Spacecraft Structures

Space System Design, MAE 342, Princeton University

Robert Stengel
Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE342.html
Discrete (lumped-mass)
structures
Distributed structures
Buckling
Structural dynamics
Finite-element analysis
Spacecraft Mounting
for Launch
Spacecraft protected from
atmospheric heating and
loads by fairing
Fairing jettisoned when
atmospheric effects become
negligible
Spacecraft attached to
rocket by adapter, which
transfers loads between the
two
Spacecraft (usually)
separated from rocket at
completion of thrusting
Clamps and springs for
attachment and separation
Fairing Constraints for
Various Launch Vehicles
Static envelope
Dynamic envelope accounts
for launch vibrations, with
sufcient margin for error
Various appendages stowed
for launch
Large variation in
spacecraft inertial
properties when
appendages are deployed
STEREO Spacecraft Primary
Structure Conguration
Spacecraft structure
typically consists of
Beams
Flat and cylindrical panels
Cylinders and boxes
Primary structure is the
rigid skeleton of the
spacecraft
Secondary structure may
bridge the primary structure
to hold components
Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory
UARS Primary and
Secondary Structure
Instrument Module provides
Support for 10 scientic
instruments
Maintains instrument
alignment boresights
Interfaces to launch vehicle
(SSV)
Secondary Structure
supports
6 equipment benches
1 optical bench
Instrument mounting links
Solar array truss
Several instruments have
kinematic mounts
Structural Material Properties
Stress, !: Force per unit area
Strain, ": Elongation per unit length
!
" = E #
Proportionality factor, E: Modulus of elasticity, or Young!s modulus
Strain deformation is reversible below the elastic limit
Elastic limit = yield strength
Proportional limit ill-dened for many materials
Ultimate stress: Material breaks
Poisson!s ratio, #:
!
" =
#
lateral
#
axial
,
typically 0.1 to 0.35
Thickening under compression
Thinning under tension
Uniform Stress Conditions
Average axial stress, !
!
" = P A = Load Cross Sectional Area
Average axial strain, "
!
" = #L L
Effective spring constant, k
s
!
" = P A = E# = E
$L
L
P =
AE
L
$L = k
s
$L
Springs and Dampers
!
f
x
= "k
s
#x = "k
s
x " x
o
( ) ; k = springconstant
!
f
x
= "k
d
# x = "k
d
#v = "k
d
v "v
o
( ) ; k = dampingconstant
Force due to linear spring
Force due to linear damper
Mass, Spring, and Damper
!
" x = f
x
m = #k
d
" x # k
s
"x + forcing function ( ) m
!
" x +
k
d
m
" x +
k
s
m
"x =
forcing function
m
!
" x + 2#$
n
" x +$
n
2
"x =$
n
2
"u
!
"
n
= natural frequency, rad / s
# = damping ratio
$x = displacement
$u = disturbance or control
Newton!s second law leads to a
second-order dynamic system
Response to Initial Condition
Lightly damped
system has a
decaying, oscillatory
transient response
Forcing by step or
impulse produces a
similar transient
response
!
"
n
= 6.28 rad /sec
# = 0.05
Oscillations
!
"x = Asin #t ( )
!
" x = A#cos #t ( )
= A#sin #t + $ 2 ( )
!
" x = #A$
2
sin $t ( )
= A$
2
sin $t + % ( )
Phase angle of velocity (wrt displacement) is $/2 rad (or 90)
Phase angle of acceleration is $ rad (or 180)
As oscillation frequency, %, varies
Velocity amplitude is proportional to %
Acceleration amplitude is proportional to %
2
Response to
Oscillatory Input
!
A"
2
sin "t + # ( ) [ ]
+ 2$"
n
A"sin "t + # 2 ( ) [ ] +"
n
2
Asin "t ( ) [ ] ="
n
2
Bsin "t ( ) [ ]
... however, A must be a complex number for this to work
A better way: Compute Laplace transform to nd transfer
functions
!
L "x(t) [ ] = "x(s) = "x(t)e
#st
dt
0
$
%
, s =& + j', ( j = i = #1)
!
L " x (t) [ ] = s"x(s)
L " x (t) [ ] = s
2
"x(s)
Neglecting initial conditions
Transfer Function
or
!
L " x + 2#$
n
" x +$
n
2
"x
( )
= L $
n
2
"u
( )
!
s
2
+ 2"#
n
s +#
n
2
( )
$x(s) =#
n
2
$u(s)
Transfer function from input to displacement
!
"x(s)
"u(s)
=
#
n
2
s
2
+ 2$#
n
s +#
n
2
( )
Transfer Functions of Displacement,
Velocity, and Acceleration
!
"x(s)
"u(s)
=
#
n
2
s
2
+ 2$#
n
s +#
n
2
( )
" x (s)
"u(s)
=
#
n
2
s
s
2
+ 2$#
n
s +#
n
2
( )
" x (s)
"u(s)
=
#
n
2
s
2
s
2
+ 2$#
n
s +#
n
2
( )
Input to
velocity:
multiply by s
Input to
acceleration:
multiply by s
2
Transfer function
from input to
displacement
From Transfer Function to
Frequency Response
Displacement frequency response (s = j%)
!
"x( j#)
"u( j#)
=
#
n
2
j# ( )
2
+ 2$#
n
j# ( ) +#
n
2 !
"x(s)
"u(s)
=
#
n
2
s
2
+ 2$#
n
s +#
n
2
( )
Displacement transfer function
Real and imaginary components
Frequency Response
%
n
: natural frequency of the system
%: frequency of a sinusoidal input to the system
!
"x( j#)
"u( j#)
=
#
n
2
j# ( )
2
+ 2$#
n
j# ( ) +#
n
2
=
#
n
2
#
n
2
%#
2
( )
+ 2$#
n
j# ( )
&
#
n
2
c # ( ) + jd # ( )
=
#
n
2
c # ( ) + jd # ( )
'
(
)
*
+
,
c # ( ) % jd # ( )
c # ( ) % jd # ( )
'
(
)
*
+
, =
#
n
2
c # ( ) % jd # ( ) [ ]
c
2
# ( ) + d
2
# ( )
& a(#) + jb(#) & A(#)e
j-(#)
Frequency response is a complex function
Real and imaginary components, or
Amplitude and phase angle
Frequency
Response of the
2
nd
-Order System
Bode plot
20 log(Amplitude Ratio) [dB] vs. log !
Phase angle (deg) vs. log !
Natural frequency characterized by
Peak (resonance) in amplitude
response
Sharp drop in phase angle
Acceleration frequency response
has the same peak
Convenient to plot response on
logarithmic scale
!
ln A(")e
j#(")
[ ]
= ln A(") + j#(")
Acceleration
Response of the
2
nd
-Order System
Important points:
Low-frequency acceleration
response is attenuated
Sinusoidal inputs at natural
frequency resonate, I.e.,
they are amplied
Component natural
frequencies should be high
enough to minimize
likelihood of resonant
response
Spacecraft Stiffness* Requirements
for Primary Structure
* Natural frequency
Example 8.1
(Fundamentals of Space Systems, 2005)
Atlas IIAS launch vehicle
Spacecraft structure meets
primary stiffness
requirements
What are axial stiffness
requirements for Units A
and B?
Support deck natural
frequency = 50 Hz
Octave Rule: Component
natural frequency ! 2 x
natural frequency of
supporting structure
Unit A: 2 x 15 Hz = 30 Hz, supported by primary structure
Unit B: 2 x 50 Hz = 100 Hz, supported by secondary structure
Factors and Margins of Safety
Factor of Safety
Typical values: 1.25 to 1.4
!
Allowable load (yield stress)
Expected limit load (stress) " Design factor of safety
#1
Margin of Safety
the amount of margin that exists above the
material allowables for the applied loading
condition (with the factor of safety included),
Skullney, Ch. 8, Pisacane, 2005
!
Load (stress) that causes yield or failure
Expected service load
Worst-Case Axial Stress
on a Simple Beam
Axial stress due to bending
!
" = My I
!
" =
M h /2 ( )
I
Maximum stress
Worst-case axial stress due to bending and axial force
!
"
wc
=
P
A
#
$
%
&
'
(
max

M h /2 ( )
I
Example 8.3
(Fundamentals of Space Systems, 2005)
Spacecraft weight = 500 lb
Atlas IIAS launch vehicle
Factor of safety = 1.25
Maximum stress on
spacecraft adapter?
Atlas IIAS Limit Loads (g)
Example 8.3, cont.
Worst-case axial load at BECO (50.5 g)
!
"
wc
=
P
A
#
$
%
&
'
(
max

Mc
I
!
A = 2"rt = 7.1in
2
I = "r
3
t = 286 in
4
Worst-case stress
!
"
wc
=
500 #5.5
7.1
+
500 #0.5 # 42 #9
286
$
%
&
'
(
)
#1.25 = 897.1 psi
Worst-case lateral load at BECO (2.5 1 g) or Maximum Flight
Winds (2.7 0.8 g)
!
"
wc
=
500 # 3.5
7.1
+
500 #2 # 42 #9
286
$
%
&
'
(
)
#1.25 =1960 psi
Force and Moments on a Slender
Cantilever (Fixed-Free) Beam
Idealization of
Launch vehicle tied-down to a
launch pad
Structural member of a
payload
For a point force
Force and moment must be
opposed at the base
Shear distribution is constant
Bending moment increases as
moment arm increases
Torsional moment and
moment arm are xed
Structural Stiffness
Geometric stiffening property of a structure is portrayed by the
area moment of inertia
For bending about a y axis (producing distortion along an x axis)
Area moment of inertia for simple cross-
sectional shapes
Solid rectangle of height, h, and
width, w:
Solid circle of radius, r:
Circular cylindrical tube with inner
radius, r
i
: and outer radius, r
o
:
!
I
y
= wh
3
/12
!
I
y
= "r
4
/ 4
!
I
y
= " r
o
4
# r
i
4
( )
/ 4
!
I
x
= x z ( )z
2
dz
z
min
z
max
"
Bending Stiffness
Neutral axis neither shrinks nor stretches in bending
For small deections, the bending radius of curvature of
the neutral axis is
!
r =
EI
M
Deection at a point characterized by
displacement and angle:
Bending
Deection
Second derivative of z and rst derivative of & are
inversely proportional to the bending radius:
!
d
2
z
dx
2
=
d"
dx
=
M
y
EI
y
Maximum Deection and
Bending Moment of Beams
(see Fundamentals of Space Systems for additional cases)
Fixed-Free Beam Fixed-Fixed Beam Pinned-Pinned Beam
Y
max
= maximum deection M
max
= maximum bending moment
Maximum Deection and
Bending Moment of Plates
(see Fundamentals of Space Systems for additional cases)
Circular Plate
Rectangular Plate
!
m = 1/"
Typical Cross-Sectional Shear Stress
Distribution for a Uniform Beam
Shear stress due to bending moment is
highest at the neutral axis
Maximum values for various cross sectons
(see Fundamentals of Space Systems)
Buckling
Predominant steady stress
during launch is compression
Thin columns, plates, and
shells are subject to elastic
instability in compression
Buckling can occur below the
material!s elastic limit
!
"
cr
=
C#
2
E
L/ $ ( )
2
=
P
A
Critical buckling stress of a column
(Euler equation)
!
C = function of end " fixity"
E = modulus of elasticity
L = column length
" = I A = radius of gyration
P
cr
= critical buckling load
A = cross sectional area
Effect of Fixity on Critical
Loads for Beam Buckling
Euler equation
Slender columns
Critical stress below the
elastic limit
Relatively thick column walls
Local collapse due to thin
walls is called crippling
Crippling vs. Buckling
Critical Stress for Plate and Cylinder Buckling
Bending Moment and Linear Deection
due to a Distributed Normal Force
Deection is found by four integrations of the deection
equation
!
d
2
dx
2
EI
y
d
2
z
dx
2
"
#
$
%
&
'
x= x
s
= N'
y
x
s
( )
N!
y
(x
s
)
!
M
y
x ( ) = N
y
(x)
xmin
xmax
" x # x
cm ( )dx
= N'
y
(x)
xmin
xmax
" dx x # x
cm ( )dx
xmin
xmax
"
!
N' (x) = normal force variation with length
Bending Vibrations of a
Free-Free Uniform Beam
!
EI
y
d
4
z
dx
4
x= x
s
= k = "m'
d
2
z
dt
2
x= x
s
!
EI
y
= constant
m' = mass variation with length (constant)
k = effective spring constant
Solution by separation of variables requires that left and
right sides equal a constant, k
An innite number of separation constants, k
i
, exist
Therefore, there are an innite number of vibrational
response modes
Bending Vibrations of a
Free-Free Uniform Beam
In gure, (u = z, y = x)
Left side determines
vibrational mode shape
Right side describes
oscillation
Natural frequency of
each mode proportional
to (k
i
)
1/2
Mode shapes of bending vibrations
!
EI
y
d
4
z
dx
4
= k
i
= "m'
d
2
z
dt
2
Fundamental Vibrational
Frequencies of Circular Plates
f = natural frequency
of rst mode, Hz
Finite-Element
Structural Model
TIMED Spacecraft Grid of elements, each with
mass, damping, and
elastic properties
6 degrees of freedom
Vibrational Mode Shapes
for the X-30 Vehicle (Raney
et al, J. Aircraft, 1995)
Computational Grid Model
Body elastic deection distorts the shape of
scramjet inlet and exhaust ramps
Aeroelastic-propulsive interactions
Impact on ight dynamics
Shapes of the First Seven Modes
Next Time:
Flight Path Guidance,
Navigation, and Control