness by 1.2 to ollow
for rolling inoccurocy ofthe flot sheets.
Since mild steel pipe is s_ubject to qoryo1ion,
for 10 yeqlr ofplont life: subtrocl 1 mm onq:_
for 20 yeors of plont life: subtroct 2 mm
The recommended uenstock desion life is 10 veors for
-lehemes
up t0 20 kl^L+s yeors fo!$b9!Sgsa&9l9.IyLsld20-
yeors for schemes of 50-100 tE.f!g!e_!S!-nes-mql.be odiusted
-
olglsygqgryfglonolys is.
For exomple the effective thickness of o 3 mm thick mild
steel pipe designed for o 10 yeors life is:
3
t _
=- - _1 : 1. 27mm
euecl r ve
1- 1 x 1. 2
From this exomple it is cleor thot if o mild steel pipe used,
the nominol woll thickness (t) should be
qt
leqst 3 mm.
Note thot this does not opply for HDPE pipes: their
effective thickness is the nominol woll thickness of the pipe. A
low temperoture c0rrection foctor moy opply to PVC pipes, refer
t0 the pipe monufqcturer: if the temperqtures ore sub-zero,
t"n".,iu" froy b os low os 0.5t. Aport from protection from ultro-
violet degrodotion, this is onother reoson t0 bury PVC pipes ot
high oltitude.
2. Now colculote the sofery foctor (SF) from the following
e0uoti0n:
200x t x S
5 f =
h,u,o, X d
where:
t,r.,,,u" is the effective thickness ond d is the internol
diqmeter of the pipe. Note thot some units (m or mm) should be
used for both t.n"oiu. ond d since they concel out in the obove
equotion.
S is the ultimote tensile strength of the pipe moteriol in
N/mm2. Volues of S ond other useful porometers ore shown in
Toble 6.2.
h,o,o, is the totql heod on the penstock os follows:
h, ot o, : hg. r r +hr u* .
3. For mild steel or PVC pipes:
IfSF < 3.5, reject this penstock option ond repeot
colculotion for thicker wolled option. However, SF > 2.5
con be occepted for steel pipes ifthe surge heod has been
colculoted occurotely ond sll of the following conditions
qre
met:
o) There ore experienced stoffot site who hove
instqlled penstock pipes of similor pressures ond
moteriols.
b) Slow closing volves
qre
incorporoted ot the
powerhouse
qnd
the design is such thot o sudden
stoppoge ofthe entire flow is not possible.
Domoge & sofety risks ore minimol. For exomple
even if the pipe bursts, it will not couse londslides
or other instobility problems in the short run.
Coreful pressure testing to totol heod hos been
performed before commissioning.
b)
c,
d)
I
,lr-
95
for fl rJt t DtDes:
HOlf pipes ore
qvqiloble
in discrete thicknesses bqsed on
the pressure rotings (kg/cm'z) 0r stotic heods. The designer
should set SF > 1.5 ond cqlculote t.r.,,u" (tot thot t
:
t.r.,,iu" f0f
HDPE). Then from the monufocturer's cotologue the
qctuol
thickness should be chosen such thot it is equol to or lorger
thon the colculoted t.'.,,u,. Thc Sofety Foctor should then be
checked using the octuql thickness. For HDPE pipes, it is
recommended thot the Sofety Foctor olways be ot leost equal
t o 1. 5.
6.6.2 NEGAIIVE INTERNAL PRESSURE
Check the pipe woll thickness for buckling ifthe negotive surge
con produce negotive internol pressure in the pipe. N0te thot
the negotive pressure must not exceed 10 metres heqd, see
Section 6.5.1. The shope ofthe negotive surge pressure profile
Toble 6.2 Physiccl chqrocteristics of common mqteriols
connot be occurotely determined: ossume it is horizontol in the
lower half of the penstock, ond diminishes groduolly in the
upper holfto zero
qt
the foreboy, see Figure 6.3.
In order to provide on odequote foctor ofsofety ogqinst
buckiing, the minimum pipe woll thickness is given by:
/
pDt ol l
t ^ >dl ' ^ l
err((ve
-
\ze I
where:
t"n.tiu. is the effective pipe woll thickness, mm
d is the pipe internol diqmeter, mm
F is foctor of sofety ogoinst buckling (2 for buried penstock ond
4 for exposed penstock)
P is the negotive pressure, N/mm'z(10 m heod = 0.1 N/mm'z)
E is Young's modulus for the pipe mqteriol, N/mm' (from Toble
o. zl .
MATERIAL YOUNG'S
MODULUS
lEf
Nfmmz
COEFFICIENT OF UNEAR
EXPANSION
lctlfC
ULTIMATE TENSII^E
STRENGTH (S)Nfmm'z
UNIT WEIGHT
lylkNlm'
Steel (ungroded)
Steel to 15226175
or IS 2062/84
PVC
HDPE
2.0 x 10s
2.0 x 10s
2750
1000
12. 5 x 10
{
12. 5 x 10- 6
{ 20- 60) x 10*
(140
-
240) x 10
{
320
410
35- 55
20
-35
77
77
14
9.3
lfthe steel quality is uncertain it rs besr b ask for samples and have them independently tested at laboratories. Properties of PVC and HDPE vary
considerably: they should be confirmed from manufoctures' catalogues or by laboratory tests.
The requined doto for the design ofthe Golkot penstock ore os follows:
.
Q
=
421 l/s (colculoted in Exomple 4.2)
t hnror,
=
22m
r two verticol bends, n
:
200 & 420, both mitred.
r Penstock moteriol: uncooted mild steel, 35 m long ond flonge connected.
r turbine type: crossflow
Refer to Drowing 42010413A01in Appendix C for the ground profile ond bend ongles.
Pipe dicmeter cqlculation
Set V: 3. 5m/ s
Colculote the internol pipe diometer:
96
d= -
VnV { [ x 3. 5
Calculote woll loss:
From Table 4.3 choose k
=
0.06 mm for uncooted mild steel.
k 0.06
d
=
391
=0.00015
1. 2Q 1. 2x0. 421
_:
_
= t - . 2,
d 0.391
f
=
0.013 (Moody
Chort, Chopter 4)
LVz 35 x 3.52
h = t _
= O O l ? -'wolr
ross
dxag 0.391 x 29
h*o,,
tor,
=
0'73 m
Inlet loss:
K,n,*n..
=
0.5 for this case (Toble 4.4)
- V, 0.5 x 3.52
h,nl n
l orr
=
K.n,.n..X
-;-
=
L-
=
0.31 m
zg zg
Note thot Exit loss
=
0 since the flow at the end ofthe penstock is converted into mechonicol power by rototing the turbine
runner.
For mitred bends. from Toble 4.4
0
=
220,
\.no
=
0.11
0
=420, \ . no=0. 21
Bend l osses
=
(0.11 + 0.21) *
T' -
=
0.20 m
zg
Totol heod loss
=
0.73 m + 0.31 m * 0.20 m
=
1.24 m
1.24
% heod loss
=
;;-
x 100 %= 5.60/o < l0% OK.
Although the colculoted pipe diometer wos 391 mm internol, Drowing 4}olo4l3cozin Appendix C shows the outside pipe
diometer to be 388 mm, i.e. internol diometer 388
-
2 x 3
=
382 mm. This wos chosen to correspond to o 1200 mm stondod
plote size (1200/n =
382). In proctice, however, the monufocturer proposed 400 mm internol diometer pipes for the some
cost, becouse this corresponded to the plote size thot he hod.
Pipe woll thickness cslculqtions
Colculote the pressure wove velocity
'o'
1440
E
:
2.0 x 105 N/mm'zfor mild steel (Toble 6.2)
97
v
d: 400mm
t
=
3mm
1440
0r o:
-*(-rttno-,-ro_r,J
6- \ 2
oro
=
923 m/s
3
Now colculote the criticol time:
2L 2 x35
T.
:; =
Sr3
:
0.08 s. Note thot it would be
impossible to dose the volve in the powerhous in 0.08 secondsl
Choose closu time T
=
10s > 2T.
=
0.16s
-:[-'*-l
t.**-l
orK
=
0.003. Since K is less thon0.01
h*r.
:
hn^,, x 6K
=
22 no.oo3
orh
=
1.20 m
h . =h +h
=
23. 2m
q6 snr!.
The pipes were monufoctured by welding (1 .1) rolled llat stel
plotes (1.2). 1.5 mm hos been subtrocted to ollow for ot leost 15
yeqrs of lif.
t.-".
=
3/(1.1 x 1.2)
-
1.5
-
0.Z/ mm
Now check the sofety foctor:
2f f i x1. xs
h . x d
S
:
320 N/nunz for ungroded mild steel (Toble 6.2)
2@x0- nx32O
SF=
23.2x 400
or SF
:
5.3 > 3.5 OK.
Not thot the softy foctor is higher thqn required but the
minimum recommnded thicleess for flot rolled mild steel pipe is
3 mm.
The Golkot pnstock olignment before ond ofter pipe instollotion
con be sen in Photogrophs 6.7 ond 6.8 rspectively.
Photo 6.E Penstock olignment, colkor
Photo 6.7 Excovotion for penstock olignment, Colkot
98
The required dota for the design of the
thonlcre
penstock are os follows;
r
Q=450Us
t hn*r,
=
180 m
. ten verticol bends, 0
=
690 , 230, 260,310,400, 20, 30, 120,
g0
& 30, all mitred.
r Penstock moteriol: mild steel, flot rolled ond site welded, 550 m long. High quolity steel plotes were bought ond tested for
tensile strength ot the loborotory. Minimum tensile strength, S
=
400 N/mm':wos ensurcd through the tests.
r furbi netype3Pel tonturbi neswi thZnozzl esi neochturbi ne,thereforen =
3x2
=
6.
Colculqte the required pipe dicmeter
qnd
woll thickness. Note thot since the penstock is long, it will be economic to decreose
the thickness ot lower heqds.
Pipe dicmeter cqlculation
Since the pipe is long set V
=
2.5 m/s to minimise heodloss.
Colculote the internol pipe diometer:
. fT tux0-150-
d: \ ' /
ni
=
J I I - 25
=o' 479m
Colculote woll loss:
From Toble 4.3 choose k
=
0.06 mm for uncooted mild steel.
k 0.06
d 479
1.2Q 0.450
o 0.479
f
=
0.0014 (Moody Chort, Figure 4.7)
LV2 550 x 2.52
h
: f -
=0014
"worr
ross
d x 29 0.479 x2g
h .
: 5. 13m
won loss
Inlet loss:
Kun,,on.,
:
0.2 for this cose (similor to fourth entronce profile in Toble 4.4)
vz
0.2x2.5' z
h. .
=(
x
- - - : -
rnre( ross enrron(e
zo
29
h. .
=0. 06m
lnlel loss
Exit loss
:
0.
For mitred bends, interpolote from Toble 4.4:
for0
=
Of
,q"o
=
O.:e
f or 0=230, \ . no=0. 11
f or 0: 2c , Ko. no: 0. 13
for 0
=
37r,
eno:
0.18
f or 0
=
4or , \ *no
=
o. 2o
99
for0
=
20,\.*= 0.02
f or O
=30, l f und=0. 02
f or 0
=120,
l t nd=0. 06
f or O
=80, l q. nd=0. 04
f or 0
=30, Q" o=0. 02
Bendlosses
= (0.34 + 0.11 + 0.13 + 0.18 + 0.20 + 0.02 + 0.02
?-52
+0. 06 +0. 04 +0. 02)*
U
=0. 36m
Total heqd loss
=
5.13 m + 0.06 m * 0.36 m
- \ A m
5.6
% heod loss
=
-:--
x 10070
=
3.7oh <5c/0,
180
Therefore, the diometer can be mode smoller. The odopted diometer of theJhonlce penstock is 450 mm, which gives 4.10lo
heodloss, thmugh o repeot ofthe obove colculotions.
Pipe woll thickness cclculotions
First colculote the thickness required 0t the downstreom end of the penstock (i.e. h,,0,..
=
\*,
=
180 m) using d
=
450 mm.
Tr yt
=
6mm
0r o
=
or o=1071 m/ s
40 4 x 0.450
V
= -i: --:-------
=
2.83 mls .
ndz zx(0.450)' ?
ov 1
h
- _
x _
surge
g n
1071 x 2.83 1
i . - - - - =52m
"r ur g. -
9, 8
^
6
h . =h +h
: 180* 52=232m
rdot qrcss surle
6
t _
=_ _1. 0=3. 55mm
ei l ectrve
1.1 x 1.2
(1.1 for welding, 1.2 for flot rolled,
qnd
1 mm for corrosion sllowonce: the corrosion allowance is less than previously recom-
mended for lorger schenres becouse
Jhonkre
wcs designed to provide construction power to o lorger project).
Colculqte the sofety foctor:
200x t - x S
eilcdtve
SF:
-_-----.-
n . x 0
rotol
200 x 3.55x 400
232x450
.(-**u1
100
SF
=
2.72 > 2,5, olthough SF is less thon 3.5, it is occeptoble in this case since:
1. There were experienced stoff at site. The site staff hod instolled penstock pipes in vorious other micro-hydro projeas.
2. The volves ot the powerhouse ore of slow closing type.
3. The pipes were pressure tested os follows:
Tensile test of steel plotes wos performed ot o loborotory ond on ultimote tensile strcngth of 400 N/mm'z wos ensured os
mentioned eqrlier.
Rolled pipes were pressure tested ot the workshop ot h,o,or using o hydroulic pump'
Finolly, the pipes were olso pressure tested on site sfter installotion by simuloting h,u*. ot the entronce (foreboy) using o
hydroulic pump.
4. The olignment wos ossessed to be foirly stoble. In cose of pipe burst it wos not expected to instontoneously cause
Since the
Jhonkre
penstock is long, to optimise the design, it wos decided to decrcose the pipe thickness ot lower heods
{i.e.,
upstreom) using the some sofety foctor (SF).
Colculotions of the stqtic heod ot which the penstock thickness con be decreased by t mm (i.e. thickness
=
5 rnm) using the
some sofety foctor (SF =
2.721ore os follows:
t440
n=:
=i 027mr S
-
l ,-l
z-Eqrqg_\
Jt ' t -ZTxl T' xT/
Note thot t
=
5 mm in this case
V
=
2.83 m/s, (some
Q
& d)
ov l 1027 x2.83 i
h
- -
x-
=- - : =-
X - -
=49m
- - 5 u r s e o n 9 . 8 6
)
t -
= - 1. 0=2. 79mm
l r ecr ve
1. 1 x 1. 2
200x t - x s
IecItve
\ t s = - -
h . x d
I 0t 0l
or rewriting this equotion in terms 0f h,o,ori
2@ X t"o..,,""X S
L _ -
r r l ot ol
-
SFxd
200x2.79 x400
^ - k =
182m
vr ' froror
-
2.72x 450
h
=h - h =182- 49: 133m
qroJs to(01 surg
Therefore the pipe thickness wos reduced to 5 mm ot o stotic heod of 133 m inJhonlcre, keeping the some foctor of sofety (i.e.
2.72\ osshown in Figure 6.4. The
Jhonkre
penstock olignment for the lost section con olso be seen in Photogroph 6'7. These
calculotions were repeoted for lower stotic heads ond o wall thickness down to 3 mm hos been used to reduce the cost.
101
Photo5.9
JhqnlsE
mini.hydro pensl ock olgnment
q
Pe,
t
t ur bi nc
p6ntl ock
Figurp 6.4
JhoDkp
mini-hydm penstock olig nment ot downstreom end
between the flonges for tightness ond to prevent leokoge. Th
colkot penstock (Photogroph 6.8) is offlonge connected type.
A comporison ofthese two methods oJong with generol
rccommendotions ore Drsnted in Toble 5.3.
5.7 Pipe
jointing
6.7.1 GENEMI.
Individuol mild steel penstock pipes con bejoined ot site by two
conventionol methods, nomely site wlding ond vio flonges.
Eoch ofthese methods hqs its own odvontoces ond disodvon-
toges os discussed in Toble 6.3.
6.?.2 Sm WEU)ING
This involves tronsporting
q
welding mochine ond diesel or
petml to site, then
joining
the pipes by welding together the
ends os shown in Photogroph 6.10.
6.73 FI.ANGE CONNECIION
This involves welding flonges (thot hov bolt holes) ot both ends
ofthe pipes in the workshop, thenjoining them 0t site by
bolting thm together A rubbr gosket should be ploced
Photo 6.10 site welding ofpenstock pipes,
Jhonla
minihydro
102
Toble 63 Comporison between site welding ond flonge connection
PIPEJOINING
METHOD
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
GENEMI. RECOMMENDAIIONS
AND COMMENTS
Site welding Eosy to fobricote ot
workshop since flonges
do not hqve to be welded
ot pi pe ends.
A properly welded pipe
will not leqk ond requires
less mointenonce.
Higher degree ofprecision work required
qt
site to weld the pipe ends. Improper
welds con couse leoks cnd pipe burst ot
hi gh heods.
Need to trqnsport o welding mqchine
ond 0 generot0r ot si te. Al so requi res
suppl y ofpetrol /di esel to si te.
Diflicult logistics if the site is more
thon o doy's wolk from the rood heod.
Generolly not economic for smoll
schemes ond/or short penstock lengths.
Select this option only ifthe site stoff
ore experienced, site is less thon o doy's
wolk from the roodheod ond
penstock
length is more thon 50 m.
Flonge
connection
Eosy to instqll
qt
site.
Site instollqtion work
involves plocing o gosket
between the flonges ond
hnl t i nn t hpm
Fqbricqtion cost is high since flonges
need to be welded ot ends. Also there is
some wostoge since the flonge is
prepored by removing the centrol disc of
o diometer equol to the externol pipe
dicmeter.
The pipe o\ignment ond the bends con
not be odjusted
qt
site.
Con leok if the bolts
qre
not well
tightened or if gaskets ore of poor quolify.
Higher risk ofvondolism since the bolts
con be removed.
Flonge connection is oppropriqte for
schemes thqt ore locoted more thqn o
doy's wolk from the roodheod ond/or
hove
q
relotively short penstock length.
Minimum flonge thickness should be
ot leost twice the penstock wo.ll
thickness or 8 mm whichever is lorger.
A minimum bolt diometer of t2 mm is
recommended.
A minimum gosket thickness of 5 mm
is recommended.
Should be obove ground.
6.7.4 HDPE AND PVC PIPES
For HDPE pipes the best method of joining
them is by heot
welding os described in Chopter 4 (Box 4.7). Aithough speciol
flonges ore ovoiloble to connect HDPE pipes, they ore gener-
olly more expensive thon the cost incurred in heot welding
them. HPDE pipes ore ovoiloble in rolls for smoll diometer (up
to 50 mm) ond for lorger diometer they ore ovoilqble in
discrete lengths (3 m t0 6 m in Nepol)
PVC pipes with smoll diometer (up t0 200 mm) hove
socket ot one end such thot onother pipe con be inserted
inside ofter opplying the solution ot the ends. Lorger
diqmeter PVC pipes ore joined with o couplet which is o short
pipe section with inside diqmeter equol to the outside
diometer of the pipes to be joined. The solution is opplied on
the connecting surfoces ofboth the coupler ond the pipes ond
thenj oi ned together.
6.8 Pipe lengths
Mild steel pipes con be mqnufoctured ot the workshop in
qlmost
onylength required. PVC ond HDPE pipes ore ovoiloble in fixed
lengths (3 m t0 6 m in Nepal). Although, shorter pipes cre eosy
t0 tronsport, odditionol costs will hove to be incurred in joining
them ot site (more flanges or welding work). it should be noted
thot, unlike cement bogs, onimols (mules ond yoks) do not
usuolly corry penstock pipes becouse of the shopes ond lengths
involved.
Sometimes, due to the weight involved the only option
for trcnsporting the generotor
qnd
turbine to remote site is by o
helicopter. In such cqses, it moy be possible t0 tronsport the
penstock pipes in the some trip becouse the current tronsport
helicopter ovoiloble in Nepol con corry up t0 three tons
(depending on oltitude). The combined weight of the generotor
snd turbine hordly ever exceeds one ton ond the helicopter
103
chorge is dependent on the flying hours ond not on loods.
When this is the cose longer pipes
{up
to 6 m lngths) con be
tronsportd to site
qnd
hencejoints con be minimisd.
Recommendotions for pipe lengths undr vorious
conditions oIe discussed below:
MiId steel pipe
The following foctors should b considerd while sizing mild
steel pipes.
1. In generol pipes longr thon 6 m should not be morlufqc-
tured since they wjll b difficult to tronsport 0n trucks.
2. lfth pipes ned to be corried by porters from the
roodhe0d, the weight should be such thot on individuol
length con be c0rried by 1-2 porters. For exomple, ifthe
pipe weight is obout 50 kg, usuolly one portr con co y
it. Similorly two poners moy b oble c0rry up to 90 kg.
Therefore, ir is optimum t0 size pips occordilgly,
espciolly ifthe penstock length is long ond the site is
locoted more thon o doy's wolk from the ro0dheod.
3. For flot rolled pipes the monufocturing costs will be less
i fthe pi pe l ength rs o mul ti pl e ofth 0voi l obl e steel pl ote
width. For exomple if pipes ore rolled from 1.2 m wide
pl otes,l engths 0f1.2 m,2.4 m 0r3.6 m etc. wi l l l ower
monufocturing costs.
HDPE an.l PvC pipes
As mentioned eqrlier, these pipes ore monufoctured in the
l octory
qt
fi xed l engths. but they con be cut i n hol for one thi rd
ofthe l ength for eose oftronsportqti on. However, o PVC p' pe
wi th 0 socket ot one nd shoul d not b cut si nce Iej Oi ni ng wi l l
not be possible without o specicl co)lor The following foctors
shoul d be consi dered whi l e determi ni ng the l ength ofHDPE 0nd
PVC pi pes.
L i n Nepol the moxi mum ovci l cbl e l ength of these pi pes i s
6 m Even i fl onger pi pes become ovoi l obl e, such l engths
should nor be used for micro-hydro schmes. Genrolly
i t i s eosi er to corry two 3 m pi pes rother thon one 6 m
pi pe ofthe sonre type.
2. l fthe prpes need to be c0rri ed by porters from the
roodheod, then the cri tri o outl i ned i n No 2 for mi l d
steel ol so oppl y.
6.9 Exposed versus buried penstocl(
HDPE
qnd
PVC prpes shoul d al woys be buri ed. Thi s mi ni mi ses
l her m0l movemenr or r d pr ot ect s t he pi pe oqoi nst l mpoct ,
vondol i sm ond ul tro-vi ol et dgr0doti on
Flonged steel pip should be obove ground. This is
bcous the goskets moy need to be repiocd durrng the life of
the scheme.
Mild sreel penstock with welded
joints
con be either
buried or obove ground. However, mointenonce ofburied pipe
is difncult. therefore the originol pointing ond bocktrlling must
be c0refully supervised to ensure thot corrosion does not reduce
the l i fe ofth penstock.
Sometimes port ofth penstock olignment moy be obove
ground ond pon buried. In such coses. it is best to moke the
tronsition ot on onchor block, otherwise coreful detoiling is
required. An exomple ofsuch detoiling ot the tronsition is the
use of o retoining mosonry woll with 0 l0rger diqmeter mild
steel pipe through which the pnstock comes out ond con
occommodote thermol exp0nsion ond controction, see Figure
6.5. An exponsionjoint should normolly be used immediqtely
downstreom ofthe retaining woll. Not thot the design of
qnchor
b,ocks is covercd in Chopter T.
Toble 6.4 compors the 0dvontoges ond disodvontoges of
buried penstock pipes.
Phoro 6ll Pnstock, Purong
r[
104
Tobl 5.4 Advontoges
qnd
disqdvqntqges ofburied penstock pipe
ADVANTAGES DISA"DVANTAGES
Protects the penstock ogqi nst odverse ffects 0f
temperoture vonol l 0ns.
Protects the wol er i rom l i eezi ng due to l ow 0l r
tempetotures.
Protects the pipe from folling dbris ond trees.
Prorects the pi pe from t0mperi ng 0nd vondol l sm.
F l i mi n n r o . c , , n n ^ d n i a r (
Smoll bends do not need onchor blocks.
Does not chqng the l ondscope.
Pips or less 0ccssible for rnspection, ond foult frnding
becomes di mcul t.
Repoi r ond moi ntenonce ofthe pi pes i s di fl i cul t.
Instollotion is expnsive in rock ond where soil cover is thin
Improcti cobl on steep sl opes (>30").
F. gul e65 I r onsr ' . on f t omLuned t opx| ovdppn, t o, l ' , Jhonkr t mr nr l "ydr c
5.10 Expansionjoints
Penstock pipes ore subjected to tmproture vo
qtions
due to
chonges in the ombient temperoture. When the ombient
temperotur is high the pipes wiJl expond ond when it drops,
the pips will contr0ct. Such thrm0l exponsion couses strsss
in th pipes ifthey ore not free to expond.
Photo 6 l2 An exponsionjoinr should b locoredjust below ononchor block io
protect the block from fons whr(h it rnoy nor be designed to rpsNt (S*tis)
For buri ed pi pes, o mi ni mum cover of 1 m shoul d be
provi ded i n ol l coses (i .e. HDPE, PVC ond mi l d steel pi pes) See
Ii gure 4 8 Ibr trench detoi l s.
Buri ed pi pes do not requi re support pi ers, ond he sovi ngs
m0de 0n the pi rs moy equol or even exceed the cost ofexcqvo-
ti on ond bockl l l l . Si nce thi s ts o si te speci fi c c0s,
q
c0st
col cul oti on shoul d be done i fbuned mrl d steel pi pe i s bei ng
consi dered.
Both xposed 0nd buri ed pnstock pi pes Iequi re onchor
blocks ot significont bends. However, for relotively low heod
ond fl ow,
qs
wel l os smol l bend ongl es, l he I m depth of wel l
compocted sorl cover on buri ed pi pe moy be odequote (see
Chopter ?, Anchor bl ocks ond support pi ers).
The norure ofthe terroi n ond the sotl depth moy ol so
govern whether to bury 0r expose the penstock pi pe. Buri ed
penstock i s not pr0cti cobl e on roures steeper thon 30o bcouse
the bocl 1i l l wi l l be unstobl e Where topsoi l i s thrn or rock i s
exposed, the costs involved in excovoting the rock moy mqke
buri ol ofthe pi pe i mpossrbl e
105
r
An
qbove
grcund penstock is subjected to groter
temperotuE vqriotions rcsulting in highr thermol exponsion.
The thermol exponsion or controction is highst when the
penstock is empty, such os during instollotion or repoir work.
The temperotur voriotion is relotively low when the pipe is full
since the flow ofwoter witl foirly constont temperoture
prcvents the pip ftom ropidly heoting up.
As long 0s pipes ore free to move ot one end, thermql
exponsion does not cous odditionol strcsses. However, o
penstock pipe section between two
qnchor
blocks is kept fixed
0t both ends. In such o cose thermol exponsion could couse
odditionol stresses ond the pipe con even buckl. Therfore,
provision must be mode for the penstock pipe to expond ond
controct, by instolling on exponsion
joint
in o penstock pipe
sction betwen two onchor blocks.
The most common type of exponsion
joint
used in Nepol
is ofsliding type. This is shown in Figure 6.6 ond Photogroph
6.13. Such on exponsionjoint is ploced between two conscu-
Figure 6.6 Sliding type expo$ionjoint
tive pipe lengths ond boltd to them. The stoy rings orc
tightened which compresses the pocking ond prevents leoking.
Jute
or othff similor type of fible is used for pocking. When the
pipes expond or controct, the chonge in lengths is occommo-
doted insid th
joint
section since there is o gop between the
Prpes.
An odvontog ofon exponsionjoint is thot it rduces the
siz ofthe onchor blocks since they will not need to withstand
forces due to pipe exponsion. Another ddvontoge is thot they
con 0ccommodote slight ongulor pipe misolignment.
Exponsion
joint
rquirements for vqrious penstock
conditions ore discussed below.
Mild steel pipes
An exponsiorjoint should olwoys be incorporoted immdiotely
downstrcom ofthe forebcy ond immediotely downstreom of
eoch onchor block, for both obove ground
qnd
buried steel pipe.
One is olso recommended immediotely downstrcom ofo
tronsition from buried to obove ground pipe.
HDPEPiPfs
Exponsionjoints orc not necessory for HDPE penstock pipes
pmvided thot they ore buried (which should
qlwoys
be the
cose). This is becouse HDPE pipes ole flexible ond con bend to
occommodote the expqnsion effects due to the differences in
temperqture btween instollotion ond operotionol phoses.
PVC pipes
PVc pipes with gluedjoints require provision for exponsion, ot
the some locotions 0s for steel
pipes.
Sizing of expsnsion
joints
The sliding surfoce of the exponsion
joints
should be mochine
fi shed (such os in o lqthe mochin) to o toleronce of obout
I
0.1 mm. The recommended thickness ofthe steel pofts (Etqiner
ond stoy ring)is
qbout
twice the thiclaless ofo well-designed
penstock pipe,
The gop in the exponsionjoint should be obout twice the
calculoted moximum pipe exponsion lergth.
The moximum exponsion length is co]culoted using the
following equodon:
A
=
cr{t
-T
..)L
where:
A
L
=
pipe exponsion length in m os shown in FiguR 6.7.
o
=
coefficient oflineor exponsion in m/m
"c
ofthe pipe.
which depends on the pipe moteriol. This coemcient rlotes to
the length thot
q
moteriol will expond per 1oC increose of
temperoture. Different moteriols expqnd ot differcnt rotes. The
106
Photo 5.13 Slidng exponsion
joint,
Jhonlxe
mini_hydro
volues of this coe{Iicient for mild steel, HDPE ond PVC ore shown
in Toble 6.2.
Tno,
=
highest temperoture in'C thot the pipe will experience.
Note thot this con even be during mid-summer
qfternoon
when
the pipe is empty (either during instollotion or repoir wor$.
T,o,o
=
lowest temperqture in'C thot the pipe will experience.
This cqn be during winter when the woter temperoture is just
obove the freezing point. Note thot iffreezing temperotures ore
expected, the pipe should either be emptied or provision should
be made for constont flow. If the woter in the penstock
stognqtes during freezing temperoture, ice will form inside the
pipe ond could burst it, becquse when wqter freezes, the volume
exponds.
L
=
pi pe l ength i n m.
Since it moy be difficult to determine when the expon-
sion joint wiil be instoiled ot site, the monufscturer should be
qsked
ollow on exponsion gop of 2AL. Then, during instollo-
tion, the temperoture should be noted ond the gop left occord-
ingly.
Exomple 6.3 shows on opplicotion of this equotion.
fi gure 6.7 Thermdl exponsi on ofo penstock pi pe
5.11 Pointing
Since mild steel pipes ore subjected to corrosion, oppropriote
coots ofpoint should be opplied before dispotching them to site.
Proper pointing of mild steel pipes significontly increqses their
useful lives.
The pipes should be sond blqsted ifpossible, otherwise
they should be thoroughly cleoned using o wire brush
qnd
o
piece ofcloth. Prior to pointing, the pipe surfoce should be
cleqn from oil, dust ond other porticles. When opplying
subsequent coots ofpoint, the previous coot must be dry.
.
The following coots of point ore recommended:
Ou*ide swfsce of obove ground mild steel pipes
First two coots of primer should be opplied on the pipe surfoce.
Red Oxide Zinc Chromote primer is
qppropriote
for this purpose.
Then onother two coots of high quolity polyurethone enomel
point should be opplied on top of the primer.
Outside surfoce pipe of which will be buried 0r cost into
onchor blocks
'lwo
coots of primer similor to
qbove ground pipe should
be opplied. Then, onother two coots othigh-build bituminous
point should be opplied over the primer. Provide on extro coot
of bituminous point ot tronsition
qreos,
which ore more prone
to corrosion (see Figure 7.1).
Inside surfsce ofpipes
For smoll diometer pipes it moy not be possible to point the
inside surfoce. However whenever possible, the inside surfoce
should be pointed with two coots of good quolity red leqd
primer.
A mild steel penstock pipe is 45 m long betrveen the
forebay ond the first cnchor block. The steel temperoture
during instollotion wos 40"C, ond the expected lowest
temperotur during the operotional phose is 40C during
winter. Whot exponsion gop should be recommended to
the monufocturer? AIso, if the temperoture during
instollotion is 2ffC, whot gop should be provided?
a=12x10{ m/ moC
Tno,
=
40
oC
T . . : 4 o C
c0ld
L=45m
AL
=
u(\",-\",u)L
or AL=12x10{ ( 40- 4) x45
or AL
=
0.019 m
orAL
-
19mm
Therefore minimum recommended exponsion gop
=
19.4 x 2
=
38.8 mm, soy 40 mm.
lf the temperoture during instollotion is 2dc
AL
=
12 x 10
-5(40
-
20) x 45
or AL
=
0.011 m
orAL
=
11 mm
Therefore, during instollotion
qn
exponsion gop of 11
mm x 2
=
22mm should be provided.
107
If therc is o doubt obout the quolity ofpoint, the suppli-
er's speciflcotions should be checked prior to its use. Note thot
pointwork is not requiEd for HDPE or PVC pipes.
Any pointwork domoged during tronsport ond instollo-
tion must be mod good, so thot the full number ofcoots is
pRsent everywher. This is especiolly importont for bu ed
DiDes.
6.12 Instqllqtion
The following procedure should be used.
o The centreline ofthe penstock should be st our using
q
cord ond pegs olong the selected route os shown in
Figuft 6.8. For micro-hydro schemes obove 20 kW of
insto]led copociry o theodolite should olso be used to
ensuR thot the bend ongles comspond to the fqbricoted
oioe bends.
4i
#
Figurp 68 Sstthg out the centrEline ofthe pnstock olignment
A line should be morked by spEoding lime on the
surfoce ofthe gmund t0
pploce
the cord. Then the
positions ofondror block ond support piers should be
morked t0 the rquiftd spocing for exposed pipes ond
excovotion corried out olong this line os l?quild.
For buried pipes, the penstock is instolld in the
excovoted trench ond bocldrlled os shown in Fioure 4.8.
The bocldll should be rornmed in loyers
ond o slight hump obove the level of the
ground helps to keep the olignment dry
An improperly bocldlled penstock
oligment con quickly become the
route for droinoge woter down the
hillside. However, note thqt bocK l
should be completed or y ofter the pipe
hos ben pressure tested.
. For exposed pipes, the onchors ond
supports should be consuucted os will
b discussed in Chopter T. The pipe
should be cost into the onchors ond
ploced on one support pier ot o time.
No further supports or onchors should
be built until the pipe is secured to the
previous onchor block or suppon pier
For both site welded ond flong connected pipes, the
end should pmtrude from the lost support block with
odequote morgin (- 300 mm) so thqt either the flonge
or the weld line does not lie on the support pier during
thermol expqnsion or controction. If mor thon one
pipe section neds to be welded between the support
piers, temporory supports should be used os shown in
Photogroph 6.15. Flonge connected pipes should be
joined
ond the bolts tightened os the instollotion
Progresses.
l
Photo6.15 ltmporory support for sit v{elding worhJho_Dhe mini
hydro, Nepo.l
.108
Photo 6 14 Penstod ot Cbondruk with villqge in the bqckground
The instqllqtion of the penstock should stort
lrom the mochine foundqtion ond proceed upstreom.
This
qvoids
ony misolignment between the penstock
ond the turbine housing. Since the turbine needs to be
firmly fixed to the mochine foundotion, there is olmost
no toleronce at this end
qfter
the mqchine foundotion
hos been constructed. Furthermore, the pipe sections
below the exponsion
joints con slide down if instollo-
tion proceeds downstreom from the foreboy. Minor pipe
deviotion ccn be odjusted ot the foreboy wqll, but such
odjustment is not feosible ot the mochine foundotion.
For micro-hydro schemes, loying of penstock in discrete
lengths is not recommended since this cqn leod to
mi sol i gnments of the pi pes.
r Penstock pipes should be pressure tested 0t the foctory
before tronsport to site. For schemes where the heod is
more thon 15 m the completed penstock should olso be
pressure tested duri ng the commi ssi oni ng phose. l f
feosible such pressure test should include the surge
heod (i .e., pressure test ot hror..). Thi s con be done by
simuloting the expected surge heod ot the foreboy
usi ng o mqnuol pressure purnp. If ony l eokoge i s
noticed, the section should be repoired such os by
tightening the bolts, chonging foulty goskets or
welding. For buried pipe olignment, the bockfill should
only be completed ofter successful pressure testing;
however, if there ore ony minor bends without
qnchor
blocks, these must be bockfilled before pressure testing.
once the pipe trench is bockfilled, it will be difficult ond
ti me consumi ng to re-excovote ond i denti fy the l eoki ng
sectl on.
6.13 Mointenonce
Above ground mild steel penstocks should be repointed every 3
to 4 yeors dependi ng on the condi ti ons. Nuts, bol ts ond goskets
offl onge connected mi l d steel pi pes shoul d be checked
qnnu-
ol l y, l oose bol ts shoul d be ti ghtened ond domoged goskets
should be reploced. A visuql check for flonge leoks should be
corried out monthly.
For buri ed penstock secti ons, si gns ofl eokoge such os
the sudden oppeoronce ofspri ngs ol ong the ol i gnment
(especiolly during winter) ond moist ground where the
qreq
wos previously dry should be checked. Ifony leokoge is
noticed, the penstock should be droined ond corefully exco-
voted for repoi r ofthe l eoki ng secti on.
6.14 Checklist for penstock work
Refer to Toble 6.i ond decide on the penstock moterial.
When in doubt compore the costs of
qll
ovoiloble
options.
Is the olignment on procticol ground slope? Is there
odequote spoce for the powerhouse oreo ot the end of
the penstock olignment? Hqve the bends been mini-
mised?
For mild steel pipes refer to Tqble 6.3 to decide on flonge
connection or site welding. Also be sure to specifo
oppropricte coots of point.
If o buried penstock olignment is being considered, refer
to Tobl 6.4 to compore the odvqntoges
qnd
disodvon-
toges, ond Figure 4.8 for the trench detoils.
Is the pipe diometer such thqt the heqdloss is between
5o/o snd 70o/o?
Hqs ollowqnce been mode for surge effects while sizing
the penstock woll thickness?
Is the sofety foctor sufficient os discussed in Section 6.6?
Are the pipe lengths ond weights such thqt they ore
tronsportoble ond porteroble?
Refer to Section 6.12 for pipe instollation ot site.
a
a
109
7. Anchor blocks and
support
piers
7.1 Overview
Ar
qnchor
block is on ncosemnt of0 penstock dsigned to
rcstr0in the plpe movemnt ln oll drrctlons. Anchor blocks
sh0uld be ploced ot 0ll shorp horizontol ond venrcol bnds,
since there ore forces ot such bends which will tnd t0 move the
pipe out of oligrlmnt. Anchor blocks ore
qlso
requird to resist
oxiol forces in long stroight sections ofpnstock.
Support piers ore short colLlmns thot ore ploced between
onchor bl ocks
ql ong
stroi ght secti ons ofexposed pensl ock pi pe.
These strucrurcs prevent the pipe from sagging ond becoming
overstressed. However, the suppon piers need to ollow pipe
movement porqllel to the penstock olignment which occurs du
t0 thermol expqnsion ond controction.
7.2 Anchor blocks
72.I GENERJqI
Locoti0ns ot which onchor blocks ore required ond their
construction orc described in this section.
7.2.2 LOCATION OF ANCHOR BLOCrc
Anchor blocks ore required ot the following locotions:
At verticol or horizontol bends ofthe penstock os shown
in Photogroph 7.2. A filled pnstock exefts forces ot such
bends ond th pipe needs to be properly
'onchored'.
lmmediotely upstreom of th powerhouse. This
minimises forces on the turbine housing.
At sections ofthe penstock where the stroight pip
lengrh exceeds 30 m. This is to limit the thermol
exponsion ofthe pipe since on exponsionjoint will be
ploced downstreom ofthe onchor block.
723 CONSTRUCIION OF ANCHOR BLOCXS
A[ch0r blocks should normolly be constructed of 1:3:6 concrte
(1 poft cemenr, 3 pqrts sqnd. 6 ports oggregote)with 400/0
plums ond nomrnol reinforcernent. Plums ole boulders thot ole
distributed ever y oround the block such thot they occupy
qbout
40% ofthe block volume. The boulders odd weight to the
block ond therefore incrcose stqbility while decrosing the
PhotoT'l A stroight penstock with four suppons ond on
onchor block befoR the powerhouse
Photo ? 2
Jhonhe
mni'hydro onchor block for on upword venicol bend
111
. r m, n r r , ^ 1 " m, . e n " i r Dl
Hoop rei nforcement i s requi red 0round the pi pe l o resi st
crocki ng ofthe concrete due t0 tensi l e forces from the pi p.
Three l 0 mm bors ore generol l y sui nci ent, os shown i n Fi gure
7.1. The hoop b0rs sh0ul d be opproxi motel y 150 mm cl eor of
the pi pe, cnd shoul d exrend to 100 ml n from the b0se, so thot
rhe whol wei ght ofthe bl ock cqn be nobi l i sed wi thout
crocki ng Ifthe rei nforcement i s i nodequote, the bl ock con
crock. os shown i n Photogroph 7 3. A col l or 0r metol togs moy
be wel ded to th prpe to eusure thot rhe pi pe does not sl i de
wi thi n the onchor bi ock
For downword bends, the onchor block is moinly in
compressi on, therefore o st0ne mosonry structure (1i 4 cement
monor)con be consi dered i fcosts con b brought down.
Composi te onchor bl ocks c0n ol s0 b consi dered to sove
cost os shown i n Fi gure 7.2. Foundoti on ports ond centrol
porti on ofth bl ock con be mode of l r1.5r3 rei nforced concrete
ond outer pofti on ofthe bl ock con be mad ofstone mqsonry rn
1 . 4 l . p mo n r ' c . n d ) mn r l n r
Note: Al l di mensi ons
ore ln mm
hdi ng
(
1, 3: 6
Figu.e 7 I Anchor block seclion
The cement requi rements [or pl um concrete 0nd cement
mn c ^ n r u . r D. c f ^ l l ^ u , c .
. 1:316 concrel e wi th 40% pl ums: 132 kg ofcement per ml
ofbl ock vol ume.
. 1t1.5:3 concretet400 kg 0fcement per ml
. Stone mos0nry i n 1:4 cemenl moffor 159 kg ofcemenl
per m' .
Al though more cemnt l s requi red for cement mosonry
bl ocks, sovi ngs moy be mode by ov0i di ng the cost of formwork
Photo 73 Crocking otthe Dppcr sudoce o[on unrcinforcd onchor block
(where wood is expensive) ond crushing ofstone to preporc
oggreg0tes. Thrfore, whether pluln concrete or cement
mosonry rs economi col i s si te spci l l c but thi s i ssue shoul d be
investigoted ifthere ore o number ofdownword venicol bends.
Cost con
qlso
be reduced by using permonenr dry stone
wqlls os formwork for the bu ed portion 0fthe onchor block os
shown l n Photogroph 7 4 At si res where wood i s expensi v thi s
opprooch is worth considering.
Both pl oi n concrete or stone mosonry i n cement mortor
\
(
f -
St one mosonrY i n l : 4 c/ m
_ _i--
*
___j___<*
--|-z-F=i-
|
------
t : t 5: 3
Note: Al l dl mensi ons
ol e l n mm.
Ir{,1
t12
l hol oT4 useof dr ynoner v( r 1l f or kr f D$or k. Jl r ( Lnk| c
bl ocks shoLrl d be cured os di scussd i n Ch0ptr I by keepi ng
them noi st for ot l eost o week.
The desi gn oi onchor bl ocks i s covered rn scti on 7 4.
Toble 7.1 Suppon pier spocing
lcentre
to centrc horizontol length in metresl
7.3 Support piers
?.3.1 GENERAL
l .ocoti ons ot whi ch suppoft pi ers or requi red ond thei r
construcri on ore descri bed i n thi s secti ol |
7.3.2 LOCATION OF SUPPORT PIERS
Suppon pi ers ore requrred 0l org thc stroi ght secti ons ofexposed
penstock betrveen onchol bl ocks. The moxi mum spoci ng of
support pi ers to ovoi d overstressi ng the pi pe i s gi ven i n Tobl e
7 l . Pl eose reod the notes under rhe tobl e
' l hi n-l vol l ed
pl oi n pi pe con buckl e ot the suppon pi ers
wi th rel oti vel y short spons. In thi s cose the permi ssi bl e spon
con be i ncreosed by wel di ng o wqr pl ot to the pi pe at e0ch
supp0n, see fi gure 7.3. Thi s nroy be economi col for pi pes l orger
thon 300 mm di omel er Corners ofweor pl ol es shoul d be cut
wi th o rodi us, to ovoi d stress concentrol i ons Not thot o weor
pl ote i s ol so requi rd where the pi pe l eoves on onchor bl ock, i f
the spon t0 the fi rst suppon pi er exceeds thot ol l owed for pl oi n
prpe.
It i s usuql l y n0t economi col ro i ncreose the pi pe wol l
thi ckness i n ordr to i ncreose the support prer spqci ng, but thi s
shoul d be consi dered where the cost ofsuppon pi ers rs si gnrl l
c0 nt .
PLAIN PIPE PIPE WITH WEAR PLAIES IFFECTIVE PIPE WAIL
THICKNESS, t,r..,
".
(mm):
320 Nimrnr STLEL
410 Ni mmr STIEL
13
1. 0
19
15
2.6
2.0
3.9
30
1. 3
1. 0
1. 9
15
39
3. 0
26
2.0
h,,. < 100 r1r
100 mm di o
200 mm di o
300 mm di o
400 mm di o
500 mm di o
4. 0 4. 7
?.3 8.3
8. 6 10. 5
9 1 11. ?
9. 3 12. 0
2A
4l
25
I 4
32
60
57
2.6
21
4.0
73
8.6
5.8
3.7
4. 7
8. 1
10. 5
11.7
8.7
20
4t
4. 9
51
4. 1
3.2
6.0
?0
7.4
75
(b) 100 < h,",", < 150 m
100 nnl di o
200 mm di o
100 mm dio
400 mm di o
500 mm dio
19
3.9
2. 5
14
3. 1
58
5. 7
26
2T
4.0
7. 1
82
5. 8
37
4. 7
8. 3
10 5
112
87
1. 9
3. 9
4.4
4.4
4.0
1. 1
5. 8
6. 7
69
6.8
4. 0 47
7. 7 83
8.2 10 5
8. 6 11 2
8. 7 11. 5
1 1 3
. Conti nued
...Continued
rc)
150 < h,dor < 200 m
100 mm dio
200 mm dio
300 mm diq
400 mm diq
500 mm dio
2.7
2.5
l . a
2.3
5.0
5.7
2.6
z. r
3.5
6.5
7.6
5. 8
3. 7
A A
8. 3
10. 1
10.6
8.7
2. 7
3.2
3.0
z-u
2. 3
5.0
5. 8
6.0
5.8
3.5 4.7
6.5 8.3
7.6 10.r
7.9 10.6
7.9 70.7
(d) 200 < h,otor < 250 m
100 mm dio
200 mm diq
300 mm dio
400 mm diq
500 mm dio
1. 8
2. 7
1. 8
4.4
5.2
2.6
2. 1
J . l
6.0
7.0
5.8
3.7
9 . t
8.3
9.7
10. 1
8. 7
1. 8
2. 1
1. 8
a. a
J. Z
5. 1
, . t
J . t
. t . t
6.0 8.3
7.0 9.7
7. 2 10. 1
7. t 10. 1
i,
Notes:
1. Applies only to steel penstocks welded or flonged to British Stqndord (minimum flonge thickness
:
16 mm). In other coses
use one support pier for eoch individuol pipe length, with the pier in the middle.
2. Weor plotes to be of some thickness os pipe woll, ond welded on oll edges, covering bottom 180" of pipe. The length should
be enough to extend ot leost 0.5 times the pipe diometer beyond eoch side of tire support pier. See Figure 7.3.
3. For the colculqtioD 0ft"u".,u. reler to Section 6.6.
4. Interpolote between the obove volues for intermediqte pipe diometers, wqll thicknesses or steel grodes.
SECTION A.A
Fi gure.7.3 Arrongement ofweor pl ote ot o support pi er
114
733 CONSTRUCTION OF SIJPPORT P|ENS
Support piers ole generolly constructed out ofstone mosonry in
1:4 cemnt moftor. Dressed stone should be used for the outsid
surfoces ofthe pir A 140'beoring oreq from the centft ofthe
penstock di0meter should be provided to support the penstock
pipe os shown in Figurc 7.4. Plocing o steel soddle plote obove
the support pier whre the penstock pipe rests olong with o 3
mm thick tor poper os shown in Figure 7.4 minimises friclionol
effects ond increoses th useful life ofthe pipe. c-clomps mqy
olso be provided to protect th pipe from vqndolism ond c
sidewoys movement. but there must be o gop between the
surfoce ofthe pipe ond th C-clomp, so thqt oxiol forces ore not
tronsferred to the support pier. stone mosonry support piels
wilh c-clqmps con be seen in Photogroph 7.5.
Wooden support piers hove occosionolly been used in
micro-hydro schemes, os con be seen in Photogroph 7.7.
Howevr, wood is generolly expensive ond olso requips
frequent mointenonce such os pointing.
Stel support piers con olso be used
qs
on oltemqtiv to
srone m0sonry especiolly ot sites where cement is expensive or
the soil is weok in beoring. An exqmple ofsteel support piels is
rncluded in Chopter 10 (lnnovotions).
3 mm thick
paper
with steel
saddle
plate
undemeath
frgurp 7.4 T'?icol secrion rhrough o support pier
Photo 7 5 Stone mosonry support piers,
JhonkP
mini hydm scheme
Photo 7.6 The use ofon extension toth concrEte suppon lifts the pipe cleoro[
on block,
qllowinq
droinoge ond preventing cormsion between the block ond
the pipe (ftomche)
115
7.4 Design ofqnchor blocks
ond support piers
7.4.1 GENERAI
The design ofonchor blocks ond support piers requires resolving
some common forces, which are therefore discussed together in
this section. First the structurcs orc tentotively sized orld the
vorious forces thot oct on them ore resolved. The minimum
colculqted block size thot is sofe ogoinst beoring, sliding ond
overtuming is occepted. It should be notd thot the design
pr0cess involves o few iterotions.
Vorious forces thot con oct on onchor blocks
qnd
support
piers ore summorised in Toble 7.2 ond discussed therofter
Photo 7 7 Wooden support
lirs
ot Komche micro.hydro scheme, Nepol
Tqble 7.2 Forces on onchor ond slide blocks
FORCE
lkNl
DIRECIION OF POIENTI,AI MOVEMENT OF
ANCHOR BLOCK OR SIJPPORT PIER
COMMENTS
SYMBOLS ARE DEFINED AT THE END OF
T1IIS TASLE
F,
Fr
=
combinotiol ofFr, ond F,d
F,,: (We+w*) 1," cos ct
Frd
=
(Wp+W*)Lrd cos
0
I f ni np i < c r r ni nhr
F,
=
{w"+
w,.,)(1,,,+ 1,,)cos G
Uphill portion Downhill portion Fr i s the component ofwei ght ofpi pe
ond woter perpendiculor to the pipe.
Applies to both support piers ond
onchor blocks
F,
F?,
F,o
=
f (We+ W*)1,. cos cr
=
f (wp+ w*)Ld cos cr
Fz
Expqnsion: onchor
below ond exponsion
j oi nt
obove
controctionr onchorbelow
ond expqnsion
joint
obove
Direcfions for forces on support pier
{t
F, is the frictionol force due to the pipe
sliding on the support pirs.
Applies to support pien ond onchor
blocks. The force octing
qt
on onchor
block is the sum offoEes octing 0n the
support blocks betwen the onchor
block ond exponsion
joints,
but
nnn^. i r p i n di F. t i ^n
F,,
r,
=
zy*",.,h,",",x
l{'r
(?
=15. 4h, "dd' zsi n(?)
F, is the hydrostotic forte on bends th0t
octs olong the bisector ofthe bend.
0r y opplies to onchor blocks thqt
hove horizont0l ond/or verticol bends
if $rr
116
F,
=
combinqtion of Fou ond Foo
F
=W
L s i nu.
4 u p 4 u
F
=WL. s i nB
4 d p 4 0 l
Uphill portion
F..,
Downhill portion Fo is the component of pipe weight
octing porollel to pipe.
Applies to onchor blocks only.
Colculqte only ifthe cngles (a or
p)
ore
lorger thon 20".
' 5
Fs =i 000Eo Tn( d+0t
See Toble 6.2 in Chopter 6 for
vqlues of E ond o
Uphill portion Downhill portion
\ - -
F, is the thermolly induced force
restroined by the onchor block in the
obsence oI on exponsion
joint.
Applies to onchor blocks only.
Colculote only if exponsion joints ore
not instolled between onchor blocks.
F6
Fu=1ood
F, directions os F, Fu is the frictionol force in the
exponsionjoint. The F6 force is felt
becouse the
joint
will resist sliding.
Applies to
qnchor
blocks only.
F7
F- =y h t l ( d+t ) t
/
!
wol er l ot ol
:
31 h,o,o, (d +
0
t
Usuolly insignificont
Uphi l l porti on
X
Downhi l l porti on
- - - -
\
-.......--
---.-
Fru-
\
F, is the hydrostotic force on exposed
ends of pipe within expcnsion
joint
Applies to onchor blocks only.
F8
\=(ftsJ""(T)
=,5(sJ,' "(?)
Usuolly insignificont
F, dirrctions os F, F, is the dynomic force ot o bend due to
chonge in direction of moving woter.
Velocities ore usuolly low in penstocks
so this force is smoll.
Applies to onchor blocks only.
F
, n. ,
Fn
=
Y*o,.,h,o,o,X
i(do,o'
-
d' ..r,' )
=7. 7h ( d
' z- d ' z)
l ol ol
\
Dr q snr ol l
'
F, is the force due to reduction in pipe
diometer from
{
n
to d,.orr.
Applies to onchor blocks only.
F,o
u, r =! Fcosi xKoxw
F,o is the force due to soil pressure
upstreom ofthe block.
Applies to both onchor blocks ond
support piers
Colculote Fro if (hl
-
hr) is more thon
1 m. The force octs ot 113 of the height
(h,) from the bose ofthe block.
L
lii
W.
D
W.
=Vol . . . . x Y. .
D Dloak
I
Dtftt
DEFINITION OF SYMBOIS USED IN TABI}7.2
cr
=
Upstreom penstock ongle with respect t0 the
horizontol.
B
=
Downstreom penstock ongle with respect t0 the
horizontol.
y
:
Unit weight in kN/mr
v
-
9.8 kN/mr
I
wot Pr
v
:
22 kN/ml
r
concEl e
y =
20 kN/ml
r
mos0nry
y
see Tqble 6.2
' pr pc mol enol
Y,o,r
see Toble 7.3
O
=
Soil ongle offriction, see Toble 7.3
q =
Coeflicient of lineor exponsion ofpipe (oC
r),
see
Toble 6.2 in Chopter 6 where o is the symbol
used.
A
Dl g
E
I
s
h
h
")
h
t 0l 0t
I
K"
K
o
I
" l d
=
Pipe internol diometer (m).
=
Internol diometer of lorger pipe in cose of
reduction in pipe diometer
:
Internol diometer of smqller pipe in cose of
reduction in pipe diometer.
=
Young's modulus of elosticity, see Toble 6.2 in
Chopter 6.
:
Coeflicient offriction between pipe ond support
piers
:
occelerotion due to grovity
:
9.8 m/s'z
:
Buried depth ofblock ot the upstreom foce.
:
Buried depth ofbiock ot the downstreom foce.
:
Totol heod including surge.
:
Uphill ground slope (Figure 7.5). Note thct i moy
not olwoys be equol to a.
:
Active soil pressure coefficient
qs
follows:
_
cosi - l t ot zi - . ot z
0
cos i +\6sri -
cos,
O
=
Hqlfthe distonce from onchor block centreline to
the centreline ofthe first downstreom support pier
Loo
L, u
r
"2d
Lru
I
4U
a
J
AT
W
p
W
Wo is the weight of block.
Applies to onchor blocks ond support
piers.
(Figure 7.5).
Holfthe distonce from onchor block centreline to
the centreline of the first upstreqm support pier
(Figure 7.5).
,istonce
between two consecutive support piers
downstreom ofthe onchor block.
Distonce between two consecutive support piers
upstreom ofthe onchor block.
Distonce from the onchor block centreline to
the downstreom exponsion
joint (Figure 7.5).
Distqnce from the onchor block centreline to the
upstreqm exponsion joint (Figure 7.5).
Flow in the penstock pipe (mr/s).
Wqll thickness of penstock (m).
Moximum temperoture chonge ("C) thqt the pipe
will experience ofter being fixed ot onchor blocks.
Width of the onchor block in m.
Weight of pipe in kN/m
t l ( d+t ) t v
r prpe n0(efl01
Weight of woter in kN/m
(Pipe oreo in m2) x y*o,",
118
Fi gure 7.5 Di stdnces
qnd
ongl es used i n onchor bl ock ond support pi er equoti ons
7.4.2 DESCRIPIION OF FORCES
F,
-
F, is the component of the weight of pipe ond enclosed
woter perpendiculor to the pipe olignment. If therr is a bend
qt
the onchor, however, both the upstreom ond downstreqm
lengths ofpipe contribute sepqrotely, eoch force perpendiculor
to the centreline of the pipe segment which contributes t0 it.
Fr-F, is the frictionol force ofpipe 0n support piers. Ifthe
penstock moves longitudinolly over supp0rt piers, o friction
force on the pipe is creqted ot eqch pier. A force'Fr", equol to
the sum of oll these forces but opposite in direction, octs on the
qnchor.
This force exists only where one or more support piers
ore locoted between the onchor block
qnd
on exponsion joint.
For exomple, if on exponsion
joint
is locoted immediotely
downhill of the
qnchor,
friction forces on the downhill length of
pipe will not be tronsmitted to the
qnchor
block from thqt side.
The friction coeflicient, f, depends on the mqteriql
ogoinst which the penstock slides ond is os follows:
steel on concrete, f: 0.60
steel on steel, rusty plotes, f
:
0.50
steel on steel, greosed plotes or tor poper in between,
f
:
0.25
F,
-
F, is the force due to hydrostotic pressure within o bend.
The hydrostotic pressure ot o bend creotes o force which octs
outword for upword bends ond inword if the bend is down-
word. This is o mojor force which must be considered in
designing onchor blocks. However, the block size con be
significontly reduced if the bend ongle (B-a) con be minimised
while fixing the penstock olignment.
F.
-
Fo is the force due to the component of the weight of pipe
porollel to the pipe olignment. On o slope, the component of
the weight of the pipe which is porollel to the pipe tends to pull
it downhill ond exerts o force on on onchorblock. The sections
ofpipe both upstreom
qnd
downstreom ofon onchor block moy
hove to be considered. The lengths
'Lou'ond'Loo'in
the equotion
for the force "F," qcting
on
qn
onchor block ore the lengths of
the upstreom or downstreom section of the penstock which is
octuolly to be held by thot block. The upstreom section moy
begin ot the foreboy 0r, more usuolly, ot on exponsion joint.
The
downstreqm section usuolly ends
qt
on exponsionjoint. Ifthe
exponsion joint
downstreom of on onchor block is locqted neor
the onchor, os it usuolly is, the force crising from the weight of
the downhill section of pipe between the onchor ond the
joint
is
insignilicont ond is usuolly neglected. Also, the onchor block
will not experience this force if the penstock is buried since the
ground friction will resist this force.
F,
-
F, is the force thot is tronsmitted t0 the onchor block due to
thermolly induced stresses in the obsence of on exponsion joint.
Ifon exposed section ofo rigid pipe does not incorporote on
exponsion
joint,
thermolly induced stresses build up in the pipe
and oct on the onchor block. The ossocioted force "Fr'moy
push ogoinst the onchor block (with increosing temperoture) or
119
il
ll
pull the onchor block (with decreosing tenperoture).
F.
-
Fu is the force due to friction within the exponsion
joint.
To
prevent leoking, the pocking within
qn
exponsion
joint must be
tightened sufliciently. However, this tightening olso mqkes it
more diflicult for the joint t0 occept ony longitudinol move-
ment of the pipe. Friction between the pocking ond the
concentric sleeves in the exponsion
joint
creotes o force
"Fu"
which opposes ony exponsion or controction 0fthe pipe. This
force is dependent on pipe diqmeter, tightness ofthe pocking
gl ond ond smoothness ofsl i di ng surfqces. l fthere i s not o
chonge in the pipe direction (cr =
F)
upstreom ond downstrecm
ofthe onchor block, the forces (from upstreqm ond downstreom
exponsi on j oi nts) concel out.
F
-
F, is the hydrostotic force on exposed ends ofpipe in
exponsi onj oi nts. The two secti ons ofpenstock pi pe enteri ng
on exponsi on j oi nt
termi note i nsi de the j oi nt; therefore, thei r
ends ore exposed to hydrostotic pressure, resulting in o force
"F," which pushes ogoinst the onchors upstreom
qnd
down-
streom of the
joint.
This force usuolly contributes minimolly to
the totol forces on on anchor since the rotio 0fpipe thickness to
the diometer is low. However, this force con be significont ot
mild steel-HDPE joint
sections (since HDPE pipes ore thicker).
Note thot h,o,o, is the totol heod ot the exponsionjoint.
F,
-
F, is the dynomic force ot the pipe bend. At the bend, the
woter chonges the direction ofits velocity ond therefore the
direction of its momentum. This requires thot the bend exert o
force on the woter. Consequently, on equol but opposite
reoction force "F."
octs on the bendl it octs in the direction
which bisects the exterior ongle of the bend (some os F,). Since
velocities in penstocks ore relotively low (< 5 m/s), the mogni-
tude ofthi s force i s usuol i y i nsi gni fi cont.
F,
-
Fn is the force exerted due to the reduction of pipe diometer.
Ifthere is o chonge in the diometer ofthe penstock, the hydro-
stotic pressure
qcting
on the exposed oreo creotes o force
"Fr"
which
qcts
in the direction of the smqller-diometer pipe. if the
penstock length is long (os in the cose of
Jhonkre
mini-hydro),
then the pipe thickness is increqsed with increqsing heod.
However, the effect of chonging the diometer by o few mm does
not c0ntribute significont forces ond can be ignored.
Fro
-
F,o is the force on the onchor blocks or support piers due t0
the soil pressure octing on the upstreom fqce. Ifthere is o
significont difference between the upstreqm ond downstreom
buried depth (h,
-
h, > I m) of the block then o force will be
exerted on the onchor block due to soil
pressure.
In such cqses,
this force should be considered since it hos o destqbilisino effect.
Note thqt the resultqnt ofthis force octs ot 1/3 h..
7.4.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE
Once oll of the obove relevont forces hove been cqlculoted the
design procedure for onchor blocks ond support piers requires
checking the three conditions 0f stobility os follows:
Safety against overturning
The forces octing on the structure should not overturn the block.
For structures thot hove rectongulor boses, this condition is met
if the resultqnt octs within the middle third of the bqse. This is
checked
qs
follows:
r First toke moments obout one point of the block olong the
loce porollel to the penstock olignment.
r Find the resultont distonce
qt
which the sum ofverticol
forces oct using the following equotion:
/ I M\
, . 1 _ I _ I
" - \ I v
/
where:
d is the distqnce
qt
which the resultont octs.
Itr,t
is the sum o[ moments obout the chosen point of
the block.
IV is the sum ofvertical forces on the block.
r Now colculqte the eccentricity ofthe block using the
following equotion:
l r I
e : I
o o t t
- d l
t 2 I
r For the resultont to be in the middle third of the block, the
eccentricity must be less thon 1/6 of the bose length os
follows:
Finolly check thot e < orowobre
Safety on bearing
The lood trqnsmitted to the foundqtion must be within the sqfe
beoring copocity limit of the foundotion moteriol. If the trons-
mitted lood exceeds the beoring copociry limit of the foundotion,
the structure will sink. The beoring pressure ot the bose is
checked using the following equotions:
p. =
where:
P.
:
moximum Dressure tronsmitted to the foundotion.
mt a
L
&s
-ol l owot
l .
6
* ( ' . * - )
flri
r20
the sum ofverticol forces octing on the block.
length ofthe bose.
the bose oreo ofthe block.
eccentricitv colculoted eorlier.
The colculoted Pbo,, must be less thon the ollowoble
beoring pressure (Po'o,our,) for the type ofsoil ot the foundotion
level. Allowoble beoring pressure for different types ofsoil is
shown in Toble 7.3.
Toble ?3 Unit weight
|7f,
ongle of friction
lOl
snd ollowoble beoring pressur for difierent soil types
Sr r -
/ r v
-
T -
mse
A =
ms
r -
SOIL TYPE UNIT WEIGHT, y (kN/m') FRICION ANGrc(Aol AttOwABLE BEARING PRESSURE (kN/m')
Soft cloys ond silts
Firm cloys ond firm sondy cioys
Stiffcloys ond stiffsondy cloys
Very stiffboulder cloys
Loose well groded sonds ond
scnd/grovel mixture
I b
t 7
20
20
18
22
25
30
32
31
50
100
200
350
100
Safety against sliding
The structure should not slide over its foundotion. The follow-
ing equotion is used to check this condition:
uIv
' -
>
1. 5:
Itl
where:
I H
=
sum ofhorizontol forces
u
=Friction
coeflicient between the block ond the foundotion.
A volue of p
:
1on ,, but not exceeding 0.5, is recommended for
friction between mosonry or concrete on soil.
lV
=
Sum ofvertical forces octing on the block
Design for one of the
Jhonkre
mini-hydro onchor blocks. The following information is provided:
Pipe diometer
=
450 mm,
Pi pet hi ckness: 4mm.
hntr,
=
6o m'
\o*.
=
48 *,
61=i =13o, p=25'
Distonce to upstreom support pier,
=
4 m,
.' .L,u
=
2 m
Distance to downstreom support pier,
=
4 t
" ' L' a
=
2 m
Distonce to upstreom expcnsion
joint =
30 m.
" ' L*
=
30m
There ore 8 support piers ot 4 m centre to centre spccing (L^
=
4 m) up to the upstrcam onchor block. To reduce friction, oll
support piers ore provided with steel shaddle plotes ond tor poper on top ofthe plotes os in Figure 7.4.
An exponsion
joint
will be locoted
just downstreom of the block.
The soil rype is stiffcloy.
72r
CALCULAnONS
h . =h +h
rorot gffi srge
=60m+48m=108m
Consider the block shope shown in Figure 7.6.
Block volume excluding volume of the pipe =
{(2.2s x r} *(+- :x i .os)} x 2- 1 x fIx0.4582
/4
cos 13o
-
2 x fl x 0.458'?
/4
cos 25o
=
16.12 m3
Unit weight of concrete, (y.oo.*.)= 22 kN
/m3
Weight of block, Wr
=
16.12 x 22
=
354.64 kN
Weight of pipe,
Wo
=il (d + t) t y,,*r
=
f[ x 0.454 x 0.004 x 77
=
0.,14 kN/m
n (0.4sor
W*
=
----;-
x9.8
=
1.56kN/m
Wp+W,
=
2.00 kN/m
Colculote the relevont forces:
3.00 m
Wdth
=
2.00 m
Figure 7.6 Pmposed onchor block shope
1. F,u
=
(Wo * W*) L,ucos cr
= (2.00) x 2 x cos 13'
=
3.9) kl,f
2. F,o
=
(Wo*W*) L,ocos
P
= (2.00) x 2 x cos 25o
=
3.63 kN
3. Frictionol force per support pier:
= +
f (Wp* W,)L^ cos cr
f
=
0.25 for steel on steel with tor poper in between,
= "r
0.25(2.00) x 4 cos 13o
=
-r
1.95 kN per support pier
Since there ore 8 support piers
F^onAnchorbl ock
=
t 1.95x8
=
t 15.6 l d,{
Note thot F, is zero since on exponsion
joint
is locoted immediotely downstream of the anchor block
4. F,
=
15.4h,o,o,0' r*
(?)
=
15.4 x 108 x (0.450), r*
(tt;-
tt"
)
=
35.20 kN
5. F.u
=
Wolru sin u
:
0.44x 30 x sin 13'
=
2.97 kN
122
Note thot Fou is insignificont since a is less than zff and could have been ignored cs discussed in Toble ?.2. F* hos been
colculated here only t0 show how it is done. F* is negligible since on exponsion joint is ploced immediotely downstreom of
the onchor block., i.e., L*
-
0 and therefore
F. =0.
6. Fu
=100xd =
100x0. 450
=
45kN
7. FI
=31
h, o, r ( d+0t
F7u
=
31 x (108
-
30 sin cr) x 0.454 x 0.004
=
5.70 kN
Fro
=
31 x 108 x 0.454 x 0.()04
=
6.08 kN
Note thot os disclssed eorlier the rrsultont ofthese forces is insionificant.
/ Q' \ / p- c \
8. F8
: t . t I
a, / si n[ , /
^ _10. 450' z \ . / 2s " - 13" \
:
2's
I o3so'? /th t z /
:
0.26 kN
Note thot os discussed eorlier, this force is insiqnificont.
9. F,
=
0 since the pipe diometer does not chonge.
10. Soil force, F,o.
From Toble 7.3, y,o'
=
20 kN/m3 ond
0
=
3oo for stiffclay.
Recol l t hot i =13o
. _
cosi - . , / coszi - coFI
K"
=
cosi +mffi
=o'371
v . h2
F, o=
eXLcos
i xKoxw
zJ x r.a'
=
-T-
cos 13o x 0.37txz
=
23.45 kN
This force octs ot
U3
ofthe buried depth ot upstrcom fqce ofonchor block from point o as
shown in Figure 7.7, which is (U3 x 1.8)
=
0.6 m.
123
Resolution of forces
c r =13" , b=25"
Forces (kN) X
-
component (kN) ++ Y
-
component (kN) + +
l u
F- l d
* F[cos a
=
*3.80
F,o cos
P
=
* 3.29
+
Fzusin cr
= +
3. 51
Positive during exponsion O
Negotive during contrcction @
/ B+0\
- f r cos\
, /
= -33.29
* Fou sin cr
=
* 2.97 sin 13o
=
* 0.67
+
Fu (sin p -
sin ct)
=
t 45 (sin 25"
-
sin 13")
=
-r
8.90
Positive during exponsion O
Negotive during controction @
* F^ sin cr
:
5.70 sin 13"
=
* 1.28
-
Fro sin
P
= *
6.08 si n 25o
= -
2.57
/ 0+cr 1
- r , cos\
2 /
= -
0.25
f F,o sin i
=
23.45 sin 13'
=
* 5.28
+ 354.@
=
3.90
=
3.63
= - +
15.6
' 4 u
=
35.20
=
2.97
Fru
:
5' 70
Fro: 6' 08
F,
:
o'26
F,o
:
23.45
Wr: 354' 64
*
F,u sin cr
: -
0.88
-
F,o sin
B
= -
r - l j
-f
F2u cos 0.
=
-r
15.20
Positive during exponsion O
Negotive during controction @
/
p+cr\
* F, s i n\
, ,
=
f l l . 4t )
+ F4u cos ct
=
* 2.97 cos 13o
=
* 2.89
+
F, (cos a
-
cos
B)
: +45( cos13' - cos25' )
:
-{-
3.06
Positive during exponsion O
Negotive during controction @
* F^ cos cr
=
5.70 cos 13"
=
*5. 55
-
Fro cos
B
= -
6.08 cos 25o
= -
5. 51
/ F+41
* Fr si n\
, I
/ 250+ 130\
=
0.26 sin |
-l
\ 2 |
:
* 0.09
* F,o cos i
=
23.45 cos 13o
-
* 22.85
0
' a r
F
' 3
=45
I v: 345. 26OExponsi on
IV
=
320.44 @ Controction
l H=+53. 18OExponsi on
IH
=
+ 16.66@ Controction
SUM
Note thot forces ore positive in X-direction is towords the right ond Y-direction downwords.
Colculote the centre of grovity of the block from the upstreom foce of the block toking the moment of moss. The eflect of the
pipe possing through the block is negligible, so need not be colculoted.
{(3x2.25)3 12
+
|
1
/2x3x
1.05) 1
/3x3 }
x2
{
(3x2.25]t + (Uzx3x 1.05) }
x2
124
=
1.41m
.'. the weight of the block WB octs 1.41 m from point 0.
Sum ofhorizontol forces thot oct ot the bend
I s - n
O Exponsion case 53.18
-22.85:
30.33 kN
-r
O Controction cose 16.66
-22.85 = -
6.19 kN +-
Sum ofverticql forces thqt sct
qt
the bend
I v- F, oy- wB
O Exponsion cose
345.26-5.28-354.64
= -
14.66 kN t
@ Controction cose
320.44-5.28*354.9
= *
39.48 kN T
Now drow
q
force diqorom on the block os shown in Fioure 7.7.
Check ifstructure is sofe ogoinst overturning:
O
-+
Exponsion cose
Tqke sum 0f moments obout point 0 with clockwise
moments os positive:
I u@r o
=
30. 33x2. 15 * 22. 85x0. 6
+ 354.& x 1.41
-
14.66 x 1.0
=
564.30 kN-m
, /:r,r\ 564.30
o: \ - t u/ =i f i : 163m
t 3 |
e=l
- - 1. 63
l =0. 13m
I' I
L3
P
- = 0 . 5 m
' ol l owohl e
6 6
. ' . e<e. OK
on0woDt e
@ + Controction cqse
Tqke sum of moments obout point O with clockwise moments os positive:
I M@ 0
= - 6. 19x2. 15
* 22. 85x0. 6
+ 354.64 x 1.4i
-
39.48 x 1.0
:
460.96 kN-m
, /ru\ +oo.so
d = l - l = - = 1 . 4 4 m
\
Iv
I 320.44
l : I
e
: l - -
1. 44 |
:
s. 96 m
l ' l
39.480
14.660
e
@
Expansion
Contrac{on
Penstock
Figurc 7.7 Force diogrom on the onchor block
Recoll thot ouo*obl.
=
0.5
. " e<e. . . . 0K.
otowoDt
Since e < eo,,*ob,. for both coses, the structure is sofe ogoinst overturning.
Check if the structurc is safe on beoring copocity:
Note thot for stiffcloy ollowoble beoring prssure is 200 kNlm'? (Toble 7.3).
O
-r
Exponsion cose:
=
I v
/ t * 6f )
mre
4.,"
\
Lb""I
,*..=
44
(r
+
$r:)
=
72.5 N/mz
m5 3 x 2 \ r l
@ + Controction cose:
p =
l ' v ( r
+
! s- , )
' bose
A*r, \-
q",./
P.
-320'44
/r +
-6Iq'06)
:
5e.8 kN/m2
d* 3x 2\ r l
In both coses P*,"
(
Pouo*orr.
=
200 kN/mz. .'. the structure is sofe ogoinst sinking.
Check ifthe block is scfe ogoinst sliding:
O
-+
[xponsion cose
I H
< pI V
p
=
0.5 for concrete/mosonry on soil
53.18 kN < 0.5 x 345.26 kN
53.18 kN < 172.53 kN OK.
O + Controction cose
TH<p' V
16.66 kN < 0.5 x 320.,14 kN
i5.66 kN < 160.22 kN 0K.
Since I H . p
I
V in both coses the structure is sofe agoinst sliding.
.'.The onchor block is stable. The colculotions could be repeoted to
justiff
using o smoller, more economicol block.
7.4.4 STZNG OF ANCHOR BLOCKS FOR SMAI.L SCHEMES
For micro-hydro schemes with o gross heqd less thon 60 m
qnd
on instqlled power copocity less thon or equol to 20 kW the
following guidelines cqn be used to determine the size of on
onchor block:
o At o stroight section, locote one onchor block ofter every
30 m distonce (os discussed eorlier) by plccing 1 m3 of
plum concrete for eoch 300 mm of pipe diometer. For
exomple, if the pipe diometer is 200 mm, then:
/ 200\
t
" f1*,
=
0.67 m3 of concrete volume is required.
r At o penstock bend, where the bend ongle is less thon 450
(i.e.,
0
-
a), double the concrete volume thon whot is
126
required for o stroight section. For exomple ifthe pipe
diometer is 200 mm ond the bend is 20'. then:
/ 200\
2 xl--:=-
|
=
1 .33 m3 of concrete is required for
\ 300/
the
qnchor
block.
r Similorly, if the bend ongle is lorger thon 45', then the
required concrete volume should be three times thot for
o stroight section. For exomple if the pipe diometer is
350 mm ond the bend is 500, then:
, -
(-:+) =
3.5 mr of concrete is required for the
\ 300/
onchor block.
John
Bywoter hos developed o more sophisticoted
method of sizing onchor blocks for smoll schemes. This is
ovqilqble through ITDG.
7.4.5 SIZNG OF SUPPORT PIERS FOR SMAII SCHEMES
For smoll schemes (gross heod less thon 60 m cnd power
copociry limited t0 20 kW) Figures 7.8
qnd
7.9 con be used os
guidelines to size for support piers.
If the penstock olignment is less thqn 1 m
qbove
the
ground, Figure 7.8 cqn be used os o guide for the shope ofthe
support pier. The minimum length ond width ot the bose
should be 1 m x I m ond the top width porollel to the penstock
olignment should be 0.5 m. The width
qt
the top perpendiculor
t0 the penstock pipe route should be kept 1 m ond the uphill
woll surfoce should be perpendiculor to the penstock pipe. A
minimum foundotion depth of 300 mm should be provided.
Similorly, if the penstock pipe is 1-2 m obove the ground, Figure
7.9 con be use
qs
o guideline. Note thqt the structure is similor
t0 Figure 7.8 except thqt the bose length ond width ore 1.5 m x
1. 5 m.
For lorger schemes
qll
relevont forces should be resolved
ond conditions ofstobility should be checked
qs
discussed
eorlier.
Note: All dimensions
qre
in mm
Fi gure 7.8 Suppon pi er for smol l schemes wi th ground hei ght of l ess thon 1 m
Note: All dimensions
ore in mm
Figure 7.9 Support pier for smoll schemes with ground height of I m to 2 m
7.5 Checklist for onchor block
ond support pier works
o Hove onchor blocks been locoted ot exposed penstock
length intervols exceeding 30 m even when there ore no
bends?
o For onchor blocks, hos o minimum cover of 300 mm
oround the pipe been provided? Is odequote reinforce-
ment included?
o If there ore o lot of downwords bends
qnd
wood is
expensive ot site consider using mosonry onchor blocks.
Also for the buried sections, dry stone wolls con be used
os permonent formwork.
r Hos odequote foundotion depth been provided for both
support piers ond onchor blocks? Be sure to include steel
plctes ond tor poper on support piers to minimise
friction.
o Hove oll relevont forces on both support piers ond
onchor blocks been checked os discussed in Section 7.4?
r Finolly reler to Chopter 9 for issues concerning stobiliry.
127
E.l Overview
the powerhoust occommodotes el ectr0 nl echoni c0l equl pment
such 0s the turbi ne, generotor, ogro processl ng uni ts ond
control ponel s. The morn l uncti 0n ofthl s butl di ng i s to protect
the electro-mecllonicol equipnrenr fronr odverse weother os
wel l 0s possi bl e rni sl l ondl i n0 by un0uthonsed persons. The
powerhouse shoul d hove cdequote spoce such thot ol l equi p-
menl con fi t i n 0nd be occrssed wi thout di mcul ty. Costconb
bmught d0wn i f the c0nstrLrcti on i s si mi l 0r to other houses i n
Itr Communrty.
The powerhouse ofthe Borpok rri cl o' hydro scheme r..,r
h seen i n Phot0gr0ph 8 1 Thi s bui l drng i s si mi l or to other l ocol
houss in the community. Note thot the tronsformer is fnced
t0prvent occi dents due to unouthori sed occess.
Th gnerot0rs, Iurbi nes 0nd rhe bel t dri ves need ro be
$cuRly lixed on the mochine I0undotion in the powerhouse.
Il i s Rqui res 0 cqreful oesrqrsl n.r l he equi Dment generores
8. Powerhouse
ond tailrace
129
Photo 8 I Powerhous oflhe Eorpok micro.hydm schem
dynomic forcs ond even
q
slight displocement con cous
excessive strcsses on vorious ports ofthe quipment ond leod to
equipmerIt molfunction.
The toilroce is 0 chonnel or o pipe thot conveys woter
from the turbine (ofter power generotion)bock into the strqm;
generolly the sqme strom from which the woter wos initiolly
withdrown.
The powerhouse ond toilroce ofthe S0llriChiolso mini-
hydro scheme con be seen in Photogroph 8.2
PhotoE2 Powerhoute ond toilroce ofthe SolleriChnlso minr-
hydro scheme
E.2 Locotion ofpowerhouse
The locotion ofthe powrhouse is govemed by th penstock
olignment since this building must be locoted ot the end ofthe
penstock. Aport from this, the following critrio oIe recom-
mended for locoting the powerhouse:
o The powerhouse should be sofe from not only onnuol
floods but olso rore flood events. Discussi0ns should be
held with the locol community members to ensuE thot
floodwoters hove not rcoched the proposed powrhouse
site within ot leost the post 20 yeors. For micro.hydro
schemes of5G100 kW it is rcommended thot the
powerhouse be obove the 5Gyeor flood level.
. It should olso be possible to dischorge the toilwoter
sofely ftom the powerhouse bock to the streom.
. Ifpossible the powerhouse should be locoted on level
ground to minimise xcovotion work.
o The proposed locotion should be occessible throughout
the yeor. At some ploces this moy rquire constructing o
new foot troil.
o The powerhouse should be locoted close to the commu.
nity thot it serves, prcvided thot the penstock
qlignment
ond other porometers or feosible ond economicol. This
will Rduce the tronsmission lin cost. ond ifo0ro.
pmcssing units ore olso instolld in the powerhous,
the community will not hove to corry their groin for o
l ong di stonce.
. Othr stobility issues discussed in Chopter 9 should olso
be oddrssd.
E.3 Design of powerhouse
83.1 GENERAI
A powerhouse thqt is similor to other locol houses in the
community is generolly economicol ond oppropriot. The
community mmbers \a'ill be oble to construct such o building
with nominol supeffision.
Ifo decision is mode to construct tie powerhouse similor
to othr locol houses, then the civil design input requircd is to
size th plon oreo ofthe building ond design the mochin
foundotion. The olto inside the powerhouse should be well lit
ond ventilqted with sufficient windows. Plocing o few trons-
porcnt fibrcgloss sheets (skyligh0 in the roof will pmvide
odditionol illuminotion os con be seen in Photoorooh 8.3.
832 SEE OF TIIE FOWENfiOUSE
The plon oreo ofthe powerhouse should be determined os
follows:
. The siz ofthe electm-mechonicol equipment should be
obtoined from the monufqcturer.
. All lquild equipment should be drown to scole ond
ploced on the proposed powerhouse plon oreo. This moy
requir o few t ols to determifle the optimum loyout.
r30
Photo 8.1 Powerhouse of the
Fonlcc
minF hydlo
-\
833 POWERHOUSE WAII AND OTHER DETAII.S
Most houses in the hills of Nepol ore constructed of stone
mos0nry in mud mortor. Wooden truss with corrugoted iron
sheet (CGI), slotes or strow thatching ore used for the roofs. A
similor building is recommended for the powerhouse structure
with the following considerqtions:
o The minimum woll thickness of the stone mosonry
wolls (mud mortor) should be 450 mm. If funds ore
ovoiloble ot leost the externql surfoce of the wolls
should be plostered in cement-lime mortqr (12 mm
thick, 1:1:6 mix) to keep owoy moisture from roin.
r The penstock pipe should not normolly be built into the
powerhouse woll, otherwise the wqll could be domoged
by vibrotion from the turbine. The recommended
solution is to leove on oversized opening in the woll; on
olternotive is to ploce o bigger pipe outside the penstock
pipe where it posses through the wqll. At
Jhonkre
mini-
hydro the wqll wqs locolly thickened to act os o support
pier for the penstock pipes entering the powerhouse.
o The cleor height of the building should be 2.5 m t0 3 m.
r For lorger schemes, provision must be mode for lifting
pnt r i nr npnt t \ nt r nnnnt
\ 2
l ; f t gd hy hnnd y' r r nng i "
. 1 . . / . . . - . . .
" J
, , " . , _ . 1 . r / u t l | t J
,'
,"r' s
l
o
(,
c
5
r3200
Figun 8.1 Powerhouse floor plon of the
Jhonkre
mini-hydm scheme
Adequote spoce should be provided such thot oll
equipment is eosily occessible. There should be
q
cleor
spocing of ot leost 1 m oround eoch item of equipment
thot hos moving ports (such os the generotor, turbine
ond the belt drive). Noted thot ifogro-processing
equipment is instolled, the community members will
regulorly visit the powerhouse (to process their groin).
Therefore odditionol spoce is required so thot the
powerhouse does not become overcrowded ond o
potentiol oreo for occidents. It is recommended thot
such
qdditionol
spoce is provided os o lobby ct the
entronce ond the equipment is ploced beyond it. A lobby
lorge enough for five people to woit with their groin
(obout 3 m x 3 m) moy be odequote in most coses.
Adequote windows should be provided for lighting ond
ventilotion. Note thot the door ond windows need to be
locoted such thot they do not obstruct occess to the
equipment. This requires co-ordinoting the locotions of
the equipment, windows
qnd
the door.
The powerhouse loyout of the
Jhonkre
minihydro
scieme i-s .rhou/.r,, in
Fitrr
8
t
131
,7-
expensi ve; m0re oppr0pri 0te i s o bl ock ond Iockl e
supp0rted by o beom or l emporory A-fromc.
CGI sheets shoul d be used Ibr the ro0l l ng, si nce thy 0re
rel oti vel y fi re resi stont ond l eok prooi
Th l l oor ofthe powerhouse shoul d be 300 mm to 500
ml n obovc the 0ul si de ground surl i rce to prevent
dompness ond roi nwoter enteri ng Drqi ns shoul d ol so
be provj ded outsi de the powerhouse
Doors ond wi ndows shoul d open outwords for scfety i n
. . . p ^f f i r p ^r f l ^^. l i n.
8.4 Design of mochine foundotion
The desi gn ofthe mochi ne f0undoti on i s si mi l or to thot ofon
onchor bl ock, but si mpl er. The m0st si gni fi cont Ibrces thot the
mochi ne foundqti on con experi ence ore os fol l ows:
. The thrust due t0 hydrostohc force when the volve ot
the powerhouse i s cl osed or Ihe totol heod Lncl udi ng
surge due to sudden bl ockoge offl ow l fthere i s on
exponsi onj oi nt upstreom ofthe vol ve, the enti re hod
wi l l be tronsferred to the m0chi ne foundoti 0n from the
turbi ne housi ng
r The veni col force due to the wei ght ofl he foundoti on
bl ock, thc turbi ne
qnd
l he gener0l or
Soi l forces do not need to be consi dered becouse rhey ore
bol onced on eqch si de ofthe foundoti orr.
Si nce o homogeneous 0nd ri gi d srructure i s requi red the
mochi ne found0ti on shou]d be constructed ofrei uforced
concrete. Th desi gn process i s to tnl oti vel y si ze the mochi ne
Phot o 84 Const r uct i on of Jhonkr e mi ni ' hydr o mochl ne f oundot i ons
foundotion ond then chck the structure 0g0rnst ovfturning,
sl i di ng ond si nki ng os i n the cose ofonchor bl ocks.
The
Jhonkre
mini-hydro mochine foundotion pits cor be
seen under constructi on i n Photogroph 8 4. Th mochi ne
fourld0tion ofthe colkot scheme cqn be seen in Drowing 420/C/
3C03 ofAppendi x c. Pl oci ng the turbi ne pi t fl oor 0.3 m bel ow
toi hoc i nvert l evel hl ps to rduce obrosi on by the woter
leoving the turbine.
Exompl e 81 i l l ustrotes th desi gn pri nci pl es ofo mochi ne
foundoti on.
: \ :
Design o mochine foundqtion to support o directly coupled rurbine ond generotor. The following informotion hos been
provided:
Penstock pipe diometer
-
300 mm, mild steel.
The pipe centreline is 300 mm obove th powerhouse floor
0.
=
150 Us
cross hecd (h0.,,)
=
51 m
Expected moximum surge heod (h,"_.)
-
50 m
Woter lvel in the toilroce chonnei
=
0.25 m
Weight ofturbine
{Wr)
=
300 k9
Wight ofgnerotor (W")
=
350 k9
Site conditions reveol thol the f0undoti0n needs to be constructed on soil.
--l
Calculotions:
Try a reinforced concrete structure with dimensions as shown
in Figures 8.2 ond 8.3.
h . =h +h
=51
m* 50m=101 m:
totd grcss surge
Force due to h,o,o,,
F")
=
(Pipe oreo) x 101 m x unit weight of
w0ter
ilo.3,
m2 x 101m x 9.8 kN/m3
4
or F,
=
59, 960N: 70. 0kN
Weight of turbine (Wr)
:
300 kg
=
300 x 9.8
=
2910 N
=
2.94
KN
Weight of generotor (Wo)
:
350 kg
:
350 x 9.8
=
3430 N
=
3.43
Ploce oll forces on the mqchine foundotion ond divide the
block in three sections W,, W, cnd W, cs follows:
Colculote the weight of three sections of the block using 22
kN/mr for unit weight of concrete.
W,
=
0.4x 1.5m x 2.5mx 22kN/m3
=33.00
kN
W,
=
[ ( 0. 45x
1. 5x2. 5) - ( 0. 45x 1 x0. 5) * ( 0. a5x0. 5x 1) l x
22
=
27.23kN
W,
=
2.35 x 1.5 x 2.5 x 22
=
193.88 kN
Check whether the block is sofe ogoinst overturning:
Toke sum of moments obout point B (counter clockwise
moments os positive):
tM@B
10. 4 \
=
*,*
(i
+ o.4s + 2.35) + (w, + wr) x
10. 45 1 / 2. 3s\
[;
* 2.35) + (wc + w3)
t;/
-
FH x 1.8
=
33.00(3.0) + (27.23+2.94)(2.575) + (3.43+193.88)
( 1. i 75) - 70x1. 8
or XM@B
=
282.5 kNm
Note: All dimensions ore in m
Figurc 8.2 Mochine foundotion section
Id,I
+
I
I
I
I
l l
r I I Ol l f OCO
l l
Note: All dimensions ore in m
Fi gurt 8.3 Mochi ne foundoti on pl on
Sum of verticol forces, IV
:
W, *Wr*W3+Wr+Wc Figure 8.4 Resolution of forces on the mochine foundotion
=
33.00 + 27.23 + 193.88 + 2.94 + 3.43
Note All dimensions ore in m
or IV
=
260.5 kN
Equivolent distance ot which XV octs fmm point B:
d=
& - ?. 8?. 5
=1. oBm
ry
260.5
[t^
I
eccentricity, e
=
l+-*d
I
"
t, J
l z. z I
e
=l __ 1. 08
I
LJ
e
=
0. 52m
L 3.2
q' owobrc=
f= a
=0.53m
Since e is less thon orowobre, eccentricity is in the middle third.
.'. The structure is sofe ogoinst overturning.
Check bearing pnessure:
p**=*
(,.tJ
=#('.s'n)
=
&.,
n
,
< 180
uf
(mox. ollowed for soil)
.'. The structure is sofe ogoinst sinking.
Check sliding:
Assume thot the friction coeflicient between block ond soil, p =
0.5
XH=Fr =70k N
F
!V
=
0.5 x 260.5
=
130.2 kN
Foctor of sofety 0goinst sliding:
=
pIv
=
-P9.2*
=
1.g6 > 1.5 oK
IH
70
.'. The structure is sofe agoinst sliding.
Hence, t}te structure os designed is odequote. The finol design including the reinforcement bors con be seen in Figure 8.5. A
1:1.5:3 mix concrete with reinforcement pottern os shown in the figure is recommended for the mochine foundotion since the
structure must be rigid cnd strong enough to lvithstond the forces. A 50 mm cover (cleor spocing between the bors ond the
edge of the concrete surfoce) should be provided for the reinforement bors. Such cover provides pmtection for the rcinfone
ment bcrs ogainst corrosion ond other odverse effects.
I
j
I
\
,"
Note thot os con be seen in Figure 8.5, a 100 mm width of sand ond gravel hos been ploced ot the periphery of the mochine
foundation down to the depth of the powerhouse floor. This will structurolly isolote the mochine foundotion from the
powerhouse floor so thot the dyncmic forces (such os vibrotions) ore not tronsfened to the floor ond wclls. Crocla olong the
powerhouse floor ond walls have been observed where the mochine foundations hove not been structurolly isoloted. The 50
mm thick bituminous surfoce prevents the grovel ond sond from being compocted (ond hence the possibility of tronsfening
forces to the powerhouse floor). This is done by pouring hot bitumen (os used in block topped roods). The 50 mm thick
concrete blinding provides on even surfoce for reinforced concrete work ofthe mochine foundotion.
AIso note thqt, if o belt drive system is required, the mochine foundotion should be extended to cover it. However, the depth of
foundotion for the belt drive con be lowercd to 300 mm but with similqr reinforcement
pottern.
Bose f rome
(dimensims
ore to be
-
l t
l l
' l l
l l
t l
I t
l l
r l
' r==J
2 .
. l
t . , .
- t
. t
5Omm thi ck bi l umi nous srrfoce
5Omm thi ck
bl i ndi ng
(
l : 5: 6)
Anch bol t s
450
Notes
1. All dimensions ore in mm.
2. A minimum of six 20 mm diometer, 700 mm long onchor bors ore to be used to fix the bose frome
foundotion.
3. 10 mm diometer Tor steel bors ore to be used for reinforcement. Moximum spocing to be 150 mm
mm on other foces. Lop length sholl be 400 mm minimum.
4. Minimum reinforcement cover sholl be 50 mm.
5. Structurql concrete shqll be 1:1.5:3 mix.
t o t he mqchrne
in turbine pit ond 200
Fi gure 8.5 Proposed mochi ne foundoti on secti on for Exompl e 8.1
135
E.5 Tqilrqce
E.5.1 GENEn T
Th toilroce is the finol civil structuft thot conveys the design
flow. Similor to the heodroce, opn chonrel or pipes con be
used for the toilroce section. Toihoce chonnels of the
ftonlce
mhi-hydro ond Solleri Chiolso schemes ore shown in Photo-
grophs 8.5 ond 8.6 Rspectively.
often, inodequote ottention is given to tie design ond
construction ofthe toilroce since the flow ot this stoge does not
contribute towods power production. However, such o
proctice con result in inodequote depth ofthe tqilroce pit or
erosior ofslopes, which could threoten the powerhouse
structul,
8.52 I'ESIGN OF THE TAIIRACE CIIANNEL
Design of the toilroce chqnnel is similor to thot of the heodloce
csnol discussed in chopter 4. However, since heodloss does not
need to be minimised o higher veiuciw con usuolly be ollowed,
within the limits givn in'lbble 4.1. Not thot ot higher
velocities o strongr grode ofmortor or concrete is rquired to
resist erosion. Reinfored concrcte moy be economic for o steep
dnnnel os shown in Figure 8.6.
Note thot the downstrom end of the toihoc must be
orronged so thot thel is no donger oferosior either by the river
or by the flow from the toilr0ce. Idolly the dischorge point
should be orto mck or large boulde$. In erudible moteriol o
sti.lling bosin moy be required to dissipote the energy ftom o
steeD toilroce chonnI.
E.53 DESIGN OF IAIIIACE PIPE
lfdue to site conditions, o pipe is rEquired for the toilroc, the
design procedur discussed in Section 4.5 (Heodrocr pipe,
chopter 4) should be used t0 size the pipe. similor to o toihoce
chonnel. o higher heodloss con be ollowed for the pipe.
f HDPE pipe is used, the velocity should be limited to
3 m/s ond the pipe should be loid t0 o uniform grodient. Higher
Phoro 8.5 Toilmc. dlonnel ofthe
Jhonlae
mini.hydm sdeme Photo 8.6 Toilroce dnruIel of the soleri chiolso mini-hydm scheme
mi ncorer:5Omm
Fioull E.6 R4info@d concrrte roillo(e chonftl
136
velocities 0r non-uniform grodient con result in oir entenoln_
ment ond surge problems.
Ifpossible, the toilrqce should empty onto lorge rocks
qt
the riverbonk so thqt there is no erosion
qt
the confluence.
E.6 Checldist for
powerhouse
ond toilroce
ls the powerhouse locoted obove the oppropriote flood level?
(Refer
to Section 8.2)
Is the powerhouse
oreo stoble? Refer to Chopter 9 for
further detoils on stobility.
Hos odequote spoce been ollowed inside the power-
house such thot oll equipment con fit in ond permit
occess
without difliculty?
Hos the mochine foundqtion been sized such thot it is
sofe ogoinst overturning, beoring cnd sliding? Also, be sure to
structurclly isolote the mochine foundotion.
o Is o chonnel or o pipe odequote for the toilroce? Hove
the velocity limits been checked?
r Is the toilwoter likely to couse erosion ot the
riverbonk?
737
9. Slope stabilisqtion
9.1 Overview
Nepol's mountoin slops, porticulorly the slopes ofthe Middle
Mountoins, ore undergoing ropid chonges due to rivr cutting,
weothering, ond soil erosion. The rote ofsoil erosion is very
iltense in the Middle Mountoins becouse ofthe subtropicol
clim0te ond intense rqirfqll (2000 to 2500 mm per yeor folling
',,dthh
3 to 4 months). This oreq is
qlso
widely cultivoted using
i[igoted terroces ond heovily deforested due to populotion
pressuRs. Poor woter monogement ond forest mismonogement
h this oreo hov ld to further dcline of the hill slopes. The
n0turcl processes coupled with mon s influence hove led to
Iordslids, ond degrqdotion ofhill slopes offecting the
sustoinobility ond durobility of irrigotion chonnels, wqter
supply systems, micro-hydro schemes ond other development
work.
It is not possible to completely chck these nqturol
processes, however it is possible to conuol them by oppropriote
choice ofmonogement, design ond construction pructices. The
underlying principle behind slope stobilisotion meosures is to
stQbilise hill slopes 0nd river bonks so os t0 protect th micrc-
hydm schemes.
Most slope stqbilisotion prcblems con be ffectively
t0ckid by moking sure thqt th hill slopes ore dry
0y
diverting
th surfoc w0ter from the slopes), constructing retoining wolls
0s well os undrtoking bio-enginering mosurs such os
plonting oppropriote vegetotion. Note thot dry slops on more
stobl thon soturoted ones ond londslids oenerolly occur on
wet slopes.
Photo 9 I Unsrobl dops orc o thrEot lo schemes.This powerbouse wos
destmyed by o londdide.
Retoining structures such os dry stone mosonry wolls,
gobions 0nd teffocing ore the most common method used to
stobilise slopes in mico-hydro schemes. In most micm-hydro
schemes constructing rinforced concRte rtoining wolls is not
feosible due to their cost.
In the long term, prcventive bio-engineering meqsurcs
would be more effectiv, sustoinqble ond cheoper thon Imediol
works. These m0surcs will often need the continued mointe-
nonce commitment ofthe community
9.2 Implicotions of noturol
geologicol processes
Soil erosion, river cutting, weothering, ond slope foilurs hove
implicotions for dsign, construction, operotion ond mqinte-
nonce of micro-hydro schemes.
fuvr cutting cqn
qllect
intokes in severol woys, besides
triggering slope foilures, thot moy domoge o portion of
heodroce conol, foundotions ofsettling bosin, crcssings ond
powerhouse. For exomple, meqndering vers con leove intokes
high ond dry Similorly, degrading rivers con rnder intokes
usel ess.
When heodroce cqnols ore built on hill slopes where
surfoce erosion hos
qdvonced
to o stoge where gullies hov
olrody formed, there ore greqter sks ofconol foilure due to
depning ond nlorgement ofthe gullies.
The moin couse ofgully formotion is excessive run-off
due to deforestotiorl, overgrozing cnd burning ofthe vegetotion.
Excovotion work con olso trigger soil emsion. The
following is recommended to reduce the risk ofslope foilum due
to xcovotion work:
cotch droins c0n be constructed obove the top ofon
excovotion, diverting surfoce woter to o sofe oreo.
When excovoting for conol construction, to prevent
surfoce erosion fresh hill cuts ond exposed slopes of
chonnel bonks must be quickly coverd with topsoil so
thot vegetotion cqn be re-estoblished.
Spoil from excovotions should be corefully disposed ofso
thot soil erosion is not initioted.
Wherever possible conols should hove b0l0rced cut ond
fill sections to ovoid too much excovotion ond exposurc
offrogile loyers.
i
i l
: t
' ! l
139
. Provide odequote berm width on the hillside ofheodroce
c0nols, to stop sh0llow londslips blocking the flow ond
cousing overtopping, which leods to erosion ofdownhill
sl ops.
9.3 Bio-engineringworks
All engineeriDg meosurcs such 0s
ptoining
wqlls ond check
doms should be well supplmented with bio-ngineering
meosures os for os procticoble.
Plqnting gross or shrubs on the freshly cut hill or the
londslide oreo
qre
exomples ofbio-nginering meosuls. Fost
growing, dep rooted orld dense cover type ofvegetotion thot is
oppropriote to the locol environment should be used for such
Purposes.
only deep-rooted trces should be used for bio-engineering
purposes, ond they should not be plonted so close to conols or
structurcs thot their roots could cous piping or structurol
domoge. At leost 3 metres cleororlce is recommended. Fost
growing trees thot do not h0ve intens root systems should be
ovoided since they moy foll due to their own weight during
stoIIns.
once the slopes hove been stobilised, cole should be toln
to ensure thqt thele is no funher overgrozing.
9.4 Retoiningstructures
Retoining wolls ore stmcturs thot support the bockfi.ll ond
surchorge lood fmm the odditionol conol width or plotform
over the wolls in hill sections. Though the per metre cost of
conol construction rrquiring retoining wolls is mon thon
constructing the some length by cutting inside th hill, the use
of retoining wolls sometimes becomes essentiol.
The most common types ofrctoining wqll used in micro-
hydro schemes ore grovity wolls ofgobions or cement mosonry
These depend on the moss of the structure to rsist overturning.
Their design depnds on the woll densiry soil pqrometen,
droinoge ond looding conditions, typicolly Esulting in o bose
width of0.40 to 0.65 times the hight. The designs shown in
Figurps 9.1 ond 9.2 0re therefor sofe, but conservotive in mony
conditions.
For high or long wolls it will b economicol to design for
the spcifrc site conditions. site specific designs should olso be
mode wherc the bockfill is inclined rother thon horizontol.
The wolls should be checked for overturning, sliding ond
beoring pressure, os described for onchor blocks in Chopter T.
Altemotively rtfer to stondord cMl engineering texts such os
Photo 9.2 Mosonry stepr for energy dissipotion ond contml of spillwoy woter
Although costly. eloborote contlol is essentiol wheR slop6 ore vuinemble to
emsion
{Siklis)
Ref. 7. (The unit weight offilled gobions is 1+18 l(N/nr,
depnding on the unit weight ofthe rock fill ond ossuming 3G
35% voids).
Woll foundotions must be deep enough to be sofe ogoinst
ercsion: normqlly
qt
leost 0.5 m below ground levI, but see
Section 3.8 for river worla. Lined toe droirs moy be used in
erodible oreos to corry seepoge woter sofely cwoy from the woll
foundotion.
C,obion l?toining wolls should be constructed with on
inclinotion 0f 1096, seeFiguE 9.1. Where gobions or to be built
on sond or flne soils, o loyer of filter cloth should be ploced
between the foundotion ond the gabions. The gobion boxes
should be loced together olong oll edgs ond stptched beforc
filling with roclc The rock should be pocked with the minimum
ofvoi ds.
Stone mosonry wolls con be constructed in l:4 cment/
sond mortor os shown in Figur 9.2. Such wolls or suitoble for
retoined heights ofup to 2 to 3 m. The slop ofthe front foce
moy be steepened ifnecessory prcvided thot the bose width is
mqintoined. Tte reqr foce of the woll should be left rouoh to
140
ho9.SGrbion ot the ioe of on unstoble slope
hcrcqse friction with the bockfiil. Weepholes must be provided
to rclieve woter pressure behlnd the w0ll, ond their mouths
should be protected with ccrefully ploced stones. Bockfill
behind the woll should be free'droinrng grovel or stones; ifthe
Rtoined soil is fine, o filtr cloth should be ploced os shown to
pEvent the soi l poni cl s bl ocki ng the drqi noge.
, Oa. 6.
9.5 Terrocing ond dry stone woll
Lock ofeffort in looking for oltemote woll types. such os
teffocrng 0nd dry stone wolls often rules out the devlopment
ofothr techniques thot ore mor economicol and duroble.
Minor londslid oreos con be stobilised by constructing
dry ston trroces as con be seen in Figure 9.3. The overoll slope
ofsuch terroces shoul d be l i mi ted to 30' (i .e. terroce wi drh
should be twice its height). 500 mm thick dry stone wolls
should b used for the verticol foce of the rerroces. Such dry
stone wolls retoin the soil behind ond ollow the su oce woter
to droin out.
Constructi og smol l cotch droi ns on the terrocs hel ps to
reduc soil erosion by droining the surfoce woter
An olternotrve method used to stobilise the steeper
Jhonkre
mini-hydro powerhouse slope is discussed in Box 9.1.
Pioto9.4 Stone mosonry con providslope
rlobilisotion olong th mute oflhe penstock (Borpok)
ri
5
I
I
il
":i
h, f f i 8, f f i
1. 0 1. 0
2. 0 1. 5
3. 0 2.0
4. 0 2.5
5. 0 3.5
Fi gure 9.1 Gobi on retoi ni ng wol l
, 300,
F+;+l
l mrn.l
75 dia.
weep holes
@2mdc
Fi gurc 9.2 Stone m0sonry retoi ni ng wol l
Note:
1. Cqtch drqins often lined with imperme'
oble lining mqteriols (i.e. stone
mosonry) to ovoid infiltroti0n. Woter
collected from cqtch droins needs to be
droined to neorest nqturol droin.
Londsl i de
Fi gure 9.3 Terroci ng ond dry stone wol l s to retoi n sl opes
t qz
In order to increqse the gross heod ofthe
Jhonkre
minihydro scheme, it wos decided to excqvote o 20 m depth ot the power-
house oreq. This required stobilising the hill slope behind the powerhouse oreq. This
qreq qlso
hod to droin ground woter due to
seepoge from the cultivqted terrqces (paddy fields) obove. When irrigotion woter wos provided for the poddy frelds significont
seepoge wos observed ot the powerhouse oreo. After considering vorious olternotives, it wos decided to use o grid of mosonry
beqms ond columns infllled with dry stone ponels.
Photogrophs 9.5 ond 9.6 show the hillside during excovotion
ond ofter the construction ofthe mqsonrv orid.
The hill slopes were frrst excqvqted
qt
2:1 to 3:1 slopes (V:H) with two intermediote berms olong the hillslope
qnd
one ot the
sides. Then the grid of stone mosonry (in 1:4 cement: sand mortor) beoms ond columns with dry stone mosonry infill ponels
wos constructed olong the excovqted slopes. The beoms ond columns ore 500 mm wide ond 300 mm deep. The distqnce
between the columns is 2 m ond the verticol distonce between the beoms is 1.5 m (moximum). The dry stone infill soved the
cost of cement
qnd
focilitqtes drqinoqe. Cqtch droins hove been nrovided ot the berm levels.
To dote this 16
-
20 m high structure is stoble. During the monsoon ground woter thot hos seeped from the poddy fields obove
con be seen droining out from the weep holes
qnd
the dry stone ponels.
Photo 9 6 Mosonry grid ot powerhouse slope
9.6 Check doms ond gully control
Gullies thot ore octive or smoll streoms where scouring of the
riverbed is prominent con be controiled by constructing check
doms. Check dqms ore smoll wqlls thqt prevent further erosion
on the wqtercourse ond
qlso qllow
deposition ofbed loqd
upstreom ofit
qt
o stoble grodient.
For smoll gullies thot ore oniy octive during the m0ns00n,
the check dom could consist of o simple dry stone woll. For
smoll streoms, bed erosion cqn be controiled by using gobion
check doms.
Gobion check doms hove been used to control riverbed
scouring ot theJhorkot micro-hydro scheme. The riverbed ot the
Jhorkot
intoke oreo hod been scoured by more thqn 3 m ot
143
some plqces ond the scour depth wos gtting deeper. It was felt
thot further scouring olong the riverbed would cquse totql
foilure of the existing gobion woll olong the left bqnk of the
river. A series of gobion check dcms wos constructed ot the
intoke oreo to prevent further scouring and to fccilitote the
deposition of bed lood. The first check dom is shown in Figure
9.4. Note thot to prevent the gobion wires from being broken by
rolling boulders, 100 mm thick ploin concrete wos provided ot
the top surfoce of the gcbion woll. A minimum foundqtion
depth of 1 m from the lowest streombed level hos been provided
for oll check doms.
These check doms were constructed by the end ofJune
1998. They hove survived the first monsoon floods ond
culrently their conditions ore being monitored.
9.7 Maintenqnce
Retoining woils, check doms ond other slope stqbilisotion
structures should be inspected regulorly; specificolly before
qnd
ofter every monsoon. Remediol works should be done os soon
os ony problems ore noticed. For exomple, the gobion crotes, if
broken, should be repoired soon. Similorly, if stones ore missing
from the dry stone mosonry retoining wolls or check doms,
they should be replcced.
The droinoge system ofthe stobilised slope should be well
mqintoined. Deposition of boulders, grovel or soil in the droin
should be removed. If the ploster or mosonry is broken, it
should be repcired. Note that stcbility problems con occur in
even o well stobilised slope ifthe droinoge system stops
functioning.
It is importont to note thot some structures such
qs
gobion wclls ore not mecnt to be permanent on their own.
They moy deteriorote ond collopse. However, once oppropriote
vegetotion over these structures hos token root ond hos
mqtured repoir of these structures moy not be necessory since
the roots o[the vegetation will stcbilise the soil moss.
In the cose ofbio-engineering meosures, ony plonts thot
ore missing should be reploced. If possible, newly plqnted oreos
should be fenced to prevent grozing of
qnimols.
l OOmm t hi c k PCC( 1. t . s r J )
l nl oke cdnol
5000
Dry
woll
Gobi ons
Note: All dimensions ore in mm.
Fi gure 9.4 A gobi on check don ot the i ntoke ofJhorkot mi cro-hydro scheme
144
10 Innovctions
10.1 Generol
A ru.mbI of innovotive ideos, Iseolth, opplicotions ond pilot
pmjects Rlevort to micm-hydro technology thot hove not yet
bem fully field tested, especiolly in the Nepolese context, orE
discussed in this choptr. some opplicotiors orc in the reseolth
ood development stoge, others hove beetr successfully imple
Ented in other countries or corded out os "pilot pmjects' in
Nep0l.
102 Cosndqintoke
A Coondo intok hos o speciol screen thot utilises the tendency
offluids to follow o surfoce. This is krown os the "coondo
dct'. As shown in Figup 10.1, th Coondo scRn is instolld
olong the crest of the diversion weir ond is shoped in the ogee
crlrv configurotion. A curve occelerotion plote
qt
the top of the
ssrm stobilises ond occelerotes the flow. As the flow posses
ovs tfu srEn surfoce, th sheoring oction of t}Ie bors com-
Dind with the Coondo effect seporotes the flow. Cleon woter
p6ses down thmugh the screen whros sediment ond dbris
Fss
ovr the screen to rejoin the woter couBe below the weir.
0n dvers corrying cobbles snd boulders dudng flood, the
Cmfllo int0le must be corfirlly locoted s0 thot heovy bedlood
not p0ss over the scRen ond domoge it.
The potmtiol odvontoges of th Coondo intoke or on
portio or sites which sufrer ftom exposure to high silt lood or
which offer scope for cost sovings in the heodroce. In the n$t
cose, the intola con Educe the need for lorge or multiple
settling bosins. In the second cose, wher o site loyout is
suitoble, it moy b possible to commmce the penstocl run
dinctly ftom the Coondo, goining heod ond ovoiding the need
for o heodroce conol. 0f course, this might imply thot the
penstocl is longer thon other potentiol loyouts or thot it runs
close to t]rc river. A thorough frnonciol ond technicol onolysis
of the options is lquild beforE msking o decision on the
suitobility of the C0ondo for o porticulor site.
The Coondo scEens ort fobricoted to o high tolronc
from stoinless steel. The supplier ofthe Coondo screns (olso
colled "Aquo Shor ScEens") in Europe, Du.los Limited, Woles lX,
doims t}lot scEens con be pmduced with 0.5 mm to even 0.2
mm deor spccings, whidl diminote 90% of 0.25 mm ond 0.1
mm portides Espectively. Both types of screen diminote oll
1 mm pqrticles. In most micm-hydro systems this would olso
eliminote the need for o settling bosirl
The flow copocity of these ss?ens is 1,10!/s per metre of
weir length. A scRen with o flow copocity of40
Us
(0.3 m
width) costs obout Us$ 1380 (197 price).
A Coondo intola hos been testd ot 0 mioo-hydro site in
Woles by Dulos Ltd., in conjunction with nDG, UK The design
flow of this micm-hydrc scheme is
,10
l/s ond the intoke is
shown in Photogroph 10.1.
Wcir
werf lorv
Rou to
powerptonl
l0l A Coondo intol(e scrEen
Photo 10.1 Coondo intole ofo micrchydlo scheme in Woles, uX
Over o six.month period, the performonce
ofthe screen
hos shown the following chorocteristics:
r Around 90% of sediment between 0.5 mm ond i mm
diometer wos excluded.
o Some build up ofdlgoe wos noted, but this did not
inhibit flow during th triol priod.
. The effect on performonce due to ice wos not noticeoble.
even ot temperotuEs 12'C below freezing point.
Tests ore rtquircd over o longer period to check for
corrosion ofthe screens ond effect ofcontinued olgoe growth,
porticulorly in wormer temperotures.
More informotion on Coondo screens con be obtoined
from:
DUI"qS Limited,
Mochyr lth, Powys sY20 8sX, Woles, UK
Fox: +44 (0)1654 781390
e.moil: dulos@gn.opc.org
10.3 De-beqder for HDPE pipes
As discussed in Chopter 4 (Box 4.7), HDPE pipes orjoined by
hot wdding which melts ond fuses the ends together. This
Ieods to roisd "beods" on the inside 0nd outsid ofth pipe os
shown in Photogroph 10.2. The extemol beod is not o problem
but the internql beod promotes blockqges ond significont heod
loss. An effective de-beqder would reduce the rcughnss volue
for HDPE from 0.06 mm (Toble 4.3) t0 0.03 mm.
A "de-beoder"
tool hos beer designed (for IT Nepol)to
rcmove the intemol beods ftom HDPE pipes while the joints qre
still hot
[i..,
hot de-beoding). This equipment hos been de.
signed to rcmove beods for pipe diometers up to 250 mm. lt is
still in the experimentol phsse ond lquiles some developrnent
for use in the field.
As shown in Photogroph 10.3, the de-beoder consists ofo
mild steel shoft with o sleeve on which o bush spring looded to
o locking collor (vio on ,tllen key) is ploced. There ore three
hordend steel blodes (cutter orms) thot oI pin connected by
Rctongulor steel bors to the bush. By unlocking the bush the
connecting pin con be slid up the sleeve to inclose the cutting
diometer
Photo I0.3 De-beoder tool
De-beoding with this tool is done by first unlocking the
bush so thot th tool con fit inside the pipe. A mild steel md
with 0 hondle is connected to the de.beoder such thot the
hondle sticks out ofthe pipe. The rod is supported byo number
of mild steel discs inside the pipe (smoller thon the HDPE pipe
diometer) for loterol stobility. The de-beoder is then ploced
inside ofthe pipe such thot it is obout 100 mm in front ofthe
prcposedjoint. Th rodius 0fthe cutting orms orc then
onongd by sliding the bush such thot the blodes ole in contoct
with th inside pipe surfoce. once the blodes snugly fit on the
pipe surfoce, thel is o clicking sound indicoting thot the
cutting orms hove been locked. As soon
qs
the two pipe ends
orejoined by heot welding os discussed in Chopter 4, the de-
beoder is pushd forword till the blodes come in contoct with
the beods. The hondle is then tumed ond the de-beoder is
pushed forword which rcmoves th bod.
Photo 10.2 weld beods on llDP!
joint
surfoce
146
This de-beoder wos tested ot Nepol Yontro sholo Energ]1
Kothmondu, on o 200 rnm pipe os shown in Photogroph 10.4.
De-beoding wos tried on o
joint
obout 2 m from one end 0f the
pipe. the test wos portiolly successfi:1. It wos not possible to
Itmove the entir strip of the beod. Port of the beod ond some
thin stronds were left on thejoint,
qs
con be seen in Phorogroph
10.4.
Photo 10.4 HDPI pipjoint debeoded using the de-boder
The following observotions wI mode in the workshop:
The mojor constroint wos thot the rodius ofthe cutter
blodes is nxed ond the blods do not work eouollv well
on oll pipe diomders within the ronge.
f d-beqding is not stqrted immediotely ofter the pipes
oI
joined (i.e. within 30 seconds), the beods connot be
Rmoved,
The tuming ofthe hondle ond pushing ofthe de-beoder
hos to be contmlled. A suddenjerk pushes the de-beoder
beyond thejoint.
The de-beoding process is olso homprcd ifthe pipe ends
ore not totolly circulor.
Hence, design improvements ore rcquird befoE tNs de-
beodercon be used in the field.
Commeftiol de-beoders ore olso ovoiloble but they ore
expensive. Some such commemiol de-beqders con olso remove
beods oftr thejoints hove cooled (i.e.
cold de-beoding). Photo-
gmph 10.5 shows
q
section ofon HDPE pipe which wos cold de-
beoded usino
q
commerciol de-beoder.
Photo 10.5 HDPE pip*joint deboded using o conmeniol debod4 fte smoll
ring in fiont ofthe piF scction is rhe bod.
turthr informotion on commerciol de-beoden con be
obtoined from:
Fxsion Gmup PLC
Chesterfield Troding Estote,
chesterfield S41 9Pz,
Englond,
(JK
Faxt +
aApl7246
4fi472
10.4 Bursting disc
As discussed in Chopter 6, pnstock pipes for micm-hydro
schemes ore designed to occommodote the surge heod when
setting the pipe thicloess. An incftose in th pipe thickness
olso increoses the cost 0f the pipe. Funhermore, depending on
the locotion of the site, drc tronsportotion cost olso incposes.
In o high heod scheme with o long penstock olignment, the
inclose in cost to cccommodote the sume heod con be sionifi-
cont.
TheR or mony wdys to guord ogoinst surge domoge but
most involve significont cost (whm, for sofety Iosons the llow
hos t0 b constroined) or involve greot colt in instollotion ond
mointenonce.
The "bursti4 disc' technology moy pmvide o
plioble
mons of sofely rleosing the excess heod in cose ofsurge
pressure. A "bursting disc" is
q
commerciolly ovoiloble over.
pnssurc sofety device mqde fiom o bdttle moteriol such os
grophite or 0n oppropriote metol, or o suitoble metol which is
dsigned to ruptuE extEmly quickly once o criticol plssul is
exceeded, such os the surge heqd induced inside the penstock
pipe in the event of o
jt
blockoge. Such discs or connmiolly
used in the chemicol industry to protect pipdines ond pressure
147
Y
vessels (thqt conveygqs ond petroleum fluids) from high surge
pressure. Pipes thot hove bursting discs do not ned to be
designed to occommodote surge plessules. Photogrqph 10.6
shows o commerciolly ovoiloble bursting disc (including the
bu$t plote). Note thot scrotch lines
qre
mode in th plote
during monufocture to introduce weql:nesses in th plote such
thot it bursts occording to the pottern shown in Photogroph
10.6 once the Dresc bed
pressure
is reoched.
Photo 10 6 A commerdolly ovoiloble bursting disc
Most grophite discs ore flot, deform very slightly under o
pressurc differcntiol ond becouse oftheir physicol pmperties, ot
the set plessule shor instontoneously oround the periphery of
the disc octive orco giving immdiotely full bore venting. Such
discs orc suitoble for verting ofboth liquids ond goses. The disc
is monufoctured to burst within its toleronce onJy when
instolled in o suitobly designed ond monufocturcd holder
some ofthe moin odvontoges ofgrophite bursting discs
ore thot they ore not odversely offected by misoligned pipe
work or ovrtorquing ofpipe flonge bolts. Due to the sum-
ciently high burst pressure, this type ofdisc does not requirc
bockpressure support to withstond full vocuum pressure. The
discs hove 0n operoting rotio of90%
qnd
ore guoronteed to
rupture within o moximum of30 milliseconds.
The discs ore
qlso
inexpensive ond in cose ofrupture due
to surge pressure, oll thqt is
pquired
to recommission the pipe is
to Rploce the grophite plot. Henc, this technology could be
highly suitoble for micro-hydro schemes including those locoted
ln remote oleos.
Theoreticol resorch on the opplicobility ofbursting discs
for micro-hydro schemes hos been undertoken by Dulos in
conjunction with worwick Universiry The bursting disc
orrongement proposed by th study is shown below in Figure
10.2.
FigurE 10.2 Proposed orrongement for buNting disc instollotion in micrc-hydm
schemes
Note thot in cose ofthe rupture ofthe disc, the flow
would dischorge inside the turbine cssing. such on orronge-
ment is well suited in micro-hydro schemes since o seporote
flow control structur is not required.
The comlusions ofth obove study werc os foUows:
. The disc could reduce surge pressure by 60%
-
70% ifthe
subsequnt flow rote through the bronching orronge-
ment is only moderotely reduced. The rroson why the
entirc surge heod connot be eliminoted is becouse the
diometer ofthe disc is usuolly smoller thon the penstock
diometer ond hence the flow is reduced.
r The penstock sofety fqctor could be Educed from 3.5 to
2.5.
These theoreticol findings need to be thoroughly verified
by octuolly instolling the discs in existing micro-hydro schemes
ond monitoring the rcsults. ITDG Nepol hos plons to field test
the bursting discs in some existing micro-hydro schemes.
More informotion on the opplicobility ofbursting discs
for micm-hydm schemes cqn be obtoined from Dulos Limited
(some oddrcss os obove).
Informotion on commerciol bursting discs con olso be
obtoined from the following manufocturer:
IMI Moffton Limitd
Woboston Rood, Fodhouses,
Wolverhompton WV10 6QJ
Englond,lx
Fox: + 44
l0)
7902 397?92
10.5 Flexible steel support
pier for
Jhorkot
micro-hydro
The 36 kWJhorkot micro-hydro scheme is locqted in Mustong
District, Nepol. This is o community owned scheme ond is
monoged by the
Jhorkot
Elect ncotion committee. ITDC Nepol
hos been involved in providing technicol support for refurbish-
ment work of this scheme for some time.
148
Similor to other oreos of Mustqng, the topogrophy of the
project oreo consists of frogile ond unstqble slopes ond is prone
to londslides. The intoke ond the initiql heqdrqce conol have
been domoged frequently by Iondslides ond floods.
Although the slope olong the penstock olignment is
relotively stoble compored to the intoke oreo, it is weok ond
0ls0 prone to lqndslides. The existing mosonry support piers
storted sinking due to their own weight os well os the weight of
the penstock pipe ond the woter inside it. Hence, the penstock
(flonge connected) storted to sqg
qt
vorious ploces.
As port ofthe preporotion ofthis text, o pilot project wos
corried out to design
qnd
instoll steel support piers for the
Jhorkot
scheme with ossistonce from Mr. Shyom Roj Prodhon of
NYSE. The design criterio were os follows:
r The support pier hod to be light, to minimise self-weight.
r It hod to be fobricqted using ports thot could be corried
by porters or mules.
Jhorkot
is obout holf o doy's wolk
from the district
qirport
ond 5 dovs'wqlk from the
neorest roodheod.
r The design hod to sllow for the
sinhng of the foundotion. ln
cose ofsinking ofthe ground
below the foundotions, the piers
should not pull the penstock pipe
down olong with it.
The design ofthe support pier ond
the foundotion ore shown in Figures 10.3
ond 10.4 respectively. The totcl weight
ofq 2 m support pier is 60 kg (excluding
the foundotion work) whereos o
mosonry pier of simiior height would
weigh 4000 kg.
Note thot such support piers
should be instolled perpendiculor to the
penstock clignment (not verticolly) since
they ore only resisting force F, (see
Chopter 7).
Figup 10.3 Flexible steel support pier for
Jhorkot
micro-hyd ro scheme
The top section of the pier consists of o chonnel which is
pin connected to two legs thot hove turnbuckles. The penstock
pipe rests on the chonnel
qnd
the pin connection ollows the
chonnel some rototion such thqt it is perpendiculor to the
penstock olignment. Two holes hove been provided on the
chonnel to clomp the penstock with o 12 mm diometer bor. The
turnbuckles con be odjusted to fine tune the height ofthe
support piers (up to 300 mm) during instollotion ond in cose the
foundction sinks in the future.
The bottom of the turnbuckles (40 mm rods) Iit inside o
hollow pipe os shown in Figure 10.3. In cose the ground
beneoth the foundotion sinks, the suppofi pier structurr below
the turnbuckles drops down olong with the foundotion ond
only the top port (up to the turnbuckle legs) hongs with the
penstock. Hence the penstock pipe is not drogged down with
the pier in cose ofsinking.
The bottom port of the pier consists of ongles which orr
bolted bock to bock (Figure 10.3). Bolt holes ot o distonce 0f150
mm ore provided for coqrse adjustment of the pier. The bottom
e
aO arF
ffi
E_
al crDx A. a
. l O
O E A l ! . O n
K
149
stclo|l t-A
t'
sqnoN 8- B
Figure 10.4 Foundotion for
the
Jhorkot
fl exible support
pler
ongles orc pin connected to the foundotion so thot the moments
due to thermol exponsion 0fthe penstock pipe oI not token by
the support pier or the foundotion. During instollotion os well
os loter in cose the foundotion sinks, coo$e odjustment con be
mode using the bolt holes ofthe bottom ongles ond then fine
tuned using the turnbuckles ot the top.
The top ond bottom ports ofthe pier hove fixed heights.
The length ofth middle portion (ongles bolted to chonnels)is
voried such thot the totol pir height is quol to th required
height. Note thor this support pier con be dismontld such thot
therE ore 12 individuol pieces (including the 12 mm stinup bor
to connect to the penstock).
18 support piers ronging fmm 1.0 m to 2.6 m height hove
been fobdcoted bosed 0n this design. To ensup thot the support
pier would function well. one
(2.5 m totol height) wos tested ot
the mqnufqctuEr's workshop (iIYSE) os shown in Photogrophs
10.7 ond 10.8. About 500 kg ofoxiol lood (moximum
compressive lood expected on the pier) wos opplied on the pier
There wos no observqble effect on the pier (dformotion or
deflection of ongles) during the test of obout 2 hours. lt wos
even possible to roise the height ofthe pier by rctoting the
turnbuckles with the full test lood 0f500 ka.
As ofJu.ly 1998, oll 18 support piers hove ben instolled ot
the
Jhorkot
scheme. Thir prformonce is currently being
monitored.
Photo 10.7 Lood test ofsteel support pier (side elvotion)
150
$I
10.6 PVC pipes
PVC pipes ore frquently usd by Intermediote Technology for
pnstocks in its micro-hydro progromme in the northem Andes.
one ofthe first schemes to benefit wos Choldn. This projecthos
o copocity of25 kW ond o heod of96 metrs. The pnstock
diometer is 200 mm. Connection of pipe lengths wos through
glued
spigot ond socketjoinrs. On commissioning, it wos found
thot pinhole leoks oppeored in thejoints. o prcblem thot wos
0ddressed through the
qpplicotion
ofodditiorql resin. The
whole length ofthe penstock wos buried for protection
from
sunlight, onim0ls ond othr potentiol sources ofdomoge.
10.7 Anchor block design
'lhe
stobility colculorions for onchor block design ore rime
consuming. A sprodsheet progrom for the stobility onolyses
hos ben written byJohn Bywoter to sped up rhe pmcess.
To dqte there is no monuol to occompony the progrom,
nor evidnce thot it hos been verified. However, the progrom
wos used to veriry th guidelines given in Sction 7.4.4. for
sizing 0nchor blocks for smoll schemes.
Photo l0E toqd test ofsreelsuppon pief (front elevotion)
151
11. References
1. Adom Horvey et.cl. (1993), Micro-Hydro Design Manual, A 5. Design Manuals for lrrigation Projects in Nepal (1990),
guide to small-scale water power schemes, Intermediote Plonning ond Design Strengthening Project (PDSP), His
Technology Publicotions, ISBN 1 85339 103 4. Mojesry's Government of Nepol, Ministry of Woter Re-
2. Allen R. Inversin (19861, Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook, A sources, Deportment of lrrigotion. Unitd Notions Develop-
Practical Guide to Design and Imflementation in Develcp- ment Progromme (NEP/85/013)/World Bonk.
ing Countries, NRECA Internotionol Foundotion, 1800 6. Salleri Chialsa Small Hydel Project (1983), Technicol Report,
Mossochusetts Avenue N. W., Woshington, DC 20036. DEH/SATA, rmco.
3. Helmut Louterjung/Gongolf Schmidt (1989), Planning of 7 . PN. Khonnq (lffil, Indian Practical Civil Engineer's
Intoke Structures, GATEIGTZ, Vieweg. Handbook, l5'h Edition, Engineer's Publishers, Post Box 725,
4. Itethodologies for estimoting hydrologic charscteistics of New Delhi
-
110001.
ungouged locations in Nepol (1990), HMG ofNepol,
Ministry of Woter Resources, Woter ond Energy Commis-
sion Secretqriot, Deportment ofHydrology ond
Meteorology.
153
Appendix A
-
Flow estimation
A.1 WECslDeportment of Hydrology and
Meteorology (DHMI method
41.1 PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING INSTANTANEOUS
FLOOD PEAK
i. From ovoilqble topogrophic mops, find out the cotch-
ment oreo (km' z)below 3000 m elevotion.
2. In the following equotion, input coefficients from Toble
A1.
Q
=
o (Areo below 3oo0m * 1) m3/s
where subscript o is either 2 veor or 100 veor return
period.
Toble A1 Prediction coefficients for instqntsneous flood
flows
RETURN PERIOD (YEARS) CONSTANT
COEFFICIENT (a)
POWER (B)
I
1
100
3. Flood peok dischorge,
Q",
for ony other return period con
A.I.2 PROCEDURE FOR ESTITUATING FLOW DUMTION
CURVE
1. From ovoiloble topogrophic mops, find out the cotch-
ment oreo below 5000 m elevotion.
2. Use the following equotions to colculote the flows. The
volues of monsoon wetness index cqn be reod from
Figure A3.
Q*
is the dischorge (m'/s) for the specified
probobility of exceedence.
hq*
- -3.5346+0.9398.In
(Areo bel ow 5000 m*1) +0.3739.
In (Monsoon wetness index)
lnQro.
= -3.4978+0.9814.
In (Areo below 5000 m* 1) +0.2670.
In (Monsoon wetness index)
lnQ,*
: -5.4357
*0.9824.In (Areo of bosin) *0.4408. In
(Monsoon wetness index)
l nQ*
: -5.9543+1.0070.
In (Areo of bosi n) *0.3231.In
(Monsoon wetness index)
l nQ**
: -6.4846*1.0004.In
(Areo of bosi n) *0.3015.In
(Monsoon wetness index)
l nQ**
= -4.8508f
1.0375.In (Areo bel ow 5000 m+1)
ln%rru
= -5.4776*1.0776.1n
(Areo below 5000 m+1)
.61
= -o.oe8e2
+0.0814e.
@ ' xtcrnr
AI3 PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING IONG TERM
AVEMGE MONTHTY FTOWS
1. From ovqiloble topogrophic mops, find out the cotch-
ment oreo below 5000 m elevotion.
2. In the following equotion, input coeflicients from Toble
A3 ond the volues of monsoon wetness index from
Figure A3.
Q,.on,on,h:
C. (Areo of bcsin)Ar. (Areo below 5000 m*1)Az.
.
(Monsoon wetness index)t
where subscript month denotes one of the months from
jonuory to December. A power of 0 indicotes thot porticulor
porometer does not enter into the equotion for thot month.
7. 8767
14. 630
0.8783
0.7342
i':'fiI'll"ii'"n'.(Ln
&2T s'c..qr)
where S is the stondord normol voriqte for the chosen
return period, from Toble A2, ond
, / Q, * \
r nr - I
\ Q, t
-rnqF
-
2.326
Toble A2 Volues of stondqrd normal voriate for vsrious
return periods
RETURN PERIOD (T) (Yrs) STANDARD NORMAL VARTATE (S)
2
5
10
z0
50
100
200
500
1000
5000
i0000
0
0.842
1.282
1.645
2.054
2.326
2.576
2.878
3.090
3.540
3.779
155
Table Al Ptediction coefficients for long trm
qvercge
monthly flows
MONTl{ CONSTANT
COEFFICIENT
POWER, AREA OF
BASIN (km1
Ar A2
POWER, AREA OF BASIN
BELOW 50fi) m +1 (km1
POWEROFMONSOON
WEINESS INDEX
4
Jonuory
Februory
Morch
April
Moy
June
July
August
September
0ctober
November
December
0.01423
0.01219
0.009988
0.007974
0.008434
0.006943
0.02123
0.02548
0.01677
0.009724
0.001760
0.001485
0
0
0
0
0
0.9968
0
0
0
0
0.%05
0.9s36
0.9777
0s7ffi
0.99r8
1.0435
1.0898
0
1.0093
0.9963
0.9894
0.9880
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.2610
0.2523
0.2620
0.2878
0.2508
0.3910
0.3607
Note: units of flow ore m3/s
A.2 Medium lrrigation Project
method
IMIPI
Procedure for estimoting meon monthly flows of o selected
cqtchment.
1. ln the low flow period from November to April, visit the
cqtchment in question ond moke one flow meosure-
ment. Ensure thot there hos been no heovy roinfoll
during the preceding few doys ond thot the woter level
is not fluctuoting ropidly.
2. Ascertoin ifthere ore significont upstreqm obstrqctions,
ottempt t0 quonriry them ond odd this omount t0 the
meosured flow
3. Estqblish in which hydrologicol region the cotchment
lies, from Figure A2. Divide the mecsured flow by the
non-dimensionol hydrogroph ordinote (Toble A4) for the
oppropriote month ond region. If the flow mecsurement
wos conducted ot the beginning or the end of the month,
it moy be necessory to interpolote between the two
relevqnt ordinotes from Toble A4. The result represents
the meon April flow to be expected in thot cotchment.
Tqke the April flow colculoted in step 3 ond multiply it
by eoch non-dimensionol ordinote from Toble 44. The
result is the hydrogrcph of meon monthly flows.
It is usefirl to compore the hydrogroph colculoted in step
4 with the oppropriote regionol hydrogroph depicted
omong Figures A4 to A10. To do this, divide eoch
ordinqte ofthe cotchment hydrogroph by the cotchment
oreo. Normolly, the colculoted hydrogroph will corre-
spond to the regionol hydrogroph within the limits
indicqted. The limits mcy be used os c rough guide to
the reliobility of flow in the cotchment. If the
hydrogroph lies outside the limits then it is not typicol,
due perhops to unusuol lond use or o typicol detoil of
topogrophy ond geology.
156
Tqble A4 Non.dimensioncl regionol hydrogrophs
MONTH RECION
Jonuory
Februory
Morch
April
Moy
June
July
August
September
0ctober
November
December
2.40
1.80
1. 30
1.00
z.ov
6.00
14.50
25.00
16.50
8.00
4. 10
3. 10
2.24
L .
( V
1.33
1.00
1 ) 1
7.27
18. 18
27.27
20.91
9.09
3.%
3.03
2.77
1.88
1.38
1.00
1.88
3. 13
13.54
25.00
20.83
70.42
5.00
3.75
2.59
1.88
1.38
1.00
2.19
3.75
6.89
27.27
20.97
6.89
5.00
3.M
2.42
t.82
1.36
1.00
0.91
2.73
77.27
13.94
10.00
6.52
4.55
3.33
2.03
r.62
7. 27
1.00
2.57
6.08
24.32
33.78
27.03
5.08
3.38
2.57
3.30
2.20
1.40
1.00
3.50
6.00
14.00
3s.00
24.N
t2.N
7.50
5.00
tt
I
t
fi
A3 Design exomple
Cotchment nome
Cotchment locotion
Hydrologicol region
Bqsin
qreo
Areq below 5000 m
Areo below 3000 m
Monsoon wetness index
Month ofgouging
Flow meosured
Q,o
=
e
(nroo+z.oN
W)=362
mr/s
bl FIow dumtion anrve
Solu Kholq
Solukhumbu
3
330 km'z
308.5 km'z
97.7 lglrr'z
1500
April
2.8 mr/s
0
5
20
40
60
80
95
100
PROBABILITY oF EXCEEDENCE (%) DISCMRGE (m3/s)
98.45
59.33
32.62
9.47
4.58
3.00
2.03
1.78
exomple:
l nQ*:
-3.4978
+ 0.98141n(308.5+1) + 0.26701n1500
=
4. 083+Q=gr ' oer =59. 33
lnQo*
= -
5.9543 + 1.00701n(330) + 0.3231 1n1500
=
2.248
->
Qn=
e22a
-
9'47
l n%r*=
-5.4716
* 1.0776 l n(308.5+1)
:0.708+Qrr=
eo",
=
2.03
Q,*
=
[-0.09892+
0.08149x r/1:ot.s+t112
=
l .z8
Figure A1 shows the cqtchment mqp.
A3.l WECSIDHMPROCEDURE
alFTod flows
RETURN PEUOD (Yrs) INSTANTANEOUS FTOOD
DTSCHARGE (mr/s)
2
5
10
20
50
100
106
175
228
283
362
426
exomple:
q= L8767.(97.7+l;o.rar
:
106 m3/s
Q,*
=
14.63'(9?.7 * 7)oB2
:
426
t t l
cl Long term sverage discharges
MONTH LONG TERM AVEMGE DISCMRGE (m3/s)
Jonuory
Februory
Morch
April
Moy
June
july
August
September
October
November
December
Annuol
3.88
3.30
3.00
3. 17
4.37
I ) . t /
43.86
52.45
.tu.v
I
77.59
8.06
5.24
16.68
exompl e:
Qn,"on j,ry
=
0.02123.(330)0.(308. 5 + 1)'
0nq1{
I 500)0
,5,r
=
43.86 m3/s
4.3.2 MIP PROCEDURE
Estimcting the hydrogroph of meon monthly flows
t
t!
I
I
I
I
I
NON.DIMENSIONAI
HYDROCRAPH
MEASURED FIOW
(m'/s)
PREDICTED APRIL FLOW
(m'/s)
PREDICTED HYDROGMPH
(m'is)
Jonucry
Februory
Morch
April
Moy
June
Julv
August
September
October
November
December
2. 71
1. 88
1. 38
1.00
1. 88
3. 13
13.54
25.00
20.83
10.42
5.00
3.75
2.71 x23
:
7.59
5.26
3.86
2.80
5.26.
8.76
37.97
70.00
58.32
29.18
14.00
10.50
i,
2.8 2.8/1.00
=
2.8
A33 RESUTTS
1. The dry seqson mqn monthly flows colculoted by the
WECS ond MIP methods ore presented in the toble ond
figure below. WECS shows c slightly higher figure thon
MIP for the month of April. By definition MIP shows the
meosured flow. Experience shows thot results obtoined
by WECS ond MIP methods vory for different cqtchments
ond it moy not be olwoys true thot MIP yields lower
vqlue thon WECS. It is worth mentioning thot Solleri
Chialso mini-hydro scheme uses o design flow of 2.5 m3is
(Ref.6).
ii
L
158
WECS MEASURED FLOW
October
November
December
Jonuory
Februory
Morch
Anri l
Mqy
I I . ) v
8.06
5.24
3.88
3.30
3.00
3. 17
1. ) I
29.18
14.00
10.50
7.59
5.26
3.86
2.80
5.26
2.80
HYDROGRAPH OFMEAN MONTHLY FLOWS
2. The design flow of 2.5 mr/s is exceeded 857o of the time,
occording t0 the WECS flow durotion curve.
FLOW DURAIION CURVE
Flow (m3/s
35f
-
,|\-
*f\
2 0 -
"f- I
10r -
sL
s l -
0d
[ ,
wa- w]
159
|{
I
,:
FiguTe A1 CATCHMEI,TT OF SOLU KHOLA ABOVE Tl{E SALLERI CHTALSA INTAKE
160
B. E
6 >
: r r i
h 7
ts
a
Key:
1. Mountoin cotchments
2. Hills to north of Mohobhorots
3. Pokhoro, Nuwokot, Kothmondu, Sun Koshi tributories
4. Lower Tomur Volley
5. River droining Mohobhqrots
6. KqnkoiMoibosin
7. Rivers droining from Churio ronge to th Teroi
BI
tt
I
I
I
I
i
I
I
I
E\
I
I
I
J g
r { i
o- E
l r t i
Z o "
o
5
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
I
I
t
t , -
. _- . . - _- _-
- - -
I
'i
--l
Fi gure 43 Monsoon wetness i ndex i sol i nes
(Source Ref. 4)
,
6
5
i ,
I
I
l .
1, ,
I
t )
t \
t )
i : '
l J
l l
. l i
{ ;
t ;
; i
. a
i l
u a
. l ;
l r
i . l
_9
- i
H}
{ *
Z A ?
9 3 8
t
s t
T !
? !
t - E
r62
Apr Mar Feb Jan Dec Nov 0ct sep Aug Jul JUn May
1000
N
=
Y
D
J
o
(l'
(r
=
100
o
lJ-
->
c
o
=
10
MOUNTAIN
Mean
Flow
Mean
\ [ f
A
\ o
Figure A4 Meon Monthly Hydrogroph
-
Regi0n l
(Source Ref.5)
TAIN CATCHMENTS
alHills to North ot
Ol Bi vers
Inner I
r 000
q
=
Y
a
J
(D
(q
E
{ ^ ^
=
t u v
o
tr
c,
o
=
10
th of Siv
I
I
\
Max
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
J-
) -
\ \
)
l \
Mr
Mr
FI
-\
J
an
1SO0n
iv
l
Mean
,
I
Min
)
l
) :
l \ f
a -
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Fi gure A5 Meon Monthl y Hydrogroph
-
Regi 0n 2
(Source Ref.5)
164
1000
N
=
V
a
J
<1,
(g
CE
=
100
I
lt
=
c
o
=
r0
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Aor
80%
Figure 46 Meon Month.iy Hydrgfoph
-
Region 3
(Source Ref.5)
+- -
165
1 000
N
=
Y
a
J
(l,
(q
(r
=
o
u-
=
c
o
=
100
10
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
(
Figur A7 Meon Monthly Hydrogroph
-
Region 4
(Source Ref.5)
166
1 000
N
=
Y
U)
J
o
(g
CE
=
100
o
lJ-
=
c
o
=
10
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Aor
al Ri vers
20%
/
Mean
Fi gure A8 Meon Monthl y Hydrogroph
-
Regi on 5
(Source Ref. 5)
{ - -
167
KANKAIIMAIBA$IN
1 000
N
=
:<
a
J
(D
o
E
=
o
tr
t
E
o
=
100
10
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
- r \
/ l \
\
\
Mean
Flow
I 1
l 1
I t
I
I
I
I
\ 1
l 1
l \
\
\
\ \
20To
Mean
Figure A9 Meon Monthly Hydrogroph
-
Region 6
(Source Ref.5)
,t
L
_tbd
=--4--
)
!
E
l/:\
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
TAIN
Far
West
East
A
i
l
I
,-J'
May Jun
,/
1
I
I
I
I
100
10 I
N
=
Y
(n
J
<t,
(q
E
=
o
t L
-c
c
o
=
I - i
.l
'l
-
i . J
i /
v
a
,' l
I
I
4/
l ,
t,'
TCHMENTS
Mean
Flow
\ r l
A
\ o
Fi gur A10 Mecn Monthl y Hydrogroph Regi on 7
(Source Ref.5)
i
169
Appendix B
-
Stqndqrd
pipe sizes
msnufqcturers ond
suppliers
List of Tables
los
of March 19991
Nepothene HDPE pi pe pri ce l i st ond wei ght chort
Ponchokonyo HDPE pi pes
Ponchokonyo PVC pi pes
Hl l ' CO/Hul os steel woter
Pi Pes
Hl l )COi Hul os structurol steel pi pes
B1
B3
B4
B5
B6
t71
-
I
FACTORY; .
Bal aj u l ndust r i al Di 5t r i ct :
Bal aj u, Kat hnr aodu, Nepal .
Phone ; 350091
I
t
!
;
I
IP' r. l
LtJ.
NtpdDEZruo
zuTPAt |JOLYITIIINE tI I)TASTII IruOtjSTftITS
Manuf act ur e of HDPE Pi pes
TI F. AD OFFI CE .
Pos t Box No. l 0l 5
I ' r i pur eswor .
Kat hmandu
Pt r o n e : 2 6 1 > 0 1 , 2 6 1 1 4 9
Fax No. 0097?- l - 261828
Tel ax n' o. 2365 KHANAL NP
Nepot hene l -I i gh Densi t y Pol yet bene Pi pe Manuf act ured as per NS 40/ 010
Pri ce for H. D. P. E Pi pes Manul actured as per NS 40/040
PR. I CE LI ST
Out si de
Di amct er
( mm)
l 5 mm
SERI ES
Worki ng Prc
2. 5 Kgf / cm
W"l l Th' , -
I
kness
I
Mi n. Max.
I
I I
ssure
. sq.
Pri ce
/ Mt r .
Rs: . Ps.
SERI ES I I t
Worki ng Pressure
4 Kgf . ; cnr. sq.
_.-._--.-_.--.-
Wal l Thi c-
|
Pri cc
kness I / Mt r,
Mi n. Max. I Rs. Ps.
SERI ES I V
Worki ng Pressure
6 Kgf i cn. sq.
Wal l Thi c-
|
Pr i cc
koess
| / Mt r .
Mi n. Max.
I
Rs. Ps .
l -
SERI ER
S' orki ng Prt
l 0 Kgf / cm
--.-
Wal l Thi c-
I
kness
I
Mi n. Max.
I
- t .
2. 0
v
rssu rc
. s q.
Prl . .
/ Mt r .
Rs. Ps.
l t . l J
l 0i nm
i
"
2. 3 2. 8 l o 2l
25mm
i
2. 8 3. i 24. 44
i 2mm l "
2. 3 2. 8 27.35 3. 6 4. 3 40. 4 I
'
{c.;; l ,J'
2. 0 2. 4 30. 37 2. 9 3. 4 42.35 4. 5 5. 2 6 7 . t 9
5Or nni l ) "
2 9 45. 74 3. 6 4. 2 6s.5.8 5. 6 6. 4 96. 32
b J MM Z
' 2.0
2. 4 4 8. 76 3 0 3 . 5 70. 7 )
4 . 5 5. 2 r02.85 7 l 8 . 1 I 5 3.55
/ f mm l (
1 1 t Q
67. 40 3 . 6 4 , 1 I 02 l 7
{ 1
6 . 1 144. t I 8. 4 o s
2r5.62
SOmm 3"
l R 1 ' t
96. 6S 4 . 4
( )
147. 62
6. 4
' t . 3
207.16 l 0 . l I t . 4 3 r 0. 71
l l Ornm 4"
3. 4 40 I 41. 39 5. 0 5. 8 206 06
7. 8 8 8 30?-95 tz.41 3 . 9 459. 9
l 25rnrn 4| " 3. 9 4. 5 t s5I 3 6. 0 6. 8 276.97
E. 9 l 0. E 398. 45 l 4 . l 1 5 . 7 600.40
l 4Onrnt 5"
4. J 5. 0
2. 29. ) 4 6 8 351 .02 9. 9 l l s02. I 5 15. E t 7. 6 7t5.29
l 60mm 6" 4. 9 5. 6
296.8 r 7 8 8. 8 4 5 6.53 1 l . l 1 2 . 7 64?. 96 r8, 020.0 917.56
J80mnr 7" 5. 6 6. 4
Jdu. y I 8. 7 9 8 57 6. 20 12. El 4 . l 822.80 20.J 22,6 I 240. 98
200mm 8" 6. 2 7. 1
qod. 66
9. 7 10. 9 7t 2. 69
i r 1
I 5. e l 0 l 22 5 25.0 I 527. 02
225mm 9" 6. 9 7. 8 10. 9 12. 2 900.85 r 5.9I t . t r 27 5.32 25.4 2S. 2 937. 69
250mm 10" 1 ; l 3. 8
' t 7' 1
. 45
t ' ) I
I 1. 6 1 l 1 1 . 6 3 t7.' l 19. 7 r 5i 7. 96 28. 2 3 r . 3 2390.60
280mm l l 8. 6 9. 1 903. 99 l l . 5 1 , 5 . 1 1386. 06 19. 8 22. 0 l 975. 57 31. 5 34. 5 2989. 6 7
3l 5nr m 12"
o ?
r0. 8 I I 39. 46 t 5. 2 17. 0 1755. 47 22.t 24.8 2501,97 36. 4 J9. 2. 3770.36
l 55mm t 4t :
r00mm
l 6l ;
10. 9 ! 2. 2
--rL3
l l .s
I 446. 80
l 84r J4
I 7. t 19. I
19J ' l - s-
?224.22
-?s24
J0
25.1 21 .9
283 3t . 4
3 I 75. 40
4010 39
39. 9 44. I
45. 0 40. 7
4' 195.84
609 r .62
Ter nr s & Cond_t t i g" t j -
l . l 0% Tax r vi l l bc char ge ext r a.
2. Thc pr i ce ar e ex- f act or y pr i ce excl udi ng sal cs t ax & cont r act t ax'
3. Subj ect t o Usual ' For ce Maj or condi t i on'
+.
pr i ce
ar c Subj ect t o changc
qi t h
out not i cc, 25l d acl vr ncc shoul d bc pei d at l he t i nt e of or der i ng of goods and
bal aoce shoul d be pai d bef or e del i ver y.
*
Thase sizas arc not heina manttfacjttrad at nreqcnt
173
SERIES SERIES SERIES SERIES
Outside
Diameter
Working Preszure
2.5 Kdlcm sq.
Working Pressure
4 Kef/cm so.
Working Pressure
6 Ksf,/cm sq.
Working Preszuro
10 Kef/cm sq.
rtm Wall Thickness
Min. Max. Weieht
Wall Thickness
Min. Max. Weieht
Wall Thickness
Min. Max. Weieht
Wall Thickness
Min. m&x. Weieht
16 rnm
2. 0 2. 4 0. 092
20 mm
2. 8 0. 134
25 mm
7. 8 J . _ 1 0.202
32 nnn
2. 3 2. 8 0.226 3. 6 4. 3 0. 334
40 rnm 2. 0 2. 4 0. 251 2. 9 3. 4 0. 350 4. 5 5. 2 0. 514
50 rnm 2. 4 2. 9 0. 378 3. 6 4. 2 0. 542 5. 6 6. 4 0. 796
63 mm 2. 0 2. 4 0. 403 3. 0 3. 5 0. 585 4. 5 5. 2 0. 850 7. 1 8. 1 r. 269
75 nun 2. 3 2. 8 0. 557 3. 6 4. 3 0.846 5. 3 6. 1 i . t 91 8. 4 9. 5 1. 782
90 mm 2. 8 J . J 0. 799 4. 4 5. 2
I J1n
6. 4 7. 3 r . 717 10. 1 I 1 . 4 2. 568
110 mm 3. 4 4. 0 l . 185 5. 0 5. 8 1. 703 1. 8 8. 8 2. 545 12. 4 13. 9 3. 801
125 mm 3. 9
A <
1. 530 6. 0 6. 8 2.289 8. 9 10. 8 3.293 L4 I 15. 7 4.962
140 nun 4. 3 5. 0 1. 897 6. 8 7. 7 2. 901 9. 9 I t . r 4, 1 50 I 5. 8 L' t . 6 6. 209
160 nrn 4. 9 5. 6 2. 453 7. 8 8. 8 3. 773 11. 3 12. 7 5. 355 18. 0 20. 0 8. 079
I 80 mm 5. 6 6. 4 3. I 4 8 8. 7 9. 8 4. 76212. 8 14. 3 6. 800 20. 3 72. 6 10. 256
200 mm 6. 2
' I , T
3. 87 5 9. 7 10. 9 5. 890 r 4. 2 15. 9 8. 391 22. 5 25. 0 12.620
225 mm 6. 9 7. 8 4.822 10. 9 12. 2 7.445 l s. 9 L7 . 7 I 0. 544 25.4 28.2 r 6. 014
250 mm 7. 7 8. 8 6. 012 12. L 13. 69. 187t 7. 7 19. 7 13. 04i 28. 2 31. 3 19.757
PANCHAKANYA PI-ASTIC IND.
[P]
LTD.
I
Manufaoturer of HDPE Pipes & Accessories
]
Pipes Manufacturored as per NS 40/040
IIEAD OFFICE: J3/12 Krishna Gallt, Lalitpu, P.O. Box. No. 2743I(othmandu, Nepal.
Phone 52635'7,52511L Fax No. Slj.529.
E-mail : sted@nchknya-mos.c om.np
FACTORY: I-nmini Zane, Kotihawq Bhairahawa, Nepal
Phone (071) 60368. I ' ax: 605?d
I
174
I
PANCr{AKANYA ROTOMOULDS
[PJ
LTD.
[
\4anufactr-u'er of uPVC Pipes & Aooessories
]
Pipes Manufactruered as per NS 206/046
IflAD OITICE: J3l12l(rishna Galli, Lalitpur, P,O. Box. No. 2743l(athmandu, N"pal.
Phone 526351,52571L Fax No. 52.6529.
E-mail: steel@pnchknya.rnos.com.np
FACTORY: I-uminl Zone, Kotihawq Bhatrahawa, Nepal.
Phone (0?1) 60368, Far: 6057{.
Class
-
I Class
-
2 Cl ass
-
3 Class
-
4
OuGide
Diameter
Working Pressure
2.5 Keflcm so.
Working Pressure
4 Kef/cm sq.
Worlcing Pressure
6 Kpflsm sq.
Working Pressure
i0 Kef/cm sq.
ln rnrn Wall Thickness
\,Iirt. Max. Weielil
Wall Thickness
Min. Max. Weieht
Wall Thickness
Min. Max. Weieht
Wall Thickness
Min. max. Weielrt
20 rnm 1. 1 1. 5 0. 11i
25 mm t . 4 1. 8 0. 1 70
32 mm 1. 8 2. 2 0. 270
40 rnm r . 4 L8 0. 28i
1 )
, ) ' 1
0. 416
50 nu-n L - l 2. 1 0. 418 28 J . J 0. 647
63 rnm 1. 5 I . 9 0. 474 2. 2 2. 7 0. 668 3. 5 4. t I . 010
75 rnm 1. 8 2. 2 0. 660 2. 6 3. r 0. 931 4. 2 4. 9 1. 443
90 rtun
t a
L J t . 7 0. 606 2. . r 2. 60.944 3. i 3. 7 r. 334 5. 0 5. 7 2.&18
110 mm 1. 6 2. 0 0. 894 2. 5 3. 0 1. 369 3. 7 4. 3 1. 938 6. 1 7. 0 3. 077
140 rnm 2.0 2. 4 1. 413 3. 2 3. 8 2.2?3 4. 8 5. 5 3. 1 78 7. 7 8. 7 4.955
160 mm 2. 3 2. 8 l.884 3. 7 4. 3 7.94' l 5. 4 6: 2 4. 139 8. 8 9. 9 6. 456
180 mm 2, 6 3. r t . 5 5 3 4. 2 4. 9 3.474 6. t 7. 0 4. 961 9. 9 t 1. r 7. 830
200 mm 2. 9 3. 4 2. 945 4. 6 5. 3 4. 563 6. 8 7. 7 6. 464 11. 0 t 2. 3 1 0. 1 85
175
CtuGAs Steel Industries P. Ltd.
G.P0.Box:4129, Kantipath, damal,Kathmardu, Nepal. Tel:977.1-253047, 228389,24U52,252475,252850, Far 9I/-1.22061 2
Fac1ory: Simra, Bara, Tel: 977-53-20075, 20078,20170, Fax 977-53-20160
GATVANI SED AND BLACKSl ' El j L PI PES I ' OR ORDI NARYUSES TN VATER, CAS At R&STEAM LI Nt sS
TYPE NOTVIINAL
BORE
WALL
THI CKNESS
APPOX
OD
WEIGFT OF
BLACK PIPE
PLAIN EI{D
WEIGET OF
GALVAMSI,D PTPE
THREADED &
s(}rxx'.Tr'.D
CLASS MM TNCB MM MM KG/M MTR/T{.' KGIM MTR/II{.7
LI GHT
' A'
1 5 1n 2.00 21.30 0. 9? t050 1. 01 990
20 3t4 2. 35 z o. w 1 _ 4 1 709 1. 48 o / D
z o J 33. 70 2. 01 498 ? . 1 1 a74
32 l v , 2. 65 4?. 40 2. 58 388 2. 72 355
40 1 t a 48.30 3. 25 308 3. , 11 281
2 9 0 60 30 4 1 1 213 4 3 3 222
65 2 t a 325 76 20 5 8 0 172 6 1 155
80 3 3. 2s 88. 90 6. 81 117 7. 21 133
100 4 3. 65 114. 30 9. 89 1 0 1 10. 49 9 1
I } l EDI UM
' B'
1 5 21. 30 t . ?? E20 1. 28 781
3t4 z o f , 26.90 t . 58 533 1. 65 o@
t <
3. 25 33. 70 2. 41 4 1 0 254 394
32 - t 2l 12 10 3 t 3 1 8 3. 27 292
40 1 , 4 3. 25 48.30
? A I
277 3. 77 251
50 3. 65 60.30 5. 10 196 532 17S
65 3.65 76.?O 6. 51 154 6. 82 110
80 3 rl 05 88. 90 8. 47 118 8. 87 107
100 4. 50 1 14. 30 12. 10 E3 12. 69 75
4. 85 139. 70 16. 20 62 16. 95 55
r 50 6
I
4 8 s 16s 10
|
1s. 20
|
s2
l
20.00
IIEAVY
' c'
20 3t 4 J Z J 26.90
' t.90
1. 97 508
25 4. 05 33. 70 2. 97 336 3. 07 326
3Z 4. 05 42.40 3. 84 2& 3. 97 239
40 1 , 4 4. 05 r18.30 .1.43
226 .1.59
201
)U 4. 50 60.30 6. 17 t6? 6.39 14E
65 2' a 4. 50 76.20 7.90 127 8. 21 1 1 5
80 3 /t 85 88.90 10. 1 0 99 10. 52 90
r00 1 5..10 1 1 430 14. / 10 69 15 aa 63
125 5 5 4 0 139 70 17. 80 56 t 8 s2 5 1
rso 5 r o 165 10 1 ) O A7 2) ?2 12
200 mm
(;Al ,v^}' |l sl .:t)
^}{I) IILA(;K ST[ti L PIPTS (Detal l ed specl fl c.tl on on requesl )
200 8 5.20 219. 10 27. 71 36 29.20 3?
2rn 8 500 2 1 9 1 0 31 82 31 aa2r] 28
Notee:
1) Tenslle Strength: Tenslle slrength for water lubes when tested frorn etrlps, cut out from selected
tubes shall be more than 320 rVmm'.
2) Tolerances: a) Thickness: Ught lubes: (+) not limited,
C)
8% max.
Medium & Heavy prpes: (+) not limited, (-) 10% max.
b) Weight: Single tubes: (+) 10%,
G)
8%.
c) Lengfh: Unless othenrlse specified 4 to 7 meters.
3) Pipes of hlgher tensile strengh and bigger diameter can also be manufac;tured as per requesl.
JorNr vFNruRE BFTwEEN---@mCeftr-
I
I
I
I
r { o
HiqGAS Steel Industries P, Ltd.
G P O Eox l 1 29, Kantipath, Jamal.Ka ihmandu N epal Tel. 977.1
.253047.
228389, 243452, 25247: 2528n. F ax 9/7
' 1' 220612
F; : l ory Srmra. Bara, Tel r 977. 53. 20075, 20078, ?011A. F ax. 977' 53' 201 60
,--------..
r f n nr r
/ t i l l t f l l t ut n N
u u " . u r r L t L _ )
. - a d F Br t i HF -
re
STRUCTURAL
STEEL PI PES
f-nl
fucturat steel pipes are manufactured in the same
| \ |
process as water pipes. However, the steel used is of
I
U
lhigher
tensile/yield shength. We normally use high
I
grade steel with tensile sbengh of 42/55 kgs/cm as per
I
I
t
I
customers requirements. We normally use he steel as per
JIS: G-3132, SPHT 2,3 or 4, or lS: 11513/1985 for he
pur-
poses. Structural pipes are basically used for manufactur-
ing ples and welded sbuctures. Use of high grade stuc-
fural steel reduces steel consumpton drastically Pipes of
structuralgrade normally conform to lS: 1161/1979, JIS: G-
3444/1993, BS: 1387/1985.
I I I PCO ST[ TUCTI JFI AL' I - f ] ETES
Nqn i n
--;-
l 5
al Bore
lu:rt--
| /'),
9l*11"t
h q
2 l l 0
Cl as s
- t -
Thi cknesa
g-m
2. 00
vEr9nr
Bl ack pi pes
Area ol
Cr. scl l on
Mment of
l nertl i
Sect l on
Modul us Gyr ai i on
.
x q m
0 9 6
- AEl--
I a t
c m.
0 5 7
c m.
0. 54
Cn r
0 6 9
M 2 6 5 | 2 2 55 0. 69 0. 65 0 6' l
il ) 5 l 4 i 84 0 . 1 1 0. 71 0. 65
20 76 90 t L J l 4 l 8 l l 8 1 .02 0 8 7
N,l 2 6 5 | 5 8 02 r 5 0 0 8 6
H \ . 25 1 . 9 0 4 l | 7 2 1 2 8 0 8,1
t 7 0 2 6 5 2 0.1 5 8 t 4 1 8 6 l 0
M f . 25 46 r 6 5 7 l t 0 8
H 4 0 5 2. 99 2 . 5 1 I 0 6
) / l v4 42. 40 L 2. 65 2 . 6 1 J I 6 5 7 I l 0 I l l
fvl 1 2 5 l 1 5 00 7 7 1 3. 64 l 9
n
; 1. 05
1 . 8 6 4 8 8 9 0 7 4. l 8 1 3 6
40 l 1/ 2 4 8 l 0 L 290 J . ) I 1 . t 4 10 70 4 . 4 3 l 6 l
lvl 3. 25 l 6 l 4 6 0 I t . 7 l 4 8 6 I 6 0
H 4. 05 4. 43 5 6 1 l l 9 0 5 . 7 5
5 0
)
60 l 0
I I
290 4 . t 4 5 2 3 2 1 5 9 7 t 6 203
L2
j 2 5
4 5 7 582 23 7. 89 202
M 3. 65 5 . l 0 6 5 0 26 t 7 8. 68 2 0 1
H 4. 50 6 . t 7 7 8 9 10 90 l 0 2 0 r 98
65 76 t 0 J. 25 5 . E4 7 .14 49 4.1 I 1. 00 2 5 8
M 1 6 5 6 5 1 E l I 54 65 t 4. 40 7 5 6
H 4 5 0 7 9 2 l 0 l 0 6 5 t 2 7 t 0 2 5 4
80 88 90 L t 2 5 6 E O 8 7 4 8 0 l l 1 8 0 7 t 0 l
M 4 0 5 8 4 8 t 0 80 97 ) 8 2t . 91 t 0 0
H 4 8 5 10. 01 l ? 80 I l l 4 6 25. 53 298
t 00 l 4. t 0 J . O) 70 I Yq J ! 1 4 . 0 1 l 9 l
2. l 0 5 5 0 t J4. t 4 1. 00 1 8 9
H 5 4 0 t 4 5 0 50 214 54 4E.O4 J E 6
t25 I 19. 70 L 4. 50 14. 90 t 9. 10 437.20 62.59 4 . 7 8
M 4 8 5 16.20 20. 50 467.64 66.95 4. 77
H 5 4 0 I ?. 90 22. 80 5 14. 49 7J. 66 4. 7 5
150 6 t 65l 0
I
4. 50 I 7. 80 22. 70 73257 88. 74 5 6 8
M 4. 85 t 9. t u 14.40 1E4. 49 95. 0 5. 67
H 5. 40 2t . 20 l 0 864. 69 o1. 7 ) . b)
175 7 t 93. 70 L 4. 85 22. 60 28.70 284 00 31. 00 6. 68
M 5. 40 z) . w 90 416. 96 46 30 6. 66
H )_vu 21 . J0 34. 80 516. I I 59. 00 6.(A
200 E I t v . l v L 4. U) 2). t u 32. 60 874. 06 7l . o7 / . ) u
M 5. 60 t 9. 4U J I.OV z t 4L. ) , . 9) . 4y / . ))
H 5 9 0 l t 00 2247 00 205. I t . >4
anc es :
.) Thl ctn.s: (+) nct l i ml ed,
C)
10% max b) l i rrshr: (f) 1096,
C)
8%
Q.8 mm., owr .3 mm, (+) 1%
c) outCda oi mctcr : Up(o .3 mm (+)0.4 trun.,
177
list of drowings
Appendix C Gqlkot drawings
Scheme l cyout
Itonsrni ssi on l i ne, route ol i gnment
Heodworks ond heodroce generol orrongel uent, sheet 1 of2
Heodworl <s ond heodroce generol orrongetnent, sheet 2 of2
Fl eodworks ond heodroce, i ntoke
Heo d'"vorks o nd heod roce, g rcrvel trop/overfl o',v
Hecdworks ond hccdroce, crossi ng nos. 1 ond 2
Heodworks ond heodroce, crossi ng nos. 3 ond 4
Penstock oreo, generol 0rrongement
Penstock oreo, settl i ng bosi nl foreboy
Penstock oreo, onchor bl ock & support detoi l s
Penstock oreo, mochi ne l bundoti on 0nd t0i l roce detoi l s
u r ( r v Y r r l q r
Drowi ng 2
f i r r r r r r i n n I
Drowi ng 4
Drowi ng 5
Dr owi ng 6
Drowi ng 7
Drowi ng 8
Drol vi nq 9
Dr owi ng 10
Dr owl ng l 1
Dr owi ng 12
179
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Index
A
Air-releose volve, 55
Al ti meter,65
Anchor blocks 2, 1 1 1
checkl i st, 127
a n n c t r r l a f i n n 1 1 1
design, 116-127
exompl e, 121
I ocot i on, 1l 1'
sizing,727
Anchor rod, 29
B
Bench cut,65
Bio-engineering works, 144
Bottom intqke
descri pti on, 31
desi gn, 32
exomple, 34
troshrocks for, 32
Bursti ng di sc,93, 147
Breok pressure tonk, 55
c
Conol s
copocity, 46
concrete,40
construction, 67-69
crossrngs, 53
desi gn,46-51
eorth, 39
economi cs,46
exomple, 50
excovotion,68
ferrocement,42
heodloss,46
l i ni ng,43, M,45,68
mosonry 46
oi l drum,40
roughness,48
sediment tronsport,4T
seepoge,46
semi-circulor concrete, 41
setti ng out,67
side slopes, 46
stobiliry,49
stone mosonry in mud mortor,39
stone mosonry in cement,40
ti mber,40
t ypes, 39
vel oci ty,46,48
Check doms, 147
Coondo intoke, 149
Components of micro-hydro, 2
Crossi ngs, 2, 55
Cross droinoge, 13
Culvert, 33
Curing, 69
D
De-beoder, 150
Design flow
procedure to estoblish 11
Di versi on wei rs (see wei rs)
Diversion works
checklist, 36
Droft tube, 3
Dry stone wol l , 145
E
Efficiency in power equotion, 3
Excovoti on,68, 143
Exponsi on j oi nts,
109
Escopes, 2
exompl e, 111
i n HDPE pi pes, 110
in mild steel pipes, 110
i n i n PVC pi pes, 110
si zi ng, 110
Spi l l wei rs,2
Spi l l wei rs,2
Overflow 2
t
t
*
193
F
Foll velocity of sediment, 74
Flood risk, 12
Flow
desi gn col cul oti ons, 51
esti moti on, 10-11, Appendi x A
FIow Durotion Curve, 1 1
Flume
ferrocement,42
Flushing
frequency, 81
verticql pipe method, 77
Foreboy 2,71,84
checklist, 88
desi gn, 84
pipe level, 84
si ze, 84
Forces
frictionol, 120
on onchor blocks, 120-124
Freeboord,50
Fri cti on, 39,61-66
G
Gqbi ons,35
Gqbion weir, 126
Gobion retoining woll, 144
check dqms, 147
Cotes
penstock,86
sl ui ce,79
Generotor efficiency, 3
Geol ogy,8
Geotechnicol considerotions, 8
Grovel trop, 2,71,72
checkl i st,88
exompl e,80
Ground woter, 8
H
Heqd
gross, 3
net, 3
HDPE pipes
j oi ni ng,
59
Heodroce (see conols ond pipes) 2,39-68
Heqdworks,2
Hydroulic rodius,47
Hydrology, 10, Appendix A
Hydropower, 1
I
Intokes, 2
bottom (see bottom intoke)
Coandq (see Coondo intoke)
generol principles for selecting, 1Z
rypes, 21
side (see side intoke)
exompl e,20
selection criterio, 21
Inverted siphons, 55-56
Irrigotion, 13, 39, 40, 42, 4
J
Joints,
rock,9
L
Lond ownership ond use, 13
Level s,3, 12,84
Limestones, 10
Lining
formers method,45
HDPE,43
soil cement,44
Locotion oIcomponents, 6
M
Mochine foundqtion
design, 135
exomple, 136
Monning's equotion,46
Mosonry, 10,26,40,42,48,49,50, 53, 56, 87, 116, 119, 135
Micro-hydro, 1
comporison with hydropowe4 1
definition, 1
Moody chort, 62
o
Orifice
desi gn,23
exompl e,24
I
I
194
P
Peohng reservoir, 87
Penstocks (olso see pipes)
bosic loyout, 15
checklist, 113
description, 2
exompl es,99-103
exposed versus buried, 108
i n c t n l l n t i n n 1 1 ?
mointenonce, 113
moteriols,94
overview 91
poi nt i ng, 111
sel ecti on of ol i gnment, 9l -93
Pipes (olso see penstock)
buri ol detoi l s,57,60
bends 58,61,63,92
design criterio, 56
design procedure, 61-66
di ometer, 61,95
generol, 56
HDPE ond PVC, 58-59, 155
j oi nti ng,
59,95, 106
lengths, 107
roughness, 62
stqndqrd size, Appendix B
submergence heod, 61
turbulence losses, 63
wqll thickness,99
Pl onni ng,5, 13
Pl oster,48,69,88, 135
Power,3
Power equotion, 3
Powerhouse
checklist, 141
definition,3
locqtion, 134
overview, 133
size, 134
Site investigotion, 6
Pressure
hydrostotic, 120-122
R
Reservoir pechng, 87
Retoining structures, 144
River troining works, 35
Rock types, 10
Roughness coefficient
conols,4748
pi pes,62
Run-of-river schemes, 1
s
Scfety
ogoinst overturning, 124
on beoring, 124
Sediment problem, 47, 71
Seepoge, 12,46
design colculotion, 12
Settl i ng bosi ns,71,73
checklist,88
components, 75
design criteriq, 73
description, 2
exompl e,80
flushing orrongements, 77-79
flushing copocity, T3
i deol ,73
inlet zone,76
outlet zone, 77
settling copocity, 73
settling design,75
settling zone,77
storoge copocify, 73
storoge desi gn,75
Shield's formulo,4T
side intqke,22
Sinkholes, 10
Si te sel ecti on,5, 15
Slope stobility, 8, 143-747
Spillwoys, 79,86
definition, 2
exompl e,53
l ocoti on,52
Stobility of schemes, 16
Storoge schemes, 1
Support piers, 115
checklist, 131
construction, 1 1 9
descri pti on,2
desi gn, 120
flexible steel, 152
l ocoti on,117
Submergence heqd, 61, 84
Surge colculotion, 97-100
195
T
Tqilroce
checklist, 141
definition, 3, 140
desi gn ofchonnel , 140
desi gn ofpi pe, 140
Tensi on crocks,9
krrocing, 145
Thermol exponsi on, 115
Tl qnsmi ssi on l i nes, 6, 15
Troshrocks, 22,32,57 , 85
w
Woter ovoilobility, 10
Woter rights, 13
Woter retqining structures, 88
Weokness zones, 8
Werrs
diversion, 2, 25
gobi on, 26, 28
heod over, 31
permonent, 29
temporory, 25
Wetted peri meter,4T
v
Vent pl pe,61
Vol ves, 57,61
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t a
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196
PRACT I CAL ANSWERS
TO POVERTY
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BPC Hydr oconsul t