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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composite materials have a long history of usage. For example,
straw was used by Mesopotamians to strengthen mud bricks. Plywood was
used by ancient Egyptians when they realized that wood could be rearranged
to achieve superior strength, resistance to thermal expansion as well as
swelling due to the presence of moisture. Medieval swords and armors were
made by using layers of different materials. Composite materials are formed
by combining two or more dissimilar materials that have quite different
properties.
There is a growing interest in the use of woven composites for
structural applications. Such applications range from bio-medical
components, aircraft and space structures to automotive and other
applications. In the case of aircraft structures, woven or braided composites
can be used for a wide variety of cross-sectional forms such as stiffeners, truss
members, rotor blade and spars etc, to reduce the fabrication costs. A fabric
can be made by various processes such as weaving, braiding or knitting.
Woven fabric composites, in particular, are constructed by weaving two fiber
tows into each other to form a layer. These layers are then impregnated with a
resin or matrix material, stacked in a desired orientation, and cured to obtain a
composite laminate. The interlacing of fiber bundles with matrix has several
advantages such as increasing the intra and inter-laminar strength, greater
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damage tolerance, as well as providing a possibility to produce near net shape
structural components. Such capabilities are very important for producing
thick laminates. These advantages, however, come at the expense of some
loss in the in-plane stiffness and strength, which depends upon the weave
architecture (Ishak et al 2010). There is a need for sound engineering data as
well as efficient analytical/design methodologies and these design
methodologies must account for processing parameters and micro
structural/geometrical features for accurate modeling of such composites.
There are several geometries/architectures available for manufacturing woven
composites. In the case of two-dimensional woven fabric composites,
mutually orthogonal sets of yarns of the same material (non-hybrid) or
different material (hybrid) are interlaced with each other. The various types of
architectures can be formed depending on how the pattern in the interlaced
region is repeated.
Developments in textile technologies such as weaving, knitting and
braiding have resulted in the formation of textile composites that have
superior mechanical properties. Woven fabrics are attractive as
reinforcements since they provide excellent integrity and conformability. The
natural fibers such as banana, ramie, pineapple leaf, and kenaf have the
potential to be used as a replacement for glass or other synthetic, inorganic
traditional reinforcement materials in composites. Natural fiber reinforced
composites have attracted the attention of research community mainly
because these are turning out to be a substitute for synthetic fiber. Moreover,
the usage of natural fibers will reduce partly the volume of plastics used
which are the byproducts of petroleum. Now-a-days, the use of natural,
cellulosic fibers as reinforcing fillers for commodity plastics has received a
lot of attention because of various advantages over traditional, inorganic and
synthetic fibers such as good specific strength, high toughness, good thermal
insulation, less abrasion, minimal dermal and respiratory irritation,
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biodegradability, and natural abundance. Conventional and traditional
polymeric composites are reinforced with carbon fibers, glass fibers. These
composite materials have excellent mechanical properties but these materials
cause environmental pollution due to the non degradability of fibers.
Disposal of plastics is a major environmental concern. One of the
methods to reduce the amount of synthetic plastics is to add natural material
into plastic. The advantages of polymer composites reinforced with natural
fibers besides the environmental concern (Environmental friendly and
Biodegradability) are low cost, less tool wear during processing and low
density fiber-reinforced polymers. Due to increasing demand for petroleum
and related products has lead to the depletion of oil resources, scientists and
engineers are attempting to develop a viable substitute for plastics.
Although natural resins (resins derived from bio materials) and
green composites (natural resins reinforced with natural fibers), which are
biodegradable, are being developed, at present, only natural fibers reinforced
plastics are the best possible solution for reducing the dependency on
petroleum based products.
1.2 FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fiber-reinforced polymer) are
composite materials made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibers. The
fibers are usually fiberglass, carbon, or aramid while the polymer is usually
epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic. FRPs are commonly used
in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries.
The primary function of the fibers is to carry the load along their
longitudinal direction. The function of the matrix is to transfer stresses to the
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reinforcing fibers and protect the fibers from mechanical and/or
environmental damages.
Polymers are one of the important classes of materials. They occur
naturally in the form of proteins, cellulose (plants), starch (food) and natural
rubber. Engineering polymers, however, are usually synthetic polymers. The
field of synthetic polymers or plastics is currently one of the fastest growing
in the materials industries. Fiber reinforced plastics are a category of
composite plastics that specifically use fibrous materials to enhance the
strength and stiffness of plastics. The matrix is a tough but relatively weak,
that is reinforced by stronger and stiffer reinforcing filaments or fibers. The
extent to which strength and stiffness are enhanced in a fiber reinforced
plastic depends on the mechanical properties of the fiber and matrix, their
relative volume, fiber length and orientation. Reinforcement of the matrix
occurs, by definition, when the FRP material exhibits more strength and
stiffness than the matrix.
1.3 NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITE
The natural material like wood is on the decline while the demand is
increasing. Deforestation has created a serious environmental damage and it
has become an urgent necessity to develop suitable substitute for wood.
Among the various synthetic materials that have been explored and
advocated, plastics claim a major share as a substitute. Plastics are expensive,
non renewable and cause environmental pollution. It is important to develop
alternative materials for plastics or at least partly replace plastic.
Consumption of plastics can also be reduced by using natural fiber reinforced
composite.
The natural plant-based fibers are abundant and have high specific
mechanical properties. Many kinds of textiles, ropes, canvas and papers are
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produced today using natural fibers. The different parts of plants such as stem,
leaf, flower etc., have been found to be viable sources of raw material.
Polymeric composites containing natural fibers have received considerable
attention in the recent years due to possibility of replacing plastics.
The interest in the natural fiber reinforced polymer composites is
growing rapidly due to the following benefits:
Specific strength
Easy availability
Light weight
Ease of separation
Enhanced energy recovery
Non-corrosive nature
Low density
Low cost
Reduced tool wear
Reduced dermal and respiratory irritation
Less abrasion to processing equipment
Renewability and biodegradability
1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Composites reinforced with high strength synthetic fibers such as
glass, aramid etc, are used in broad range of applications such as aerospace,
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automotive parts, building materials and sporting goods. In the recent past,
owing to the increased environmental awareness, the usage of natural fibers
such as sisal, banana, jute, hemp, flax etc as a potential replacement for
synthetic fibers especially glass fibers in composite materials have gained
interest among researchers throughout the world. Among the various natural
fibers, kenaf bast fiber (KBF) has received a lot of attention as biomass-based
filler, and it is well known as a cellulosic source with ecological and
economical advantages such as abundance, low density, non abrasiveness
during processing, high-specific mechanical properties, biodegradability and
low cost (Liu et al 2007, Shinji Ochi 2008). Takashi et al 2003 investigated
the mechanical properties of kenaf fiber reinforced with poly-l-lactic acid
(PLLA) resin composites. It was concluded that kenaf fiber/PLLA has a
strong interfacial adhesion with polymers. Earlier, KBF was mainly used for
textiles and paper and recently composites of KBF have been studied owing
to its promising properties (Liu et al 2007).
Natural fibers can be used in many forms in composites, such as
continuous and discontinuous, unidirectional fibers and randomly oriented
fibers. By taking advantage of the properties of natural fiber reinforced
composites, such as good specific properties and reduction in fabrication cost,
they had been used in the development of automotive, packaging and building
materials have been developed. Recently a growing interest in the woven
composites has been observed (Sapuan et al 2007, Pothan et al 2008 and
Sabeel Ahamed et al 2007). A woven fabric contains fibers oriented along
two axes in order to provide greater strength and stiffness
Pothan et al 2008 studied the composites of woven banana and
polyester using three different weave architectures (plain, twill and matt) with
special reference to resin viscosity, applied pressure, weave architecture, and
fiber surface modification. This study provided the information regarding the
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effect of weaving architecture and the fiber content on the composite
mechanical properties.
In recent years, a significant amount of interest has been shown in
the potential use of natural fibers to replace glass fibers in composites.
Although natural fibers are not as strong as carbon or aramid, these are cost
effective and biodegradable. In this research work, two types of natural fibers
such as banana and kenaf are used as reinforcement. These two natural fibers
are rich in cellulose and due to this reason these fibers have high strength. It is
proposed to evaluate the suitability of kenaf fiber and banana/kenaf fibers as
reinforcement in polymer composites to produce more economical
composites.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE SELECTION OF KENAF
(Hibiscus Cannabinus) AND BANANA (Musa Sepentium)
FIBERS
The properties of natural fibers depend mainly on the nature of the
plant, locality in which it is grown, age of the plant, and the extraction
methods used. Kenaf (Hibiscus Cannabinus) fiber and Banana (Musa
Sepentium) fiber are annual fiber plants and these are found to be the
important sources of fibers for a number of applications. The bast and leaf
fibers have high potential as reinforcing agents in polymer composites.
Banana fibers are abundantly found in South India, especially in TamilNadu.
Traditionally, these fibrous materials are being used by the local people for
making low cost articles such as socks, boots, mats, ropes and bags etc.
Chen et al 2005 compared the two types of experimental
kenaf/ramie nonwovens with different binders, in terms of mechanical
properties and thermal conductivity. The banana fibers have been used as
reinforcement materials in polymer matrix (Chattopadhyay et al 2011, Shih
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and Huang 2011) and also the literature on the use of kenaf fiber as
reinforcement are available (Akil et al 2011 and Liu et al 2007). To the best of
our knowledge, no literature is available on kenaf/banana hybrid composite.
Banana plant is cultivated abundantly in Tamil Nadu and Kenaf is being
developed as a commercial crop by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Development of composite using kenaf fibers will act as stimulant for the
growth of agro-economy. Hence, during the current investigation, a series of
bio-composites using kenaf and banana fiber has been made and its
mechanical properties has also been evaluated. In view of the above
mentioned factors, a comprehensive research work has been initiated to study
the properties of kenaf and kenaf/ banana hybrid fiber reinforced polyester
composite.
Good mechanical properties (Anaur et al 2008).
It grows quickly to a height of 4-5 m within 4-5 month
duration. (Lee et al 2009)
Harvesting time for kenaf fiber is only 5 months; this reduces
the demand of wood. (Touzinski et al 1972 and 1977)
Extraction can be done in continuous form as it is essential for
the continuous weaving. (Pothan et al 2008).
Kenaf,jute and other plants belongs to the Mesta species are grown
in the states like Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra, Odissa, Bihar, Assam, Tripura
and West Bengal. The volume of production of Mesta in India is given in
Table 1.1. Efforts are being made by the ministry of Agriculture, Government
of India to introduce the cultivation of kenaf as a commercial crop in Tamil
Nadu. Such a development will contribute to the agro-economic development
in Tamil Nadu. Table 1.2 exhibits the production data of raw kenaf in India
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from 2005 - 2010. Among, various states, Andhra Pradesh is the major
producer of
kenaf contributing to 36 % of the total kenaf produced in India. The total
yield in Andhra Pradesh is 1562 kg/ha. This is followed by Odissa,
Maharashtra and Bihar with 16.4 %, 16.0 % and 13.8 % of the total
production respectively.
Table 1.2 presents the production of kenaf over a five-year period.
The yield is almost the same (6.0 to 6.7 Bales/ha). Keeping in view of the
above mentioned factors particularly the availability of kenaf, a
comprehensive research work has been initiated to study the properties of
kenaf and kenaf/ banana hybrid fiber reinforced polyester composite.
Table 1.1 Volume of Production of Mesta
States
Area (000 ha) Production (000 bale)
Yield Kg/
ha
Actual % India Actual % India
Andhra Pradesh 45.8 36.0 397.4 48.1 1562
Assam 5.0 3.9 24.7 3.0 889
Bihar 17.5 13.8 152.5 18.4 1569
Maharashtra 20.4 16.0 30.8 3.7 272
Meghalaya 4.4 3.5 19.7 2.4 806
Orissa 20.9 16.4 91.9 11.1 791
Tripura 1.0 0.8 7.4 0.9 1332
West Bengal 8.2 6.4 93.1 11.3 2044
Other 4.0 3.1 9.4 1.1 423
All India 127.2 100.0 826.9 100.0 1170
(Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operation, Govt. of India, 2011)
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Table 1.2 Production of Raw Kenaf from 2004-05 to 2009-10
Period
July-June
Kenaf
Area
(000 ha)
Production
(000 bales)
Yield
(Bales / ha.)
2004-05 142 873 6.1
2005-06 138 870 6.3
2006-07 142 956 6.7
2007-08 146 990 6.7
2009-10 115 731 6.3
Estimated 103 618 6.0
(Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operation, Govt. of India, 2011)
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THIS INVESTIGATION
From the literature, it is already proved that banana fibers are
potential reinforcement in polymer matrix (Pothan et al 2003, 2008) whereas
the literature on kenaf fiber is limited (Zampoloni et al 2007) and no literature
is available on kenaf/banana hybrid composite. Hence, in the present
investigation, the synthesis and mechanical properties of new series of
bio-composites using Kenaf (Hibiscus Cannabinus) and banana fiber as
reinforcing materials and polyester resin based polymer matrix are reported.
The mechanical properties of chopped randomly oriented are compared with
woven hybrid (banana/kenaf) reinforced polyester composite.
The main objectives of this study are:
To determine the mechanical properties of randomly oriented
banana, kenaf and banana/kenaf composites.
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To investigate the suitability of woven kenaf fibers and
kenaf/banana fibers as reinforcement materials in polyester
matrix composite by determining the tensile, flexural and
impact properties.
To determine the effect of moisture absorption of kenaf fibers
and kenaf/banana fibers on tensile, flexural and impact
properties.
To determine the contribution of alkali treatment and sodium
lauryl sulphate of kenaf fiber on the tensile, flexural and
impact properties.
To understand the wear behavior of banana/kenaf polyester
composites.
To study the abrasive wear behavior of various hybrid
composite materials and evaluate the possibility of using such
materials for a clutch plate.