"The Migration of White Racism to South Korea"

Nadia Y. Kim
2008-07-!
Paper presented at the annual meeting of
the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting
Sheraton Boston and the Boston Marriott Copley Place
Boston, MA
Online <PDF> !"#$%#!%#& from
http'((citationallacademiccom(meta(p!&!!#)*inde+html
"#stract$
Situated ,ithin the conte+t of -S imperialist dominance o.er South
/orea, 0 dra, on inter.ie,s, o1ser.ations, and archi.al ne,spaper
data to e+amine South /oreans and recent 2migr2s sense of inferiority
to 3hite America and .arious positions .is%a%.is Blac4 Americans 0
capture such a racial formation 1y analy5ing the 3hite%led -S
military states su1ordination of, and mass media cultures 1ias against,
South /oreans 6and their immigrant co%ethnics 1y ,ay of the #77!
8os Angeles unrest9 3ith respect to 3hite and Blac4 America,
/oreans in the home country dra, on :uro%American ideologies to
concei.e of themsel.es as in 1et,een the t,o At the same time,
/oreans are ,ell a,are that they are in a su1ordinate position to the
Blac4 American agents of the -S occupational forces ;hese findings
sho, that immigrants in the -nited States are often raciali5ed 1y
American racial ideologies long 1efore they set foot on -S soil
Specifically, they recogni5e that race is not <ust a1out color or class,
1ut also a1out nation, political po,er, and recognition ;his study
sho,s that research on -S immigrants should consider the glo1al and
transnational conte+t in ,hich race tra.els and profoundly shapes the
li.es of those ,ho tra.el in 1ody and mind
outh /orea 6the =O/9 has 1een occupied 1y the -nited States military and
dependent on its capital for o.er si+ty years >istorically, -S influence 1egan in
this country ,ith a #7&? 3orld 3ar 00 agreement ,hich granted the -nited States
and the then%So.iet -nion, respecti.ely, trusteeship possession of the southern and
northern portions Only a matter of days after @apanAs fall in #7&?, the -S military
marched into the south and soon introduced its goods, culture, and racial ideologies
Situated ,ithin the conte+t of -S dominance o.er the home country, 0 dra, on
inter.ie,s, o1ser.ations, and archi.al ne,spaper data to e+amine South /oreansA and
immigrantsA sense of inferiority to 3hite America and, of course, resistance to the
perennial comple+ More specifically, 0 see4 to capture the role of the 3hite%led -S
military state and -S mass media culture in instantiating a sense of racial(national
inferiority 6see A1elmann and 8ie #77?9 3ith not <ust 3hites 1ut Blac4 Americans in
the military and mass media, ho,e.er, 0 sho, ho, /orean respondents dra, on :uro%
American ideologies to concei.e of themsel.es as Bin%1et,eenC 3hite and Blac4
AmericaDEF At the same time, /oreans are ,ell a,are that they are in a su1ordinate
position to Blac4 Americans as agents of the -S occupational forces 0n addition, those
/oreans ,ho learned of the #77! 8os Angeles unrest 1efore immigrating to the -nited
States sa, in the BriotsC a common theme of 3hite dominance and racism, Blac4
BcriminalityC and more esta1lished political pro,ess, as ,ell as /oreansA racial
pro1lems and in.isi1ility ;hese findings sho, that immigrants in the -nited States are
often raciali5ed 1y American racial structures and ideologies long 1efore they set foot on
American soil [*] Although there is little space in this paper to discuss the racial
influences of the former colonizer, Japan, I will inject it whenever it is most appropriate.
S
Methods
;o pursue this study 0 dra, on open%ended, in%depth inter.ie,s ,ith first%generation
/orean immigrants and .arious inter.ie,ing methods ,ith non%migrants in Seoul, South
/orea 6.irtually all inter.ie,s ,ere conducted in the /orean language and 1et,een
!""" and !""#9 0 dra, secondarily on ethnographic o1ser.ations in Seoul and informal
o1ser.ations in 8os Angeles and on archi.al ne,spaper research By ,ay of these
methods, 0 see4 to sho, that ,e cannot fully and accurately grasp the -S immigrant
e+perience ,ithout a multi%site methodology, one that is informed 1y a glo1al and
transnational perspecti.e Such a research design allo,s for analysis of the distinct
transnational .antage of /orean immigrants in the -nited States ;o capture as 1est 0
could these immigrantsA pre%migrant understandings as ,ell as their transnational
imaginaries and interpersonal e+changes, 0 inter.ie,ed /oreans ,ho had <ust come to
the States, as early as t,o months 1efore 0 refer to this group as Bne,comersC ;o
capture the sending conte+t 0 also inter.ie,ed residents in Seoul, South /orea, dre, on
archi.al data from the highest%circulation South /orean ne,spapers, and conducted
ethnographic o1ser.ation for si+ months in !""" Although 0 dra, mostly on these t,o
su1%groups of inter.ie,ees, 0 also inter.ie,ed /orean Americans ,ho had li.ed in the
-nited States for a long period of time ;hese Bold%timersC ,ere typically 1est a1le to
spea4 a1out -S immigrant life and transnational connections and comparisons o.er
time
%erce&tions of 'S Mi(itar) *omination
0n their o,n national imaginary, /oreans lament and censure their proscri1ed self%
determination at the hands of e+ternal po,ers' China, @apan, and, most recently, the
-nited States As ,ith all oppressions, the su1<ugated must na.igate a ,orld in ,hich
they are constantly reminded of their inferiority, in ,hich their de.alued difference is the
pro.er1ial ,ater they s,im in 0n modern history, most /oreans categorically condemn
@apan as e.ildoers, as those ,ho poisoned their ,ater ;he potent sense of inferiority to
@apan still fifty%fi.e years post%li1eration, ,ith little sign of a1atement, is a po,erful
indicator of ho, domination 1y the -nited States has opened up old ,ounds and caused
ne, ones, saddling further /oreansA sense of national ,orth Got,ithstanding the dualist
sentiments that render the -nited States a sa.ior to 1e admired and an imperialist to 1e
ousted, the South /oreans of all generations ,ith ,hom 0 spo4e admitted, or alluded to,
a sense of inferiority As such, it is necessary to e+amine the history of South /oreansA
perceptions and treatment of White Americans in the conte+t of -S po,er
First, a note on racial la1eling 3ith little e+ception, /oreans conform to 3hite
AmericaAs hegemonic construction of itself as the raciali5ed reference point 6see 8ipsit5
#77H9 ;his self%representation of ,hiteness D!F 1oded ,ell ,ith /oreansA association of
a nation ,ith its Bo,nersC or ma<ority group As ,ell, much of /oreansA interactions
,ith Americans since the #HH"s ha.e 1een ,ith White Americans 6diplomats,
missionaries9 ;he most potent indicator of the persistence of this raciali5ation today is
/oreansA use of migu saram 6BAmerican personC9 to denote a 3hite person /oreans
also freIuently use BforeignerC 6oegu saram9 to denote a 3hite person unless they
specify other,ise, demonstrating that 3hite 3esterners are the reference point for
anyone not /orean(:ast Asian ;his eIuation of BAmericanC and 3hiteC stems in large
part from /oreansA gratitude for -S military inter.ention during 3orld 3ar 00 and the
/orean 3ar
A historical loo4 at the -S inter.ention sho,s that, despite tensions and disagreements
1et,een the -SA%=O/ 6=epu1lic of /orea9 go.ernments, on 1alance, the South /orean
state and its citi5ens ha.e 1een pro%-SA from the #7?"s through much of the #7)"s
6Moon #77)9 Jeneral Douglas MacArthur, for instance, has ser.ed as the icon of -S
military humanitarianism in the /orean 3ar and continues to 1e .alori5ed in South
/orean history te+t1oo4s 0n the countryAs popular culture, /ang 6#77#9 notes that
/orean characters set in the immediate ,a4e of #7&? e+pressed intense gratitude to
BAmericansC for Bli1eratingC their nation from the @apanese 0n this content analysis of
#7&?%#7)? popular /orean short stories and 1oo4s, /ang 6#77#9 found descriptions of
B1ig noseC 3esterners ,ith Bgolden hair and 1lue eyesC Against this conte+tual
1ac4drop 1oth older and ne,er immigrants, along ,ith those ,ho had ne.er left,
conformed to hegemonic ideali5ations of 3hite America as /oreaAs sa.ior
0n response to Iuestions a1out the -S military inter.ention in particular, older
immigrants ,ho had endured the /orean 3ar often e+pressed deep gratitude and
depicted /orea as BhelplessC ,ithout American aid ;he role of the =O/ state in such a
rec4oning cannot 1e o.erstated 0t has officially la1eled the -nited States an Bally,C
endorsed the military presence, and e+pended painsta4ing efforts o.er the years to
maintain it ;hus it is not surprising that older generations of /oreans tend to support a
continued -S military presence ,hile younger generations generally do not 6!hosun
Il"o Septem1er #), #77"9 ;he older generations also .i.idly remem1er the -nited
States 1ringing material lu+uries to a star.ing /orea, especially food items hitherto
unseen li4e ;asterAs Choice coffee, Spam, and the signature >ersheyAs chocolate 6Kuh
!""!'$&9 8ong%time transmigrant D$F Ms Ki ,as among the older guard ,ho tended to
1e grateful to BAmericaC for its military assistance
America helped us so much, ,hat ,ould ,e ha.e done if they
hadnAtL 3e ,ouldnAt ha.e 1een a1le to ma4e itM:.en no,,
Americans are li.ing in /orea, ,hich is ho, the South is sta1le
1ecause at any moment something could happen from the Gorth
A recent 2migr2, middle%aged Ms /im, in.o4ed the 3hite American masculine icon of
-S aid, Jeneral Douglas MacArthur, to e+press her Christian%inspired gratitude
K$ ;o this day, 0 thin4 America is our ally
N$ 3hoL
K$ Americans 6migu saram9 Kes, yes Our friendly ally 6chuc4les9
;hey helped us during the /orean 3ar%%you 4no,, people li4e
Jeneral MacArthur Of course it ,as all done 1y the ,ill of
the 8ord, 1ut any,ay ,e recei.ed a lot of help from
America 0 donAt 4no, a1out each indi.idual, 1ut any,ay, 0
still thin4 people in America are good and are good to /orea
6) mos in -S9
:.en more flattering for the 3hite%led military is Ms /imAs perception that Jod had
pre%ordained the -nited States to assist South /orea in the ,ar effort through Douglas
MacArthur
Despite the persistence of potent anti%American sentiment since the #7H"s, especially
among student acti.ists, the hegemonic hold of 63hite9 American 1ene.olence has
persisted among some mem1ers of the younger generations Some students and young
professionals ,ere pro%American in ,ays that ser.ed a /orean nationalistic purpose
Student Ms @ung, for instance, con.eyed' B0 ha.e al,ays li4ed Americans since the
/orean 3ar 1ecause they ga.e us food and stuffM3hites seem much more ad.anced
than us so if ,e ,ant to impro.e oursel.es as a nation, 0 feel li4e ,e ha.e to associate
,ith themC >er hope for her nation also in.o4es South /oreansA self%conscious desire
to reali5e itself in terms of 3hite 3estern modernity
;he -S military indeed doled out not <ust BfoodC 1ut BstuffC ;he stuff included a pu1lic
relations program ,herein the military offered free reconstructi.e surgery to /orean 3ar
.ictims as ,ell as plastic surgery, namely the dou1le eyelid procedure 6Palum1o%8iu
#777'7?9 As such, the massi.e and 1ooming plastic surgery industry in /orea 6and
Asia9, especially for the dou1le eyelid and other :uropean features, can 1e traced in part
to the -S occupational forces in South /orea Besides ,anting dou1le eyelids, /oreans
desired to 1e as tall as the BAmericans,C part of a trend in ,hich men desired to emulate
3hite American masculinity ,hile ,omen desired to emulate 3hite American
femininityD&F 0n short, /oreans, including my inter.ie,ees, internali5ed the :uropean
1eauty(appearance standard 1y 1elie.ing that they ,ere not as attracti.e, e.en
undergoing cosmetic surgery to help Bsol.eC the pro1lem
;o 1e sure, the -S military did not foster sui generis such ideological ineIualities 3hite
AmericansA racial 1ias against /oreans had sho,n itself long 1efore, as in #i"ert$
%agazineAs depiction of /oreans in the #7!"s as the ,orldAs Bdirtiest people,C full of
Blice,C and much lo,er than the @apanese 6!hosun Il"o Decem1er #H, #7!7'!9 0n
another e+ample, during 3orld 3ar 00 the -nited States had deemed the @apanese as
racially inferior, inhuman sa.ages ,ith a penchant for sadism %% a .ie, they often
transferred onto the /oreans in the northern region 6Do,er #7HN'#&9 ;he Bli1eratingC
American army ,as certainly influential, ho,e.er @ournalist Mar4 Jayn 6#7&H'$&79
identified racism among the -S officers, citing one lieutenant ,ho deemed /oreans
Bdirty and treacherousC and that BPsychological ,arfare DisF the only ,ay to sho, these
goo4s ,e ,onAt stand for any mon4ey 1usinessC 0n another instance, Alfred Crofts
6#7N"'?&& cited in i1id'#&&9, a mem1er of the -S military go.ernment in South /orea,
critici5ed his colleagues for turning the 1uildings reser.ed for Seoul Gational -ni.ersity
into -S military 1arrac4s >e descri1ed ho, a Colonel Blimp re<oined' BO;hese Joo4s
donAt need collegesP 8etAs close the places up and train them to 1e cooliesAC Got only
does he stand in star4 contrast to the early missionaries ,ho 1uilt the colleges, Colonel
BlimpAs statement 1rings to light the -S racial ideology ,hich collapses Asians and
Asian Americans 6BcooliesC9 as ,ell as Chinese and /orean ethnics 0ndeed, the 1lurred
interface 1et,een BOrientalC and BOrientC had 1een populari5ed 1y the Chicago School
1ac4 in the States 6Ku !""!9 1y the time the military officials arri.ed :.en into the
#77"s, it ,as common for -S soldiers to refer to /oreans as Bgoo4sC or ,orse 68ie
#77H'#&&9
White S+heroes in "merican Mass Media
/oreansA literal BencountersC ,ith the -S military are informed 1y, and inform, the
images of 3hite Americans they ha.e ,atched on tele.ision or in mo.ie houses Darnell
>unt 6#77)'#&&9 characteri5es these e+periences as the concrete situations through
,hich race%as%representation acts as Ban immediate social force,C a force that has
accompanied BAmericaC ,here.er it has tra.eled 0n the case of South /orea, this lin4
1et,een the state and dominant representations has forged the superiority and
normati.ity of 3hite America and, in relation, the inferiority and Otherness of /orea
and its people /oreansA surgical alteration of their eyelids is <ust one e+ample
America, the &ast !ow"o$ 'rontier
First, it cannot 1e o.erstated that all the respondents had engaged American media in
South /orea in one form or another irrespecti.e of time of emigration, age, social class,
region in ,hich they gre, up, or gender Although /oreans ,ho ha.e immigrated to the
States since the late #7H"s(early #77"s ha.e had the greatest and most di.erse access to
American tele.ision, mo.ies, music, and print <ournalism, -S popular culture has 1een
an integral part of South /orean life for the past forty years 6/ang #77#9 Got to 1e
ta4en lightly, American material and popular culture has 1een a dri.ing force 1ehind
/oreansA longing for and migration to BAmericaC 6A1elmann and 8ie #77?'N&9 0n this
setting, e.en those ,ho left the country around #7)", the first year of mass /orean
e+odus to the -nited States, reported ha.ing ,atched a great deal of American mo.ies
and tele.ision programs
One pattern ,as middle%aged /orean menAs procli.ity for the ,esterns film genre ,hile
li.ing in South /orea Fifteen%year immigrant Mr Bae ,as one such fan
Kou 4no,, lots of American culture has 1een imported to /orea, for
e+ample, mo.ies li4e the ,estern mo.iesMsuch as the @ohn 3ayne
mo.ies At that time D,atching themF, 0 thought that America ,as
really 1ig
Mr BaeAs e+posure to @ohn 3ayneAs contemplati.e and action%pac4ed <ourneys through
the .ast terrain of the 3est painted a picture for him of an BAmericaC larger than life
;his characteri5ation ,as especially salient for a people ,ho share the common adage,
Bour small countryC and freIuently attri1ute shortcomings, e.en /oreansA narro,%
mindedness, to small si5e 6/oreans 1elie.e that people Bem1odyC their nations9 0n
another e+ample, old%timer Mr /oh had ,atched his share of ,esterns and other films
on the -S military station AF/G, a1out ,hich he seemed to 1oast ,hen he spo4e ,ith
me
K$ 0 ,atched a lot of American mo.iesP M Since 0 ,as young, 0A.e
,atched a lot of American mo.ies, ,esterns M ;here ,as
@ohn 3ayne, Jary Cooper, Cary Jrant MKou can e.en say
that 0A.e 1een ,atching it since 0 ,as ten years old M ;hereAs
also the ;Q channel AF/GR uh 6pause9, ,hat is the title of that
programMdealing ,ith ;e+as oilL
N$ Oh, (allasL
K$ (allas, li4e that drama ;hose ,ere much more interesting than
/orean dramasP 6age ?&9
>is impulse to sho, off his 4no,ledge of American mass media, including @ohn 3ayne
films, seemed to flo, from the same pride he deri.ed from training ,ith and 1efriending
3hite J0s, that is, of 1eing associated ,ith 3hite America
)Americans* are +icher than ,s
/oreans selecti.ely dre, on these media te+ts %% namely the ,ealthier, more po,erful,
and more 1eautiful 3hite reference point %% to construct BAmericaC as ideal For
instance, none of the men mentioned the BGati.e AmericanC side4ic4s or enemies in the
,esterns and, in general, /oreans did not in.o4e depictions of the poor from any of the
te+ts Focusing instead on American ,ealth, South /oreans interpret it ,ithin a
formida1le class logic that naturali5es the superiority of the rich ;hey ideali5e 3hite
Americans for their innate talents that 1egot the ,ealthiest country in the ,orld 0t is not
surprising, then, that the immigrantsA recollections and South /oreansA interpretations
tended to 1ac4ground image highlight the 3hite middle%class 6or upper%class9 norm in
-S media te+ts 6see :hrenreich #77?9 As noted, the -S occupational forces had already
alerted /oreans to American ,ealth Chocolate gi.ea,ays and 1ountiful PSes spa,ned
stories of ho, Americans ,ere so rich that they had meat at e.ery meal, each ,ith a
huge ser.ing 6Kuh !""!'$&9 0t is thus not surprising that old%timers li4e middle%aged
Ms Jo recalled gleaning AmericaAs more BmodernC lifestyle from the first -S prime%
time soap opera, -e$ton -lace 6#7N&TN79, ,hich chronicled the li.es of an upper%crust
Ge, :ngland 3hite American family 0t starred Mia Farro, and =yan OAGeal
8i4e ,e ,atched ;Q, li4e the American drama and thereAs more
modern li.ing andM,e can BcatchC America from there, you 4no,L
Keah, -e$ton -lace, that 4ind of thing M 0 thin4 at that time ,e had
cars, 1ut each family didnAt o,n a car at that time, you 4no,L Only
really rich people had a car and li4e a ;Q, e.en Keah, ,e D,ould
thin4F, BOh, that countryAs li4e really more sophisticated%loo4ingC
3hile other informants had a more difficult time pinpointing specific media te+ts, they
reached similar conclusions ,hen recollecting their pre%migration .ie,s Mr >an, a
film director in South /orea, focused on the theme of 3estern a1undance
,$ Because of my <o1, 0 ,atched a lot of mo.ies, not <ust American,
1ut French ones, etc M From there, in terms of ,or4, 0
thought, it D-SAF ,as rich and ,ell%de.eloped, 1etter than
/orea, and 0 ,anted to come to a 1igger country to do lots of
things 6N?, !? yrs in -S9
South /oreans concurred ,ith the recent immigrants 0n a focus group e+change,
students and young professionals e.o4ed a similar naturali5ation of 3hite American
affluence'
Mr. ,an$ 3hen 0 thin4 of 3hites, the picture in my head is of
people ,earing tu+edos at a party and ,al4ing around holding
champagne
Ms. -ung$ 3hen 0 ,as young, although 0 donAt really thin4 that ,ay
no,, 0 thought all 3hites ,ere rich 8i4e ,hen 0 ,atched
>olly,ood mo.ies, 0 thought e.en the 1eggars loo4ed stylishP
Ms. .ee$ 3ell, 0 still thin4 that ,ay no, 6laughs9 0f theyAre 3hite
then 0 thin4 that theyAre richP
;hese -S media representations of 3hite middle%class life con.ey to a people ,ho
essentiali5e national de.elopment and social class status that 3hite Americans are richer
1ecause of their natural talents that 1irthed American a1undance By contrast, /oreans
,ere poorer 1ecause they as a people had 1een una1le to mo.e their nation up the glo1al
ladder For the early #7)"sA immigrants B,atchingC from a comparati.ely less%de.eloped
/orea, the sense of inferiority stung that much ,orse [*] .outh /oreans0 sense of
inferiorit$ to White America0s militar$, democrac$, affluence, "eaut$, and men did not
go uncontested, however. in concerted wa$s, /oreans rejected and condemned ,.
dominance and the ideologies of /orean weaness, inferiorit$ and insignificance on
which it depended.
South Korea and /(ac0 "merica
A1elmann and 8ie 6#77?'?)9 ,rite that the BJ0s carried the -nited States to South
/oreaC Carrying the -nited States also meant 1ringing in its 1aggage of 3hite
superior%%Blac4 inferior racial ideologies During the @im Cro, era, the small num1er of
/oreans ,ho ,or4ed as staff on the 1ases or the larger contingent in the seedier
campto,ns o1ser.ed the separate and uneIual facilities of 3hite and Blac4 mem1ers of
the military Since the formal desegregation of the military, the soldiers and campto,ns
%% namely, the restaurants, 1ars, and 1rothels ,ithin %% ha.e remained, in many areas,
informally segregated Blac4 Americans also proliferate along the Bfront lineC of the
demilitari5ed 5one and are denied the 3hite J0sA less dangerous assignments in Seoul
6Sturde.ant and Stolt5fus #77$9
O.er the years, South /oreansA encounters ,ith Blac4 troops ha.e 1een trou1led, in part
a product of resentment o.er the in<ustices they suffer and incur at the hands of the -S
presence ;he ,oes ,ith Blac4s o,e also in part to /orean mimicry of 3hite American
racial 1ias On the other side of the line, Blac4s ha.e either resisted local pre<udices
and(or ha.e adopted stereotypes and a1used their po,er o.er /oreans, potentially
signaling a reactionary BdetourC from 3hite oppression similar to that 1y /oreans
against 3hite America Geedless to say, all parties ha.e e+acer1ated the tensions and
pre<udices necessarily spa,ned 1y the Occupation :.en prior to the end of 3orld 3ar
00, colonial @apan had deployed propaganda a1out AmericansA penchant for .iolence,
murder, hypocrisy, and rape 6Do,er #7HN'!&9, 1eha.iors that post%,ar 3hite American
soldiers in @apan ,ould raciali5e as Blac4 6=ussell #77#'!"9 0n #7)"sA South /orea,
e.en 3hite soldiers admitted that B/orean locals ha.e 1een su1<ected to the attitudes of
the 3hite ma<ority for so long that they practice discrimination ,ithout e.en 1eing
a,are of ,hat theyAre doingC 61verseas Weel$, August #&, #7)# cited in Moon
#77)')!9 Ket, many of the local /oreans claimed that their discriminatory actions ,ere
in fact defensi.e, necessitated 1y the 3hite%Blac4 di.ide imposed 1y ,. militar$
personnel Specifically, /orean o,ners of 1ars(clu1s feared that ,or4ing ,ith Blac4
patrons ,ould alienate the more numerous and allegedly 1etter%paying 3hite customers
6Moon #77)')#9 ;ensions ,ere further inflamed 1y the intensification of Blac4
nationalism among soldiers in the #7)"s, fueling e.en more conflict 1et,een Blac4 and
3hite soldiers and 1et,een Blac4s and /orean residents
0n a conte+t in ,hich dar4 s4in(Blac4s ,ere already seen in a less fa.ora1le light, such
incidents spurred the idea that Blac4 soldiers, more so than 3hites, cause trou1le
Moreo.er, ,hile /oreans had 1ecome familiar ,ith 3hites in multiple fa.ora1le roles
and statuses much 1efore the first Blac4s arri.ed %% 1ene.olent missionaries, -S
diplomats and presidents, Jeneral MacArthur, Audrey >ep1urn %% their e+posure to
Blac4s ,as largely limited to soldiers and unsa.ory mass media stereotypes As /oreans
generally percei.e American military personnel to 1e lo,%class, uneducated, and
unrefined T crucial to their anti%-S resistance T there is little to disrupt the Blac4 image
Ge, immigrant Ms Koon, for instance, had this to say a1out her pre%arri.al conceptions
of Blac4 Americans
Y$ D;Fhe things 0A.e heard ,as, li4e the Blac4s in the American
military in /oreaMall 0 heard a1out them ,ere negati.e
things
N$ 3hat did you hearL
Y$ 8i4e for e+ample, 0 heard things li4e this one Blac4 man hit this
/orean manM;hough there are good things a1out them, too,
0A.e heard that they are physically a1usi.e Actually, 0 read that
in a ne,spaper article 0f you go to Itaew2n DSeoul campto,nF
there are many Blac4s out there, 1ut 0 thin4 that since theyAre
career military personnel they donAt really care a1out ho, they
act 6age &H9
She does not malign 3hites for the many similar military a1uses they ha.e perpetrated
;his could reflect /oreansA ,ea4er tolerance for discrimination from Blac4s than from
3hites 6!hosun Il"o May !", !""$9, potentially pointing to /oreansA self%admitted
tendency to Bsu1mit to the strongC Furthermore, ,hile she had ne.er interacted ,ith
Blac4s in the home country, as a professorAs daughter she had had fleeting encounters
,ith 3hite American professors Ji.en these 4inds of contacts ,ith high%status 3hites,
it is not surprising that she had thought all 3hites ,ere Bhigh%classed peopleC prior to
lea.ing Seoul
Mr >a, a recent seminary student in the -nited States, ,as another respondent ,ho
characteri5ed Blac4s, not 3hites, as the pro1lematic soldiers Ket he ,as more critical of
the sources of such characteri5ation
,$ 0Am sorry to say this, 1ut /orean society has a norm that the
Africans DAfrican AmericansF are, ha.e, inferior to 6seems
uncomforta1le9
N$ 0nferior to ,homL
,$ -s Kea
N$ 3hy do you thin4 they thin4 thatL
,$ May1e thatAs from America ;hey learned AmericaAs racist 4ind
of thin4ing ;hat 4ind of idea <ust flo,s through their mo.ies,
their cultures Basically those African Americans coming to
/orea do not ha.e high standards of li.ing or education or
social status M May1e on the 3hite side DitF is usually a
1usinessman, more highly%educated, so thatAs more socia1le
And 0 6pause9 admit that, 0A.e also 1een 1rought up in that
norm M 0Am sharing their norms although 0Am trying not toR
1ut itAs <ust 1uilt DintoF myself 6!), H mos in -S9
>e re.eals that e.en /oreans li4e him ,ho try to disa1use themsel.es of stereotypes
ha.e trou1le decoupling BBlac4 manC and Blo,%class soldierC 0n the process, he elides
the fact that most 3hite men in South /orea are also soldiers from ,or4ing%class
1ac4grounds
3he 4556 #os Angeles ,nrest
One of the sources of South /oreansA and ne,comersA perceptions of 3hite and Blac4
Americans and of their o,n positions .is%U%.is 1oth ,as the #77! 8os Angeles unrest
;he unrest ,as a ,atershed moment for the post%#77! cohorts and for South /oreans
,ho ,atched ri.eted in shoc4, in part 1ecause American and /orean mainstream media
co.erage afforded a more comple+ and in%depth understanding of race relations in the
-nited States ;o 1e sure, media co.erage 1y 1oth countries could also ser.e as grist for
the anti%Blac4 mill For instance, ne,spaper reports of Blac4sA rage at /oreans for
ma4ing large profits in Blac4 communities ,ithout li.ing in, or gi.ing 1ac4 to, them
6!hosun Il"o May ?, #77!9 do not 1ode ,ell in a Confucianist society that o.ertly
naturalizes social class hierarchies and heralds diligent hard ,or4 as the cornerstone of
e.eryoneAs life 0n addition, the focus on Blac4s 6rather than 8atinos, the ma<ority of
those arrested9 1y the American and, in turn, South /orean mass media shifted the
floodlight onto Blac4s as responsi1le for the mayhem At the same time, South /oreans
1ecame increasingly a,are of 3hite racism and of their o,n immigrant counterpartsA
in.isi1ility and po,erlessness in the -nited States ;hey sa, a parallel 1et,een the
3hite%Blac4 -nited States militaryAs dominance o.er their /orean country and the
manner in ,hich /orean American immigrants ,ere .ictimi5ed 1y the 8A unrest
Commenting on 3hite American dominance, Mr Dong, a student in Seoul, felt that the
co.erage of the unrest ,as Bfiltered,C he 1elie.ed that 3hite Americans had used
/orean Americans as scapegoats and had little pro1lem doing so'
0 thought ,hat they did ,as so ,rong M ;he reason 0 concluded
that the 8A go.ernment had assisted the riot ,as 1ecause they
figured that it ,ould 1e 1etter to allo, Blac4s to riot rather than stop
the riot%%that that ,ould 1e 1etter for the future of -S society 0 guess
that /oreans ,ere a scapegoat
;he Seoul residents 1elie.ed that if /orean Americans had not 1een so politically
in.isi1le and palata1le %% and ostensi1ly, if the =O/ ,as a superpo,er %% 3hites ,ould
ne.er ha.e turned a 1lind eye on /oreans and used them as a 1uffer 1et,een themsel.es
and Blac4s
Co.erage of the 8os Angeles unrest also signaled Blac4sA greater political .oice and
more BAmericanC status than that of /orean(Asian ethnics For instance, understanding
little a1out the racial conte+t, ne,comer immigrants depicted Blac4s as more
authentically American than themsel.es Said Ms An'
Kes, 0 ,as a little mad at them 3hether they ,ere treated 1adly or
nicely, it is someone elseAs life ;hey ruined e.erything and made
some people ha.e no place to go So 0 donAt li4e them, 1ut on the
other hand, 0 thought that if they had 1een treated 1etter, Dli4eF if 0
,ere in those /oreansA positions, 0 ,ouldA.e treated them 1etter, li4e
my 1rothers and sisters DButF 4illing people and setting fires ma4e
me mad, sure 0snAt it sort of discrimination since the$0ve lived here
longer, "ecause this is their countr$7 6emphasis added9 6?), H mos in
-S9
Ms Goh stated similarly,
Kou 4no,, though 0 didnAt see the situation, /oreans <ust thought of
Blac4s as BOh, those people are scary since they ha.e gunsCMof
course Blac4s came and stole and ro11ed, 1ut since we0re living in
their countr$, 0 thin4 D/oreansF should ha.e 1een ready for that 4ind
of trou1le and they should ha.e 1een nicer to Blac4s 6emphasis
added9 6$#, & yrs in -S9
0n 1road terms, the South /oreansA and ne,comersA cogni5ance of their su1ordinate
status to 3hite Americans and their e+posure to Blac4 Americans in the military and
glo1al mass culture and as political protestors during the 8A unrest prompted them to
position their group a1o.e and 1elo, Blac4s in the -S racial order One focus group
e+change among college students and young adult professionals in Seoul re.ealed the
follo,ing renditions of the -S racial(ethnic hierarchy'
Mr. ,an$ Mmm, Din orderF Anglo Sa+ons, @e,ish people, @apanese,
South Americans, African Americans, etc,
Mr. %ar0$ @e,ish people first, then Caucasians, then Blac4s, then
South Americans A little 1elo,, 1ut in a1out the same position
,ould 1e @apan, then China And usL 3e ,ould 1e in the et
ceteras.
;hese men placed Blac4s and South Americans a1o.e /oreans 6though one placed
@apanese Americans near 3hites9, relegating their 1rethren close to the 1ottom of the -S
raciali5ed hierarchy or ,ithin the 1ottom%d,elling Bet ceterasC 0t is apparent that these
young adults put great stoc4 in political po,er and .isi1ility, and did not harness all
po,er to social class A similar theme emerged in another e+change
Ms. %ar0$ DAfter 3hites and @e,ish peopleF 0 thin4 Blac4s and
South Americans ,ould 1e po,erful 1ecause there are a lot of
them 0 guess the minorities ,ould pretty much all 1e the
same, thenL
1$ So /oreans 1elong to the smaller%si5e minority groups 1elo,
3hites, @e,ish people, Blac4s, and 8atin AmericansL
Mr. Yoo$ DButF ,ouldnAt ,e 1e close to Blac4sL
Ms. .im$ Keah, ,ouldnAt ,eL But then, although ,e might 1e
Mr. Yoo$ %% richer than Blac4s %%
Ms. .im$ Keah, richer, there are so many more Blac4 people so
,ouldnAt they ha.e stronger po,er o.erallL
Seoul residents here sho, the multiple, not singular ,ays, in ,hich racial(ethnonational
groups are positioned Seoul residents and ne,comer immigrants too4 into consideration
not <ust class and color, 1ut demographic si5e and political po,er
2onc(usion and *iscussion
;hrough a snapshot of historical and ongoing -S dominance o.er South /orea, 0 ha.e
argued that /orean immigrants are raciali5ed not <ust ,ithin the -nited States 1ut ,ith
respect to =O/%-SA relations One dimension is 3hite 6and Blac49 AmericaAs
construction and treatment of South /oreans as ;hird 3orld, inferior, and foreign
Others, a plight that /oreans resist and, in so doing, challenge glorified ideals of 3hite
America 0n addition, /oreans racially characteri5e Blac4s as BJ0sC and Bcriminals,C
adopting 3hitesA racial pre<udices as a ,ay to position themsel.es a1o.e someone else
Got only is this a strategy of resistance against Blac4 American state po,er, it responds
to /oreansA su1ordinate position .is%a%.is the 3hite 3est and @apan and to their
liminality in a 3hite%Blac4 1inari5ed ,orld ;o 1e sure, although 0 did not get to discuss
the point, such a reactionary BdetourC from oppression 6Mul.ey #7H)'##9 e+ists
alongside South /oreansA re<ection of 3hite superiority and Blac4 inferiority, hence,
increased identification ,ith Blac4s ;his pattern, common to most responses to
oppression, situates consent and resistance side%1y%side and interrelates them 6eg, resist
Blac4 American state po,er 1y dra,ing on stereotypes of Blac4s9 6:spiritu !""#R Py4e
and @ohnson !""$9
Along the dimension of the politics of recognition, /oreans are a,are that the -S
national identity as 3hite%o.er%Blac4 has rendered their o,n group less BAmericanC
than Blac4s and, 1y e+tension, less .isi1le and significant in the -nited States and the
,orld /oreansA social positions in the home country 1elo, 3hites and as ad.antaged
and disad.antaged .is%U%.is Blac4 Americans are the tools ,ith ,hich they na.igate and
reshape the ne,, 1ut not ,holly unfamiliar, domestic -S racial terrain As 0 ha.e
stressed, /orean and other immigrants do not come to the -nited States as a Bta1ula
rasaC on ,hich American racial ideologies and identities ,ait to 1e ,ritten =ather, they
arri.e already racially positioned .is%U%.is 3hite and Blac4 ;hat is, a constellation of
forces tied to -S imperialism ma4es /oreans into racially in.isi1le and not%American
su1<ects, inculcates the group ,ith 3hite%Blac4 ideologies, and prompts them to rec4on
their social positioning .is%U%.is the t,o BAmericanC players long 1efore they land on
-S airport run,ays ;hese findings 1eg further analysis of the glo1al(local ineIualities
that underpin the raciali5ation of -S immigrant actors
W3RKS 21T4*
A1elmann, Gancy, and @ohn 8ie #77? Blue dreams' /orean Americans and the 8os
Angeles riots Cam1ridge' >ar.ard -ni.ersity Press
Crofts, Alfred #7N" Our falling ramparts ;he Gation, @une !?, #7N", pp ?&&%&H
Do,er, @ohn 3 #7HN 3ar ,ithout mercy' =ace and po,er in the Pacific ,ar Ge,
Kor4' Pantheon Boo4s
:spiritu, Ken !""# B3e donAt sleep around li4e ,hite girls doC' Family, culture, and
gender in Filipina American li.es Signs !N6!9'&#?%&&"
Jayn, Mar4 #7H# 6#7&H9 @apan Diary =utland, Q;' Charles : ;uttle Company
Pu1lished in #7&H 1y 3illiam Sloane Associates, Ge, Kor4
>unt, Darnell M #77) Screening the 8os Angeles BriotsC' =ace, seeing, and resistance
Cam1ridge' Cam1ridge -ni.ersity Press
/ang, >yon%du #77# Media culture in /orea Seoul' Seoul Gational -ni.ersity Press
8ie, @ohn #77H >an un1ound' ;he political economy of South /orea Stanford'
Stanford -ni.ersity Press
8ipsit5, Jeorge #77H ;he possessi.e in.estment in ,hiteness' >o, ,hite people profit
from identity politics Philadelphia' ;emple -ni.ersity Press
Moon, /atharine > S #77) Se+ among allies' Military prostitution in -S%/orea
relations Ge, Kor4' Colum1ia -ni.ersity Press
Mul.ey, 8aura #7H) Changes' ;houghts on myth, narrati.e, and historical e+perience
>istory 3or4shop !$6spring9'$%#7
Palum1o%8iu, Da.id #777 Asian(American' >istorical crossings of a racial frontier
Stanford' Stanford -ni.ersity Press
Py4e, /aren, and Denise 8 @ohnson !""$ Asian American ,omen and raciali5ed
femininities' Doing gender across cultural ,orldsC Jender and Society #)6#9'$$%
?$
=ussell, @ohn #77# =ace and refle+i.ity' ;he Blac4 Other in contemporary @apanese
mass culture Cultural Anthropology N6#9'$%!?
Sturde.ant, Saundra P, and Brenda Stolt5fus #77$ 8et the good times roll' Prostitution
and the -S military in Asia Ge, Kor4' Ge, Press
Ku, >enry !""! ;hin4ing Orientals' Migration, contact, and e+oticism in modern
America Ge, Kor4' O+ford -ni.ersity Press
Kuh, @i%Keon !""! Beyond the shado, of campto,n' /orean military 1rides in
America Ge, Kor4' Ge, Kor4 -ni.ersity Press
8ewspapers
#!(#H(!7 BAn article insulting Asians in -S 8i1erty maga5ineC Chosun 0l1o, p !
"7(#)(7" B;he .ie,point of anti%American college studentsC Chosun 0l1o, p #&
"?("?(7! B/oreans and Blac4s, the ,ay to co%e+istC Chosun 0l1o, p ?
"?(!"("$ B OSingle raceA and racial discriminationC Chosun 0l1o, p $#
O.erseas 3ee4ly, August #&, #7)#
#By Bfirst%generationC 0 mean adult immigrants to the -nited States 6BimmigrantC
1ecause the .ast ma<ority are not transmigrants9
! Follo,ing Fran4en1erg 6#77$'#9, 0 define ,hiteness as a location of structural
ad.antage 6BraceC and national pri.ilege9, the standpoint of 3hites, and a set of cultural
practices that are usually unmar4ed and unnamed
$ 0 say BtransmigrantC 1ecause for t,enty years she had li.ed 1et,een the -nited States
and South /orea for .isa reasons
& 0 o,e this insight to @ohn 8ie