Chapter 20 Solutions

803
CHAPTER 20

THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Transformations

1. a. Thermodynamic stability: the potential energy of a particular nucleus compared to the
sum of the potential energies of its component protons and neutrons.

b. Kinetic stability: the probability that a nucleus will undergo decomposition to form a
different nucleus.

c. Radioactive decay: a spontaneous decomposition of a nucleus to form a different nucleus.

d. Beta-particle production: a decay process for radioactive nuclides where an electron is
produced; the mass number remains constant and the atomic number changes.

e. Alpha-particle production: a common mode of decay for heavy radioactive nuclides
where a helium nucleus is produced, causing the atomic number and the mass number
to change.

f. Positron production: a mode of nuclear decay in which a particle is formed having the
same mass as an electron but opposite in charge.

g. Electron capture: a process in which one of the inner-orbital electrons in an atom is
captured by the nucleus.

h. Gamma-ray emissions; the production of high-energy photons (gamma rays) that fre-
quently accompany nuclear decays and particle reactions.

2. Beta-particle production has the net effect of turning a neutron into a proton. Radioactive
nuclei having too many neutrons typically undergo beta-particle decay. Positron production
has the net effect of turning a proton into a neutron. Nuclei having too many protons typically
undergo positron decay.

3. All nuclear reactions must be charge balanced and mass balanced. To charge balance,
balance the sum of the atomic numbers on each side of the reaction, and to mass balance,
balance the sum of the mass numbers on each side of the reaction.

a. Th He U
234
90
4
2
238
92
+ ; this is alpha-particle production.

b. e Pa Th
0
1
234
91
234
90
+ ; this is |-particle production.

804 CHAPTER 20 THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW

4. a. e He H
0
1
3
2
3
1
+ b.
e Be Li
0
1
8
4
8
3
+

e He 2 Li
______ __________
He 2 Be
0
1
4
2
8
3
4
2
8
4

c. Li e Be
7
3
0
1
7
4
+

d. e Be B
0
1
8
4
8
5 +
+

5. All nuclear reactions must be charge-balanced and mass-balanced. To charge-balance,
balance the sum of the atomic numbers on each side of the reaction, and to mass-balance,
balance the sum of the mass numbers on each side of the reaction.

a. V e Cr
51
23
0
1
51
24
+

b. Xe e I
131
54
0
1
131
53
+

c. S e P
32
16
0
1
32
15
+

6. a.
73
31
Ga
73
32
Ge +
0
1
e b.
192
78
Pt
188
76
Os +
4
2
He
c.
205
83
Bi
205
82
Pb +
0
1 +
e d.
241
96
Cm +
0
1
e
241
95
Am
e. e Ni Co
0
1
60
28
60
27
+ f. Mo e Tc
97
42
0
1
97
43
+

g. e Ru Tc
0
1
99
44
99
43
+ h. He U Pu
4
2
235
92
239
94
+

7. a. Zn e Ga
68
30
0
1
68
31
+

b. Ni e Cu
62
28
0
1
62
29
+
+

c. At He Fr
208
85
4
2
212
87
+ d. Te e Sb
129
52
0
1
129
51
+

8. a. Np He Am
237
93
4
2
241
95
+

b. . Bi is product final the ; Bi e 4 He 8 Am
209
83
209
83
0
1
4
2
241
95
+ +

c. Ra Th U Pa Np Am
225
88
229
90
233
92
233
91
237
93
241
95
+ + + + + +

Ac Fr At Bi Po
225
89
221
87
217
85
213
83
213
84
+ + + + +

Bi Pb
209
83
209
82
+ +

The intermediate radionuclides are:

Pb and , Po , Bi , At , Fr , Ac , Ra , Th , U , Pa , Np
209
82
213
84
213
83
217
85
221
87
225
89
225
88
229
90
233
92
233
91
237
93

CHAPTER 20 THE NUCLEUS: A CHEMIST'S VIEW 805

9. ; e ? He ? Pb Bk
0
1
4
2
207
82
247
97
+ + The change in mass number (247 - 207 = 40) is due ex-
exclusively to the alpha particles. A change in mass number of 40 requires 10 He
4
2
particles
to be produced. The atomic number only changes by 97 82 = 15. The 10 alpha particles
change the atomic number by 20, so e 5
0
1
(five beta particles) are produced in the decay
series of
247
Bk to
207
Pb.

10. Fe
53
26
has too many protons. It will undergo either positron production, electron capture,
and/or alpha-particle production. Fe
59
26
has too many neutrons and will undergo beta-particle
production. (See Table 20.2 of the text.) The reactions are:

e Co Fe ; He Cr Fe ; Mn e Fe ; e Mn Fe
0
1
59
27
59
26
4
2
49
24
53
26
53
25
0
1
53
26
0
1
53
25
53
26 +
+ + + +
11. Reference Table 20.2 of the text for potential radioactive decay processes.
17
F and
18
F contain
too many protons or too few neutrons. Electron capture and positron production are both
possible decay mechanisms that increase the neutron-to-proton ratio. Alpha-particle
production also increases the neutron-to-proton ratio, but it is not likely for these light nuclei.
21
F contains too many neutrons or too few protons. Beta-particle production lowers the
neutron-to-proton ratio, so we expect
21
F to be a -emitter.

12. The most abundant isotope is generally the most stable isotope. The periodic table predicts
that the most stable isotopes for parts a-d are
39
K,
56
Fe,
23
Na, and
204
Tl. (Reference Table 20.2
of the text for potential decay processes.)

a. Unstable;
45
K has too many neutrons and will undergo beta-particle production.

b. Stable

c. Unstable;
20
Na has too few neutrons and will most likely undergo electron capture or
positron production. Alpha-particle production makes too severe of a change to be a
likely decay process for the relatively light
20
Na nuclei. Alpha-particle production
usually occurs for heavy nuclei.

d. Unstable;
194
Tl has too few neutrons and will undergo electron capture, positron
production, and/or alpha-particle production.

13. a. n 4 Sg O Cf
1
0
263
106
18
8
249
98
+ + b. Rf He Sg ; Rf
259
104
4
2
263
106
259
104
+

14. a. n Bk He Am
1
0
243
97
4
2
240
95
+ + b. n 6 Cf C U
1
0
244
98
12
6
238
92
+ +

c. n 4 Db N Cf
1
0
260
105
15
7
249
98
+ + d. n 2 Lr B Cf
1
0
257
103
10
5
249
98
+ +

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

15. k =
s 3600
h 1
h 24
d 1
d 365
yr 1
yr 433
69315 . 0
t
2 ln
2 / 1
= = 5.08
1 11
s 10


Rate = kN = 5.08
1 11
s 10

5.00 g
mol
nuclei 10 022 . 6
g 241
mol 1
23

= 6.35 10
11
decays/s

6.35 10
11
alpha particles are emitted each second from a 5.00-g
241
Am sample.

16. Kr-81 is most stable because it has the longest half-life, whereas Kr-73 is hottest (least stable)
since it has the shortest half-life.

12.5% of each isotope will remain after 3 half-lives:

For Kr73: t = 3(27 s) = 81 seconds

For Kr74: t = 3(11.5 min) = 34.5 minutes

For Kr76: t = 3(14.8 h) = 44.4 hours

For Kr81: t = 3(2.1 10
5
yr) = 6.3 10
5
years

17. a.
s 3600
h 1
h 24
d 1
d 8 . 12
6931 . 0
t
2 ln
k
2 / 1
= = = 6.27 10
7
s
1

b. Rate = kN = 6.27 10
7
s
1
|
|
.
|
\
|

mol
nuclei 10 022 . 6
g 0 . 64
mol 1
g 10 0 . 28
23
3

Rate = 1.65 10
14
decays/s

c. 25% of the
64
Cu will remain after 2 half-lives (100% decays to 50% after one half-life
which decays to 25% after a second half-life). Hence 2(12.8 days) = 25.6 days is the time
frame for the experiment.

18. a. 0.0100 Ci
Ci
decays/s 10 7 . 3
10
= 3.7 10
8
decays/s; k =
2 / 1
t
2 ln

Rate = kN,
s
decays 10 7 . 3
8
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
s 3600
h 1
h 87 . 2
6931 . 0
N, N = 5.5 10
12
atoms of
38
S

5.5 10
12
atoms
38
S
S mol
SO Na mol 1
atoms 10 02 . 6
S mol 1
38
4
38
2
23
38
= 9.1 10
12
mol Na
2
38
SO
4

9.1 10
12
mol Na
2
38
SO
4

4
38
2
4
38
2
SO Na mol
SO Na g 0 . 148
= 1.3 10
9
g = 1.3 ng Na
2
38
SO
4

100% 50% 25% 12.5
t
1/2
t
1/2
t
1/2

b. 99.99% decays, 0.01% left; ln
h 87 . 2
t ) 6931 . 0 (
kt
100
01 . 0
|
.
|
\
|
= = , t = 38.1 hours ~ 40 hours
19. t = 67.0 yr; k =
2 / 1
t
2 ln
;
|
|
.
|
\
|
0
N
N
ln = kt =
yr 28.9
yr .0 (0.6931)67
= 1.61,
|
|
.
|
\
|
0
N
N
=
1.61
e
= 0.200

20.0% of the
90
Sr remains as of July 16, 2012.

20. Assuming 2 significant figures in 1/100:

ln(N/N
0
) = kt; N = (0.010)N
0
; t
1/2
= (ln 2)/k

ln(0.010) =
d 0 . 8
t ) 693 . 0 (
t
t ) 2 (ln
2 / 1

= , t = 53 days

21. 175 mg Na
3
32
PO
4

4
32
3
32
PO Na mg 0 . 165
P mg 0 . 32
= 33.9 mg
32
P;
2 / 1
t
2 ln
k =

d 3 . 14
) d 0 . 35 ( 6931 . 0
mg 9 . 33
m
ln ,
t
t ) 6931 . 0 (
kt
N
N
ln
2 / 1 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = = ; carrying extra sig. figs.:

ln(m) = 1.696 + 3.523 = 1.827, m = e
1.827
= 6.22 mg
32
P remains

22. Units for N and N
0
are usually number of nuclei but can also be grams if the units are
identical for both N and N
0
. In this problem, m
0
= the initial mass of
47
Ca
2+
to be ordered.

31 . 0
d 5 . 4
) d 0 . 2 ( 693 . 0
m
Ca g 0 . 5
ln ,
t
t ) 693 . 0 (
kt
N
N
ln ;
t
2 ln
k
0
2
2 / 1 0 2 / 1

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = = = =
+

0
m
0 . 5
= e
0.31
= 0.73, m
0
= 6.8 g of
47
Ca
2+
needed initially
6.8 g
47
Ca
2+

+ 2 47
3
47
Ca g 0 . 47
CaCO g 0 . 107
= 15 g
47
CaCO
3
should be ordered at the minimum.
23. Plants take in CO
2
during the photosynthesis process, which incorporates carbon, including
14
C, into its molecules. As long as the plant is alive, the
14
C/
12
C ratio in the plant will equal
the ratio in the atmosphere. When the plant dies,
14
C is not replenished because
14
C decays by
beta-particle production. By measuring the
14
C activity today in the artifact and comparing
this to the assumed
14
C activity when the plant died to make the artifact, an age can be
determined for the artifact. The assumptions are that the
14
C level in the atmosphere is
constant or that the
14
C level at the time the plant died can be calculated. A constant
14
C level
is a pure assumption, and accounting for variation is complicated. Another problem is that
some of the material must be destroyed to determine the
14
C level.

24.
238
U has a half-life of 4.5 10
9
years. In order to be useful, we need a significant number of
decay events by
238
U to have occurred. With the extremely long half-life of
238
U, the period of
time required for a significant number of decay events is on the order of 10
8
years. This is the
time frame of when the earth was formed.
238
U is not useful for aging 10,000-year-old objects
or less because a measurable quantity of decay events has not occurred in 10,000 years or
less.
14
C is good at dating these objects because
14
C has a half-life on the order of 10
3
years.
14
C is not useful for dating ancient objects because of the relatively short half-life; no
discernable amount of
14
C will remain after 10
8
years.

25. t
1/2
= 5730 y; k = (ln 2)/t
1/2
; ln (N/N
0
) = kt; ln
yr 5730
t ) 2 (ln
3 . 15
1 . 15
= , t = 109 years

No; from
14
C dating, the painting was produced during the early 1900s.

26.
yr 5730
) yr 000 , 15 ( 6931 . 0
3 . 15
N
ln ,
t
t ) 6931 . 0 (
kt
N
N
ln
t
2 ln
k
2 / 1 0 2 / 1
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = = = = = 1.8

3 . 15
N
= e
1.8
= 0.17, N = 15.3 0.17 = 2.6 counts per minute per g of C
If we had 10. mg C, we would see:

10. mg
min
counts 026 . 0
g min
counts 6 . 2
mg 1000
g 1
=

It would take roughly 40 minutes to see a single disintegration. This is too long to wait, and
the background radiation would probably be much greater than the
14
C activity. Thus
14
C
dating is not practical for very small samples.

27. = = =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
0
0
0
N
N 17 . 0
ln ,
yr 3 . 12
t ) 2 (ln
kt
N
N
ln (5.64 10
2
)t, t = 31.4 years
It takes 31.4 years for the tritium to decay to 17% of the original amount. Hence the watch
stopped fluorescing enough to be read in 1975 (1944 + 31.4).

28. kt
N
N
ln
0

|
|
.
|
\
|
= ; k = (ln 2)/t
1/2
; N = 0.001 N
0

,
yr 100 , 24
t ) 2 (ln
N
N 001 . 0
ln
0
0

|
|
.
|
\
|
= ln(0.001) = (2.88 10
5
)t, t = 200,000 years

29. Assuming 1.000 g
238
U present in a sample, then 0.688 g
206
Pb is present. Because 1 mol
206
Pb is produced per mol
238
U decayed:


238
U decayed = 0.688 g Pb
U mol
U g 238
Pb mol
U mol 1
Pb g 206
Pb mol 1
= 0.795 g
238
U
Original mass
238
U present = 1.000 g + 0.795 g = 1.795 g
238
U

yr 10 5 . 4
t ) 693 . 0 (
g 795 . 1
g 000 . 1
ln ,
t
t ) 2 (ln
kt
N
N
ln
9
2 / 1 0

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = = , t = 3.8 10
9
years

30. a. The decay of
40
K is not the sole source of
40
Ca.

b. Decay of
40
K is the sole source of
40
Ar and no
40
Ar is lost over the years.

c.
K g 00 . 1
Ar g 95 . 0
40
40
= current mass ratio

0.95 g of
40
K decayed to
40
Ar; 0.95 g of
40
K is only 10.7% of the total
40
K that decayed,
or:

(0.107)m = 0.95 g, m = 8.9 g = total mass of
40
K that decayed

Mass of
40
K when the rock was formed was 1.00 g + 8.9 g = 9.9 g.

|
|
.
|
\
|
K g 9 . 9
K g 00 . 1
ln
40
40
yr 10 27 . 1
t ) 6931 . 0 (
t
t ) 2 (ln
kt
9
2 / 1

= = = , t = 4.2 10
9
years

d. If some
40
Ar escaped, then the measured ratio of
40
Ar/
40
K would be less than it should
be. We would calculate the age of the rocks to be less than it actually is.

Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions

31. E = mc
2
, m = = =
2 8
2 2 23
2
m/s) 10 (3.00
/s m kg 10 3.9
c
E
4.3 10
6
kg
The sun loses 4.3 10
6
kg of mass each second. Note: 1 J = 1 kg m
2
/s
2
.

32.
day
h 24
h
s 3600
kJ
J 1000
s
kJ 10 8 . 1
14

= 1.6 10
22
J/day

E = mc
2
, m = = =
2 8
22
2
m/s) 10 (3.00
J 10 1.6
c
E
1.8 10
5
kg of solar material provides
1 day of solar energy to the earth.

1.6 10
22
J
g 1000
kg 1
kJ 32
g 1
J 1000
kJ 1
= 5.0 10
14
kg of coal is needed to provide the
same amount of energy.

33. From the text, the mass of a proton = 1.00728 amu, the mass of a neutron = 1.00866 amu, and
the mass of an electron = 5.486 10
4
amu.

Mass of Fe
56
26
nucleus = mass of atom mass of electrons = 55.9349 26(0.0005486)
= 55.9206 amu

; Fe n 30 H 26
56
26
1
1
1
1
+ m = 55.9206 amu [26(1.00728) + 30(1.00866)] amu
= 0.5285 amu

E = mc
2
= 0.5285 amu
amu
kg 10 6605 . 1
27
(2.9979 10
8
m/s)
2
= 7.887 10
11
J
= =

nucleons 56
J 10 887 . 7
Nucleon
energy Binding
11
1.408 10
12
J/nucleon

34. For H
2
1
: mass defect = m = mass of H
2
1
nucleus mass of proton mass of neutron. The
mass of the
2
H nucleus will equal the atomic mass of
2
H minus the mass of the electron in an
2
H atom. From the text, the pertinent masses are: m
e
= 5.49 10
4
amu, m
p
= 1.00728 amu,
and m
n
= 1.00866 amu.

m = 2.01410 amu 0.000549 amu (1.00728 amu + 1.00866 amu) = 2.39 10
3
amu

E = mc
2
= 2.39 10
3
amu
amu
kg 10 6605 . 1
27
(2.998 10
8
m/s)
2

= 3.57 10
13
J
= =

nucleons 2
J 10 57 . 3
Nucleon
energy Binding
13
1.79 10
13
J/nucleon

For H
3
1
: m = 3.01605 0.000549 [1.00728 + 2(1.00866)] = 9.10 10
3
amu
E = 9.10 10
3
amu
amu
kg 10 6605 . 1
27
(2.998 10
8
m/s)
2
= 1.36 10
12
J
= =

nucleons 3
J 10 36 . 1
Nucleon
energy Binding
12
4.53 10
13
J/nucleon

35. Let m
e
= mass of electron; for
12
C (6e, 6p, 6n): mass defect = m = [mass of
12
C nucleus]
[mass of 6 protons + mass of 6 neutrons]. Note: Atomic masses given include the mass of the
electrons.

m = 12.00000 amu 6m
e
[6(1.00782 m
e
) + 6(1.00866)]; mass of electrons cancel.

m = 12.00000 [6(1.00782) + 6(1.00866)] = 0.09888 amu


E = mc
2
= 0.09888 amu
amu
kg 10 6605 . 1
27
(2.9979 10
8
m/s)
2

= 1.476 10
11
J
= =

nucleons 12
J 10 476 . 1
Nucleon
energy Binding
11
1.230 10
12
J/nucleon

For
235
U (92e, 92p, 143n):

m = 235.0439 92m
e
[92(1.00782 m
e
) + 143(1.00866)] = 1.9139 amu

E = mc
2
= 1.9139
amu
kg 10 66054 . 1
27
(2.99792 10
8
m/s)
2
= 2.8563 10
10
J
= =

nucleons 235
J 10 8563 . 2
Nucleon
energy Binding
10
1.2154 10
12
J/nucleon
Because
56
Fe is the most stable known nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon for
56
Fe
(1.408 10
12
J/nucleon) will be larger than that of
12
C or
235
U (see Figure 20.9 of the text).

36. Let m
Li
= mass of
6
Li nucleus; an
6
Li nucleus has 3p and 3n.

0.03434 amu = m
Li
(3m
p
+ 3m
n
) = m
Li
[3(1.00728 amu) + 3(1.00866 amu)]

m
Li
= 6.01348 amu

Mass of
6
Li atom = 6.01348 amu + 3m
e
= 6.01348 + 3(5.49
4
10
amu) = 6.01513 amu

(includes mass of 3 e
)

37. Binding energy =
nucleon
J 10 326 . 1
12
27 nucleons = 3.580
11
10
J for each
27
Mg nucleus

E = mc
2
, m =
2
c
E
=
2 8
11
) m/s 10 9979 . 2 (
J 10 580 . 3

= 3.983
28
10
kg
m = 3.983
28
10
kg
kg 10 6605 . 1
amu 1
27
= 0.2399 amu = mass defect

Let m
Mg
= mass of
27
Mg nucleus; an
27
Mg nucleus has 12 p and 15 n.

0.2399 amu = m
Mg
(12m
p
+ 15m
n
) = m
Mg
[12(1.00728 amu) + 15(1.00866 amu)]

m
Mg
= 26.9764 amu

Mass of
27
Mg atom = 26.9764 amu + 12m
e
, 26.9764 + 12(5.49
4
10
amu) = 26.9830 amu

(includes mass of 12 e
)

38. m = 2(5.486 10
4
amu) = 1.097 10
3
amu

E = mc
2
= 1.097 10
-3
amu
amu
kg 10 6605 . 1
27
(2.9979 10
8
m/s)
2

= 1.637 10
13
J

E
photon
= 1/2 (1.637 10
13
J) = 8.185 10
14
J = hc/

= = =

J 10 185 . 8
m/s 10 9979 . 2 s J 10 6261 . 6
E
hc
14
8 34
2.427 10
12
m = 2.427 10
3
nm

39. ; n He H H
1
0
4
2
3
1
2
1
+ + mass of electrons cancel when determining m for this nuclear
reaction.

m = [4.00260 + 1.00866 - (2.01410 + 3.01605)] amu = 1.889 10
2
amu

For the production of 1 mol of : He
4
2
m = 1.889 10
2
g = 1.889 10
5
kg

E = mc
2
= 1.889 10
5
kg (2.9979 10
8
m/s)
2
= 1.698 10
12
J/mol

For one nucleus of : He
4
2

nuclei 10 0221 . 6
mol 1
mol
J 10 698 . 1
23
12

= 2.820 10
12
J/nucleus
40. ; e H H H
0
1
2
1
1
1
1
1 +
+ + m = (2.01410 amu - m
e
+ m
e
) 2(1.00782 amu m
e
)
m = 2.01410 2(1.00782) + 2(0.000549) = 4.4 10
4
amu for two protons reacting
When 2 mol protons undergo fusion, m = 4.4 10
4
g.
E = mc
2
= 4.4 10
7
kg (3.00 10
8
m/s)
2
= 4.0 10
10
J

g 01 . 1
mol 1
protons mol 2
J 10 0 . 4
10

= 2.0 10
10
J/g of hydrogen nuclei

Detection, Uses, and Health Effects of Radiation

41. The Geiger-Mller tube has a certain response time. After the gas in the tube ionizes to
produce a "count," some time must elapse for the gas to return to an electrically neutral state.
The response of the tube levels out because at high activities, radioactive particles are
entering the tube faster than the tube can respond to them.


42. Not all the emitted radiation enters the Geiger-Mller tube. The fraction of radiation entering
the tube must be constant for a meaningful measurement.

43. Fission: Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two (or more) lighter nuclei.

Fusion: Combining two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.

The maximum binding energy per nucleon occurs at Fe. Nuclei smaller than Fe become
more stable by fusing to form heavier nuclei closer in mass to Fe. Nuclei larger than Fe form
more stable nuclei by splitting to form lighter nuclei closer in mass to Fe.

44. For fusion reactions, a collision of sufficient energy must occur between two positively
charged particles to initiate the reaction. This requires high temperatures. In fission, an
electrically neutral neutron collides with the positively charged nucleus. This has a much
lower activation energy.

45. Moderator: Slows the neutrons to increase the efficiency of the fission reaction.

Control rods: Absorbs neutrons to slow or halt the fission reaction.

46. The temperatures of fusion reactions are so high that all physical containers would be
destroyed. At these high temperatures, most of the electrons are stripped from the atoms. A
plasma of gaseous ions is formed that can be controlled by magnetic fields.

47. In order to sustain a nuclear chain reaction, the neutrons produced by the fission process must
be contained within the fissionable material so that they can go on to cause other fissions.
The fissionable material must be closely packed together to ensure that neutrons are not lost
to the outside. The critical mass is the mass of material in which exactly one neutron from
each fission event causes another fission event so that the process sustains itself. A
supercritical situation occurs when more than one neutron from each fission event causes
another fission event. In this case the process rapidly escalates, and the heat buildup causes a
violent explosion.

48. No, coal fired power plants also pose risks. A partial list of risks are:

Coal Nuclear

Air pollution Radiation exposure to workers
Coal mine accidents Disposal of wastes
Health risks to miners Meltdown
(black lung disease) Terrorists

49. A nonradioactive substance can be put in equilibrium with a radioactive substance. The two
materials can then be checked to see whether all the radioactivity remains in the original
material or if it has been scrambled by the equilibrium.

50. Water is produced in this reaction by removing an OH group from one substance and an H
from the other substance. There are two ways to do this:


Because the water produced is not radioactive, methyl acetate forms by the first reaction
where all of the oxygen-18 ends up in methyl acetate.

51. All evolved oxygen in O
2
comes from water and not from carbon dioxide.

52. Radiotracer: a radioactive nuclide introduced into an organism for diagnostic purposes whose
pathway can be traced by monitoring its radioactivity.
14
C and
32
P work well as radiotracers
because the molecules in the body contain carbon and/or phosphorus; they will be
incorporated into the worker molecules of the body easily, which allows monitoring of the
pathways of these worker molecules.

53. Some factors for the biological effects of radiation exposure are:

a. The energy of the radiation. The higher the energy, the more damage it can cause.

b. The penetrating ability of radiation. The ability of specific radiation to penetrate human
tissue where it can do damage must be considered.

c. The ionizing ability of the radiation. When biomolecules are ionized, their function is
usually disturbed.

d. The chemical properties of the radiation source. Specifically, can the radioactive
substance be readily incorporated into the body, or is the radiation source inert
chemically so that it passes through the body relatively quickly.

90
Sr will be incorporated into the body by replacing calcium in the bones. Once incorporated,
90
Sr can cause leukemia and bone cancer. Krypton is chemically inert, so it will not be
incorporated into the body.

54. Even though gamma rays penetrate human tissue very deeply, they are very small and cause
only occasional ionization of biomolecules. Alpha particles, because they are much more
massive, are very effective at causing ionization of biomolecules; these produce a dense trail
of damage once they get inside an organism.

55. (i) and (ii) mean that Pu is not a significant threat outside the body. Our skin is sufficient to
keep out the particles. If Pu gets inside the body, it is easily oxidized to Pu
4+
(iv), which is
chemically similar to Fe
3+
(iii). Thus Pu
4+
will concentrate in tissues where Fe
3+
is found,
including the bone marrow, where red blood cells are produced. Once inside the body,
particles can cause considerable damage.
18
+ HO H CH
3
C OCH
3
O
18
+ H OCH
3
CH
3
C OH
O
H OH CH
3
CO CH
3
O
H O CH
3
+ + CH
3
CO H
O
ii.
i.
18 18

Additional Exercises

56. a. Nothing; binding energy is related to thermodynamic stability, and is not related to
kinetics. Binding energy indicates nothing about how fast or slow a specific nucleon
decays.

b.
56
Fe has the largest binding energy per nucleon, so it is the most stable nuclide.
56
Fe has
the greatest mass loss per nucleon when the protons and neutrons are brought together to
form the
56
Fe nucleus. The least stable nuclide shown, having the smallest binding
energy per nucleon, is
2
H.

c. Fusion refers to combining two light nuclei having relatively small binding energies per
nucleon to form a heavier nucleus which has a larger binding energy per nucleon. The
difference in binding energies per nucleon is related to the energy released in a fusion
reaction. Nuclides to the left of
56
Fe can undergo fusion.

Nuclides to the right of
56
Fe can undergo fission. In fission, a heavier nucleus having a
relatively small binding energy per nucleon is split into two smaller nuclei having larger
binding energy per nucleons. The difference in binding energies per nucleon is related to
the energy released in a fission reaction.

57. N = 180 lb
C g 14
C mol 1
C g 100
C g 10 6 . 1
body g 100
C g 18
lb
g 6 . 453
14
14 14 10

C nuclei 10 0 . 1
C mol
C nuclei 10 022 . 6
14 15
14
14 23
=

Rate = kN; k =
1 12
1/2
s 10 8 . 3
s 3600
h 1
h 24
d 1
d 365
yr 1
yr 5730
693 . 0
t
2 ln

= =

Rate = kN; k = decays/s 3800 C) nuclei 10 1.0 ( s 10 3.8
14 15 1 12
=

A typical 180 lb person produces 3800 beta particles each second.

58. Mass of nucleus = atomic mass mass of electron = 2.01410 amu 0.000549 amu
= 2.01355 amu
u
rms
=
2 / 1
M
RT 3
|
.
|
\
|
=
1/2
7 1 1
) g 1000 / kg 1 ( g 01355 . 2
) K 10 4 )( mol K J 3145 . 8 ( 3
(

= 7 10
5
m/s

KE
avg
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
amu
kg 10 66 . 1
amu 01355 . 2
2
1
mu
2
1
27
2
(7 10
5
m/s)
2
= 8
16
10
J/nucleus

We could have used KE
ave
= (3/2) RT to determine the same average kinetic energy.


59. 20,000 ton TNT
U mol
U g 235
J 10 2
U mol 1
TNT ton
J 10 4
235
235
13
235 9
= 940 g
235
U ~ 900 g
235
U

This assumes that all of the
235
U undergoes fission.

60. Characteristic frequencies of energies emitted in a nuclear reaction suggest that discrete
energy levels exist in the nucleus. Extra stability of certain numbers of nucleons and the
predominance of nuclei with even numbers of nucleons suggests that the nuclear structure
might be described by using quantum numbers.

61. The only product in the fast-equilibrium step is assumed to be N
16
O
18
O
2
, where N is the
central atom. However, this is a reversible reaction where N
16
O
18
O
2
will decompose to NO
and O
2
. Because any two oxygen atoms can leave N
16
O
18
O
2
to form O
2
, we would expect (at
equilibrium) one-third of the NO present in this fast equilibrium step to be N
16
O and two-
thirds to be N
18
O. In the second step (the slow step), the intermediate N
16
O
18
O
2
reacts with
the scrambled NO to form the NO
2
product, where N is the central atom in NO
2
. Any one of
the three oxygen atoms can be transferred from N
16
O
18
O
2
to NO when the NO
2
product is
formed. The distribution of
18
O in the product can best be determined by forming a
probability table.

N
16
O (1/3) N
18
O (2/3)
16
O (1/3) from N
16
O
18
O
2

N
16
O
2
(1/9) N
18
O
16
O (2/9)
18
O (2/3) from N
16
O
18
O
2

N
16
O
18
O (2/9) N
18
O
2
(4/9)

From the probability table, 1/9 of the NO
2
is N
16
O
2
, 4/9 of the NO
2
is N
18
O
2
, and 4/9 of the
NO
2
is N
16
O
18
O (2/9 + 2/9 = 4/9). Note: N
16
O
18
O is the same as N
18
O
16
O. In addition,
N
16
O
18
O
2
is not the only NO
3
intermediate formed; N
16
O
2
18
O and N
18
O
3
can also form in the
fast-equilibrium first step. However, the distribution of
18
O in the NO
2
product is the same as
calculated above, even when these other NO
3
intermediates are considered.

62. The third-life will be the time required for the number of nuclides to reach one-third of the
original value (N
0
/3).

|
|
.
|
\
|
0
N
N
ln = kt =
2 / 1
t
t ) 6931 . 0 (
, |
.
|
\
|
3
1
ln = ,
yr 4 . 31
t ) 6931 . 0 (
t = 49.8 years
The third-life of this nuclide is 49.8 years.

63. Assuming that the radionuclide is long lived enough that no significant decay occurs during
the time of the experiment, the total counts of radioactivity injected are:
0.10 mL
mL
cpm 10 0 . 5
3
= 5.0 10
2
cpm

Assuming that the total activity is uniformly distributed only in the rats blood, the blood
volume is:

V
mL
cpm 48
= 5.0 10
2
cpm, V = 10.4 mL = 10. mL

64. a.
12
C; it takes part in the first step of the reaction but is regenerated in the last step.
12
C is
not consumed, so it is not a reactant.

b.
13
N,
13
C,
14
N,
15
O, and
15
N are the intermediates.

c. ; e 2 He H 4
0
1
4
2
1
1 +
+ ; m = 4.00260 amu 2m
e
+ 2m
e
[4(1.00782 amu m
e
)]

m = 4.00260 4(1.00782) + 4(0.000549) = 0.02648 amu for four protons reacting

For 4 mol of protons, m = 0.02648 g, and E for the reaction is:

E = mc
2
= 2.648 10
-5
kg (2.9979 10
8
m/s)
2
= 2.380 10
12
J

For 1 mol of protons reacting:
H mol 4
J 10 380 . 2
1
12

= 5.950 10
11
J/mol
1
H

Challenge Problems

65. k =
|
|
.
|
\
|
0 2 / 1
N
N
ln ;
t
2 ln

1/2
t
(0.693)t
kt

= =

For
238
U: 50 . 0 e
N
N
, 693 . 0
yr 10 5 . 4
) yr 10 5 . 4 )( 693 . 0 (
N
N
ln
693 . 0
0
9
9
0
= = = =

|
|
.
|
\
|

For
235
U: 012 . 0 e
N
N
, 39 . 4
yr 10 1 . 7
) yr 10 5 . 4 )( 693 . 0 (
N
N
ln
39 . 4
0
8
9
0
= = = =

|
|
.
|
\
|

If we have a current sample of 10,000 uranium nuclei, 9928 nuclei of
238
U and 72 nuclei of
235
U are present. Now lets calculate the initial number of nuclei that must have been present
4.5 10
9
years ago to produce these 10,000 uranium nuclei.

For
238
U: nuclei U 10 0 . 2
50 . 0
nuclei 9928
50 . 0
N
N , 50 . 0
N
N
238 4
0
0
= = = =

For
235
U: nuclei U 10 0 . 6
012 . 0
nuclei 72
012 . 0
N
N
235 3
0
= = =


So 4.5 billion years ago, the 10,000-nuclei sample of uranium was composed of 2.0 10
4

238
U nuclei and 6.0 10
3

235
U nuclei. The percent composition 4.5 billion years ago would
have been:

100
nuclei total ) 10 0 . 2 10 0 . 6 (
nuclei U 10 0 . 2
4 3
238 4
+

= 77%
238
U and 23%
235
U

66. Total activity injected = 86.5 10
3
Ci

Activity withdrawn
O H mL
Ci 10 8 . 1
O H mL 2.0
Ci 10 6 . 3
2
6
2
6

= =

Assuming no significant decay occurs, then the total volume of water in the body multiplied
by 1.8 10
6
Ci/mL must equal the total activity injected.

V
O H mL
Ci 10 8 . 1
2
6
= 8.65 10
2
Ci, V = 4.8 10
4
mL H
2
O

Assuming a density of 1.0 g/mL for water, the mass percent of water in this 150-lb person is:

100
lb 150
g 6 . 453
lb 1
mL
O H g 0 . 1
O H mL 10 8 . 4
2
2
4

= 71%

67.
2
1
H +
2
1
H
4
2
He; Q for
2
1
H = 1.6
19
10
C; mass of deuterium = 2 amu.

E =
r
) Q Q ( C / m J 10 0 . 9
2 1
2 9
-
=
m 10 2
) C 10 6 . 1 ( C / m J 10 0 . 9
15
2 19 2 9
-

= 1
13
10
J per alpha particle

KE = 1/2 mv
2
; 1
13
10
J = 1/2 (2 amu 1.66

27
10
kg/amu)v
2
, v = 8 10
6
m/s

From the kinetic molecular theory discussed in Chapter 5:
u
rms
=
2 / 1
M
RT 3
|
.
|
\
|
where M = molar mass in kilograms = 2
3
10
kg/mol for deuterium

8 10
6
m/s =
2 / 1
3
1 1
kg 10 2
) T )( mol K J 3145 . 8 ( 3
(

, T = 5 10
9
K

68.
58
26
Fe + 2
1
0
n
60
27
Co + ?; in order to balance the equation, the missing particle has no
mass and a charge of 1; this is an electron.

An atom of
60
27
Co has 27 e, 27 p, and 33 n. The mass defect of the
60
Co nucleus is:

Am = (59.9338 27m
e
) [27(1.00782 m
e
) + 33(1.00866)] = 0.5631 amu

AE = Amc
2
= 0.5631 amu
amu
kg 10 6605 . 1
27
(2.9979 10
8
m/s)
2
= 8.403
11
10
J

Nucleon
energy Binding
=
nucleons 60
J 10 403 . 8
11
= 1.401
12
10
J/nucleon

The emitted particle was an electron, which has a mass of 9.109
31
10
kg. The deBroglie

wavelength is:

mv
h
= =
) s / m 10 998 . 2 90 . 0 ( kg 10 109 . 9
s J 10 626 . 6
8 31
34

= 2.7
12
10
m

69. mol I =
counts 10 0 . 5
min I mol 1
min
counts 33
11
-
= 6.6 10
11
mol I

[I
] =
L 150 . 0
I mol 10 6 . 6
11
= 4.4 10
10
mol/L
Hg
2
I
2
(s) Hg
2
2+
(aq) + 2 I
(aq) K
sp
= [Hg
2
2+
][I
]
2

Initial s = solubility (mol/L) 0 0
Equil. s 2s

From the problem, 2s = 4.4 10
10
mol/L, s = 2.2 10
10
mol/L.

K
sp
= (s)(2s)
2
= (2.2 10
10
)(4.4 10
10
)
2
= 4.3 10
29

70. a.
238
92
U
222
86
Rn + ?
4
2
He + ? e
0
1
; to account for the mass number change, four alpha
particles are needed. To balance the number of protons, two beta particles are needed.

222
86
Rn
4
2
He +
218
84
Po; polonium-218 is produced when
222
Rn decays.

b. Alpha particles cause significant ionization damage when inside a living organism.
Because the half-life of
222
Rn is relatively short, a significant number of alpha particles
will be produced when
222
Rn is present (even for a short period of time) in the lungs.

c.
222
86
Rn
4
2
He +
218
84
Po;
218
84
Po
4
2
He +
214
82
Pb; polonium-218 is produced when
radon-222 decays.
218
Po is a more potent alpha-particle producer because it has a much
shorter half-life than
222
Rn. In addition,
218
Po is a solid, so it can get trapped in the lung
tissue once it is produced. Once trapped, the alpha particles produced from polonium-
218 (with its very short half-life) can cause significant ionization damage.


d. Rate = kN; rate =
Ci
s decays/ 10 7 . 3
pCi
Ci 10 1
L
pCi 0 . 4
10 12

= 0.15 decays s
1
L
1

k =
s 3600
h 1
h 24
d 1
d 82 . 3
6391 . 0
t
2 ln
2 / 1
= = 2.10
1 6
s 10

N =
1 6
1 1
s 10 10 . 2
L s decays 15 . 0
K
rate

= = 7.1 10
4
atoms
222
Rn/L
atoms 10 6.02
Rn mol 1
L
Rn atoms 10 7.1
23
222 222 4
= 1.2
19
10
mol
222
Rn/L

71. a. For a gas, u
avg
= 8RT/R where M is the molar mass in kg. From the equation, the
lighter the gas molecule, the faster is the average velocity. Therefore,
235
UF
6
will have
the greater average velocity at a certain temperature because it is the lighter molecule.

b. From Grahams law (see Section 5.7 of the text):

g/mol 03 . 349
g/mol 05 . 352
) UF ( M
) UF ( M
UF for rate diffusion
UF for rate diffusion
6
235
6
238
6
238
6
235
= = = 1.0043

Each diffusion step increases the
235
UF
6
concentration by a factor of 1.0043. To
determine the number of steps to get to the desired 3.00%
235
U, we use the following
formula:

6
238
6
235
N
6
238
6
235
UF 0 . 97
UF 00 . 3
) 0043 . 1 (
UF 3 . 99
UF 700 . 0
=
original ratio final ratio

where N represents the number of steps required.

Solving (and carrying extra sig. figs.):

(1.0043)
N
=
9 . 67
9 . 297
= 4.387, N log(1.0043) = log(4.387)

N =
3
10 863 . 1
6422 . 0
= 345 steps

Thus 345 steps are required to obtain the desired enrichment.


c.
98500
1526
5358 . 1
UF
UF
,
1526 10 000 . 1
1526
) 0043 . 1 (
UF
UF
6
238
6
235
5
100
6
238
6
235
= =

original ratio final ratio

6
238
6
235
UF
UF
= 1.01 10
2
= initial
235
U to
238
U atom ratio

72. a. From Table 11.1: 2 H
2
O + 2 e
-
H
2
+ 2 OH
-
E = -0.83 V

o
Zr
o
O H
o
cell
E E E
2
= = -0.83 V + 2.36 V = 1.53 V

Yes, the reduction of H
2
O to H
2
by Zr is spontaneous at standard conditions because

o
cell
E > 0.

b. (2 H
2
O + 2 e
H
2
+ 2 OH
) 2
Zr + 4 OH
ZrO
2
-H
2
O + H
2
O + 4 e

____________________________________
3 H
2
O(l) + Zr(s) 2 H
2
(g) + ZrO
2
-H
2
O(s)

c. G = nFE = (4 mol e
)(96,485 C/mol e
)(1.53 J/C) = 5.90 10

5
J = 590. kJ

E = E
n
0591 . 0
log Q; at equilibrium, E = 0 and Q = K.

E =
n
0591 . 0
log K, log K =
0591 . 0
) 53 . 1 ( 4
= 104, K ~ 10
104

d. 1.00 10
3
kg Zr
Zr mol
H mol 2
Zr g 22 . 91
Zr mol 1
kg
g 1000
2
= 2.19 10
4
mol H
2

2.19 10
4
mol H
2

2
2
H mol
H g 016 . 2
= 4.42 10
4
g H
2

= = =

atm 0 . 1
) K 1273 )( mol K atm L 08206 . 0 )( mol 10 19 . 2 (
P
nRT
V
1 1 4
2.3 10
6
L H
2

e. Probably yes; less radioactivity overall was released by venting the H
2
than what would
have been released if the H
2
exploded inside the reactor (as happened at Chernobyl).
Neither alternative is pleasant, but venting the radioactive hydrogen is the less unpleasant
of the two alternatives.

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803

amu) = 6.01513 amu

= 0.2399 amu = mass defect

amu) = 26.9830 amu

C; mass of deuterium = 2 amu.

J per alpha particle

J = 1/2 (2 amu 1.66

kg/mol for deuterium

kg. The deBroglie

)(1.53 J/C) = 5.90 10

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