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Literature beyond Borders: Indian Literature as Part of World literature through translation
Chaman Lal*

Long ago Goethe gave the concept of World Literature, which could never become a reality sans
translation! But even when a literature has status of world literature, it has its National
characteristics, thus Goethe, Tolstoy, Shakespeare, Homer or Kalidas are world literary figures,
but they are very much German, Russian, English, Greek and Sanskrit languages writers. They
have reached world over through translations in multiple languages of the world. But now more
writers reach the world mostly through English!
World Literature Defined by Goethe
The term World Literature was popularized by German poet Goethe in 19
th
century, as he
read and felt inspired by the writings from Asia. Johan Wolfgang von Goethe made use of
the term Weltliteraturin many of his essays.In 1827, Goethe told Eckermann that World
Literature will replace National literatures in years to come:
I am more and more convinced that poetry is the universal possession of mankind,
revealing itself everywhere and at all times in hundreds and hundreds of men. . . . I
therefore like to look about me in foreign nations, and advise everyone to do the same.
National literature is now a rather unmeaning term; the epoch of world literature is at hand,
and everyone must strive to hasten its approach. Johann Peter Eckermann, Gesprche mit
Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens, trans. John Oxenford as J. W. von Goethe,
Conversations with Eckermann, repr. North Point Press, 1994.
Indian Literature in Translation
Indian literature has beginnings from Rig Veda, considered a religious as well as literary classic, which
was composed before 1000 BC period and got translated in European languages around 1850 AD. Later
there has been number of Sanskrit literary classics by Kalidas and many other writers, which through
translations in many world languages, made India famous for its literary heritage. Kalidas is most
translated and discussed poet and dramatist from ancient Sanskrit literary heritage of India! Medieval and
modern age Indian literatures have also reached other parts of the world through translations.
Apart from classical Sanskrit literature, medieval period Indian literature is also known to the
world, particularly Indian Bhakti movement poets like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Akka Mahadevi and
many more through their translations. In modern period, big number of translations were done
from Indian languages literatures. India has 22 national languages in 8
th
schedule of Indian
constitution and 24 recognised by Sahitya Akademi-Academy of Letters for purpose of awarding
annual best book prizes.

Sanskrit has been language of philosophical and creative literature-both. Apart from Mahabharta,
Ramayana and texts like Panchtantra and Hitopadesh, Sanskrit literature is known world over for
its poetry and drama with Kalidas as most known name.
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Shakuntala Translation
Translation of Abhigyan Shakuntalam in English was first done by William Jones in 1789 and
after that by Sir Monier Williams in prose form in 1853, later more than 46 translations in twelve
European languages appeared and now complete dramas and poetry collections of Kalidas are
available in many English translations. English and other languages translations of many other
Sanskrit classic writers are also available like that of Bhavbhuti , Kiratarjun etc.
Kalidas:Great Poet and dramatist
Though no exact dates have been found, Kalidas is believed to had lived and wrote during 4
th

century AD. Kalidas is known much for his immortal play-Shakuntla or Abhigyan Shakuntalm in
Sanskrit. He had written two more plays-Malvikaagnimitram and Vikramourvashiyam. He is also
known for his epical poetry-Raghuvamsh, Kumarsambhav, Meghdootam and Rtusamhara. There
had been multiple translations of Kalidas plays and poetry collections.His epical poem Meghdoot
is also very well known in literary world.
Shakespeare and Kalidas
It is common refrain among literary critics in India to refer Kalidas as Shakespeare of India,
though Kalidas lived nearly one thousand years before Shakespeare, that is why some critics will
put it in reverse order as well-Shakespeare as Kalidas of England! Whatever way, but it reflects
the concept of World Literature or Literature beyond Borders and also Comparative study of
literature, which would never have been possible without translations of the texts.
Apart from classical Sanskrit literature, medieval period Indian literature is also known to the
world, particularly Indian Bhakti movement poets like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Akka Mahadevi and
many more through their translations. In modern period, big number of translations were done
from Indian languages literatures. India has 22 national languages in 8
th
schedule of Indian
constitution and 24 recognised by Sahitya Akademi-Academy of Letters for purpose of awarding
annual best book prizes.
Modern Indian Literatures: Translations of Mirza Ghalib
Many scholars, even from non literary background have been fascinated by Ghalibs
philosophical Urdu ghazals. Aijaz Ahmad and many other scholars and translators have rendered
Ghalibs poetry and prose in English. Mirza Ghalib lived during 1857s first war of Independence
of India and went through lot of hard times as well, but his poetry is claimed to be as national
heritage by both India and Pakistan, though there was no Pakistan during Ghalibs times
Goethe and Ghalib are two great poets of German and Urdu languages and there is a joke about
a scholar, who was to read a paper on Goethe and Ghalib. Joke is that after speaking every set
of few lines, he would insert the words-Goethe and Ghalib in an international seminar, where no
one knew the language in which he spoke.
Joke apart, this reference shows the importance of Translation both ways- the significance and
comparison of two great poets of the west and east was possible only because of multilingual
translation of great texts and the other way- if the language of a speaker is not understood due to
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lack of translation, it can lead to creation of such jokes to underline the importance of Translation
as a very important tool of human communication.
Iqbal and Faiz Ahmad Faiz
Ghalibs tradition was further enhanced by Iqbal and Faiz Ahmad Faiz, both were born in pre
partition India in Sialkot.While Iqbal gave philosophical depth to ghazal form, Faiz Ahmad Faiz
took Urdu ghazal to new heights by his great political poetry against state oppression ;also for
expression of deep emotional feelings and philosophical thoughts. Author of Sare Jahan se
achha Hindostan hamara.(India is the best in whole of the world!), became the proponent of
Pakistan as separate identity later, though he died before it became reality in 1947. Faiz
remained imprisoned for many years in early years of Pakistan formation in sedition case, but
later even Pakistan government gave him highest awards!
Role of Translation in First Noble Prize of Literature to India
Rabindranath Tagore, most eminent Indian writer of Bengali language got Noble prize for
literature in 1913, till now only Indian to receive this award for literature. Interesting part of this
narrative is that Tagore himself translated 103 of his Bengali poems in English and took them to
England in 1912.-Contnd.
Tagore recited his translations in many gatherings and W.B Yeats, the great English poet was so
impressed that he wrote forward to these poems and the small collection was published in
English in 1913. Tagore received the award same year for his Bengali poetry, but facilitated by
his own English translation of the poems. Tagores example of his own translation and Noble
prize on it, underlines the significance of Translation as tool of literary communication in the
world. Now almost all the Bengali writings of Tagore are available in English and many Indian
languages translation, some in other world languages translations as well.
KAZI NAZRUL ISLAM
Tagore became renowned in the world due to Noble prize he won in literature, but Kazi Nazrul
Islam was no less important as radical poet of Bengali. He is immortalized by his poem Vidrohi-
The Rebel
Premchand and Godan
Premchand, a Hindi and Urdu writer published his classic novel-Godan in Hindi and Urdu both,
few months before his death. The novel based on the real life of Indian peasantry became Indian
classic and has been twice translated into English.Jai Rattan and P. Lal did first English
translation of Godan in 1957, which became quite popular. Later Gordon C Roadarmel did
English translation of Godan in 1968, which is considered better than earlier one. The novel was
selected by UNESCO to be translated into many world languages and so it has been.Apart from
Godan, many other fiction writings of Premchand are now available in English and other
languages. Ghalib,Tagore and Premchand represents India as the best faces of Indian literature
on world literary scene.
Gorki and Lu Xun
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It would be interesting to note that Maxim Gorki in Russia, Lu Xun in China and Prem Chand in
India-all passed away in same year 1936. Lu Xun and Prem Chand were almost of same age,
Prem Chand being just one year older than Lu Xun. Prem Chand and Lu Xun both reprsented the
oppressed peasantry and other people under feudalism in Indian and China, where as Gorki, who
lived longer than the two, depicted the condition of working class in Russia, particularly through
his world classic-Mother!
Importance of Translation in Indian literary Scenario
As mentioned earlier, India itself is storehouse of huge literature written in various Indian languages,
which reaches other Indian languages through translation among Indian languages. There are two major
source languages of inter Indian literary translation-Hindi and English. Text of any Indian language is first
translated into either Hindi or English and then through that medium it is translated into many more Indian
languages.
Generally literature of North, West and East Indian languages like-Punjabi, Urdu, Marathi,
Gujarati, Bengali, Assamese etc. is first translated into Hindi and then from that medium to many
other Indian languages. Translations from South Indian languages are generally done first in
English and then from that medium, these are translated into other Indian languages. Southern
languages are part of Dravidian group and other three regions languages are from Indo-Aryan
group of languages
Inter Indian Languages Translations
These translations are done sometimes without the help of a medium language like Hindi or
English too, like Tamil to Bengali or Marathi to Assamese etc. Sahitya Akademi by instituting
National Translation Prize among inter Indian languages translations has encouraged this
process as well. This author has also received National Translation Prize from Sahitya Akademi-
Indian Academy of Letters for Inter-Indian language translation.
Revolutionary poet Pash and his poetry
Pash created a niche for himself as trendsetter poet in the seventies as a radical poet. As he was
against both Khalistani terrorism and state terrorism, he was assassinated by Khalistani terrorists
on 23
rd
March, 1988. As a challenge I translated his Punjabi poetry in Hindi, which was published
in different volumes, one of which-Samay OBhai Samay(Time O Brother Time) ,published in
1993, was awarded National Translation Prize by Sahitya Akademi in 2002.
Asian Classics vs. Western Classics
If one looks at Asian and African classical and modern literature, one can very well find
that these classics are no less important than what has been referred as classics in Greek,
Latin etc. Thus Ramayna by Balmiki, Mahabharta by Ved Vyas(not confirmed author),
Shakuntla by Kalidas in Sanskrit from India; A Dream Of Red Mansions by Cao Xue Gin,
Outlaws of the Marshby Shi Nain in China; A Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikabu from
Japan are equally strong in literary aesthetics as are Iliad or Odyssey!
Modern Classics from Asia and Africa
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In twentieth century, contribution of Asian writers like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Gu Moru from China;
Tagore, Premchand, Iqbal, Ghalib Faiz etc. from India; Kawabata Yasuneri (1968 Noble winner),
Kenzaburo Oe (1994 Noble winner) from Japan and from so many writers of other Asian
languages-Korean, Vietnamese, Malay etc. is substantial.
So is the case with contribution of African literature written in either English, French or African
languages like that of Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka from Nigeria, Ngugi wa Thiongo, who
stopped writing in English to prefer his mother tongue-Gikiyu from Kenya, Naguib Mahfouz from
Egypt ,Ken Saro Viva, Nadine Gordimer, J M Coetzee, Denis Brutus from South Africa, Alan
Patton, Awi Kwei Armah, Lopold Senghor and many other African writers have contributed
towards the development of what is called World Literature now!
Euro or West Centric Literature
But how the literary world under western domination has been Euro or American centered can be
seen from 107 Noble awards given in literature in 111 years from 1901 onwards (No award
during 1940-43 period), that 80, out of all awards have gone to Western writers, with highest 13 to
French writers, 11 to USA alone, followed by 10 to UK, 8 to German writers, 7 to Sweden, 6 each
to Italy and Spain, 5 to Russian, four to Ireland, 3 each to Norway and Denmark. Asian-African
recipients of Noble awards are a pittance, one each to China and India, 2 to Japan, four to Africa,
so on and so forth
East and West: Modern Literatures
While modern classics of Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Pablo Neruda(Spanish), Thomas Mann
and Bertolt Brecht(German) Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, Sartre or Camus(French), Tolstoy,
Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Gorki(Russian), innumerable English writers classics are much known in
the eastern countries of Asia, also of Africa, yet the modern classics from China, India, Japan or
Korea etc. or from Africa, whose populations may be more than half of the world; are not yet
much known in western literary world. There is imbalance in mutual translations among world
languages, which needs to be corrected for the true democratic spirit in literature as well!.
Concluding.....
By focussing on major Indian and South Asian writers of different languages from ancient and
modern period of Indian/South Asian society and looking at their status in world literature through
translations, one can conclude by saying that there could have been no concept of world
literature, had there been no translations. Literature has no borders or it is beyond geographical
or political boundaries.
Without translations, neither Tagore would have won Noble prize, nor Indian/Asian literatures
would have been known to the world, nor would European/African/Latin American/Russian or any
other regions literature have known to India. So translation is the key to the concept and
existence of world literature and literature beyond borders!



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References: English Translations of Kalidass Shakuntla
1. SACONTAL;
OR, T H E F A T A L R I N G :
AN INDIAN DRAMA.
=======
By CLIDS.
=======
TRANSLATED FROM THE
ORIGINAL SANSCRIT AND PRACRIT. by Sir William Jones (1789)
[online version prepared by FWP, January 2004]
2. [S']AKOONTAL OR THE LOST RING, AN INDIAN DRAMA TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH PROSE
AND VERSE FROM THE SANSKRIT OF K LID SA , SIR MONIER MONIER-WILLIAMS, K.C.I.E.
1853
3. Translations of Shakuntala and Other Works Author: Kalidasa Translator: Arthur W. Ryder, first
ed.,1912 , LONDON: J.M. DENT & SONS LTD. NEW YORK: E.P. DUTTON & CO.
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhijanashakuntalam
References: English Translations of MirzaGhalib
5. Poems by Ghalib.
by Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib; Aijaz Ahmad; William Stafford; Adrienne Rich
Publisher: [New York, Hudson Review, inc., 1969]
6. 254239228
The Oxford India Ghalib : life, letters, and ghazals
by Mrz Asadallh n lib Ralph Russell
Publisher: Oxford [u.a.] : Oxford Univ. Press, 2003.
7. Three great authors : Prem Chand, Mirza Ghalib, Rabindranath Tagore
by Sajal Sharma;Publisher: Noida, U.P. : East End Publishers, 2009.
Reference:Tagore in English Translation
RABINDRA-RACANABALI, 1964-1966 (27 vols.)
Imperfect Encounter, 1972
Later Poems, 1974 (tr. by Aurobindo Bose)
The Housewarming, 1977
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Rabindranath Tagore: Selected Poems, 1985 (translated by William Radice)
Rabindranath Tagore: Selected Short Stories, 1991 (trans. by William Radice)
Reference:Premchands Translations in English
The Oxford India Premchand: The World of Premchand; Widows, Wives, and other Heroines; Nirmala;
Gaban: The Stolen Jewels (Oxford India Collection) by Premchand, David Rubin, Alok Rai and
Christopher R. King . 950, Rs. 750.
Courtesans' Quarter, Munshi Premchand, translated by Amina Azfar, Oxford University Press,
Karachi, p. 260, Pakistani Rupees 350.
The Co-wife and Other Stories by Premchand
The Gift of a Cow: The Hindi Novel "Godaan" by Premchand and Gordon C. Roadarmel
Sevasadan by Munshi Premchand, Snehal Shingavi and Vasudha Dalmia
KARMABHUMI by PREMCHAND MUNSHI
Selected Short Stories by Premchand, Swapna Dutta and Pranava Kumar Singh
Premchand in English Translation
Gaban: The Stolen Jewels by Premchand and Christopher R. King
Rangbhumi by Munshi Premchand and Christopher King
Nirmala (Oxford India Paperbacks) by Munshi Premchand and Alok Rai
The World of Premchand: Selected Short Stories by Premchand and David Rubin
A translation of the Hindi novel 'Godaan' (Unesco.Collection of representative works.Indian series) by
The gift of a cow Premchand ( 1968)
Reference:Pash in English Hindi Translation
Paash-A Poet of Impossible Dreams, Selected Poems,Translation by T C Ghai, Pash
Memorial International Trust, 2010
Samay OBhai Samay(Time OBrother Time),Pash, Hindi Translation, Chaman Lal, 1993,
Rajkamal Prakashan, New Delhi
Sampooran Kavitayen(Complete Poems), Pash, Hindi Translation, Chaman Lal, Aadhar
Prakashan, Panchkula, 2004
Saari Shayari, Paash,( Persian Script-Punjabi),Suchet Kitab Ghar, Lahore, 2005 ed.
Chaman Lal is Professor in Centre of Indian Languages, Jawaharlal Nehru UniversityJNU), New
Delhi. Email-prof.chaman@gmail.com