CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 1

Conservation of energy: the Bernoulli equation

Figure 1. A very large Venturi meter

AIMS
In flow through a tube of variable section, to:
investigate the interchange of pressure and kinetic energy
study the application of this interchange to flow metering devices
estimate head losses due to friction and turbulence.

BACKGROUND
1. Experimental Apparatus
The experimental apparatus is shown in Figure 2. It consists of a section of pipe with 18 piezometers
distributed along its length. Water is supplied from the constant head tank and enters the pipe system
after P1. It then flows through a contraction (P6-P7), an expansion (P10-P11), an orifice plate (P13-
P14) and finally exits through a control valve. The length of pipe with the contraction and expansion is
an example of a Venturi flow meter. In most commercial Venturi Meters, the length of the throat
(smaller diameter pipe) is relatively short. In our equipment it has been lengthened to illustrate the
friction loss in the smaller pipe. The contraction and expansion of the Venturi meter are gradual;
conversely, the change in geometry at the orifice plate is abrupt.


CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 2

Figure 2. The experimental setup

The height of water in the piezometers is related to the pressure in the pipe. Pressure changes may be
due to:
a) changes in flow velocity
b) frictional effects in the straight section of the pipe
c) losses to turbulence when the pipe geometry changes

The discharge through the pipe is sufficient to ensure that the flow is turbulent. At the same time, the
mean flow can be considered to be steady as long as the overall flow rate does not change with time.

2. Bernoullis Law
To investigate characteristics of the flow through a tube of variable cross-section, we will apply the
principle of conservation of energy. Energy in the system can take the form of potential energy,
kinetic energy or pressure energy. Pressure energy results from the work done on the system by
pressure forces. The equation for conservation of mechanical energy in a frictionless fluid flow is
known as Bernoullis Law. It says that, along a streamline:
=
2
p U
+ +z constant
g 2g

Measuring tank

CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 3

The terms are known as:

2
2
z =
p
g
U
g

=
=
pressure head
velocity head
elevation head

and have units of metres. Certain terms have traditionally been grouped together:
2
2
p U
z
g g
+ + is known as the total head.
p
z
g
+ is known as the piezometric or hydraulic head.
A plot of total head against pipe length is called the total energy line, as each of the terms represents a
type of energy. A plot of hydraulic head against pipe length is called the hydraulic grade line. The
water height in the piezometers in the experiment is a measure of the piezometric head along the pipe.

In a real pipe flow, mechanical energy is lost to friction. We must account for these losses in
Bernoullis Law. We therefore write Bernoullis Law between any two points 1 and 2 as:
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
L
p U p U
z z h
g g g g
+ + = + + +
The term h
L
is a loss term that takes into account energy lost due to friction between points 1 and 2.
This experiment investigates flow in a horizontal pipe, where there is no change in elevation head. The
velocity head terms also cancel if the cross-section of the pipe does not change.

3. Dimensional Analysis
We can use dimensional analysis to investigate the head loss term h
L
. For a uniform part of the test
section, we can say
( ) , , , , ,
L
h f L D U g = .
That is, head loss is some function of pipe length (L), pipe diameter (D), flow velocity (U), gravity,
fluid viscosity () and the physical scale of the roughness on the pipe walls (). Arranging the
variables into dimensionless groups results in

CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 4

2
2
, , ,
2
L
h UD L U
f
D gD D
U
g

=



The first dimensionless group on the RHS is known as the Reynolds number (Re), and describes the
relationship between inertial and viscous forces in a fluid. The third dimensionless group on the RHS
is known as the Froude number, and describes the relationship between inertial and gravity forces in a
fluid. It can be eliminated here as gravity does not affect the flow pattern in a fully submerged flow.
We are now able to write the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

g
U
D
L
f h
L
2
2

=
where f (the friction factor) is some function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of
the pipe (/D).
For laminar flow, f = 64/Re.
For turbulent flow, determining f is more complicated because it is a function of both Re and the
relative roughness of the pipe. In order to determine f, a Moody diagram (Page 8) must be used this
chart uses empirical data to quantify the relationships between Re, /D and f .

4. Flow rate
A Venturi meter is a simple way to measure the flow rate in a pipe. In a Venturi meter, the
interchange between pressure head and velocity head is utilised to determine the flow rate (Q). The
equation for the Venturi meter is:

( )
( )
4
2
1 /
V T
V
T P
C A
Q g PH
D D
=

where D
T
& A
T
are the throat diameter and throat cross-sectional area, D
P
is the original diameter of
the pipe and PH
V
is the pressure head loss (or velocity head gain) at the Venturi contraction.

C
V
is the dimensionless Venturi discharge coefficient it is essentially a calibration coefficient. If C
V

is known, and the pressure head loss is measured at the Venturi contraction in a pipe, then the flow
rate through that pipe can be determined.

5. Head loss
When there are changes in pipe geometry, a lot of energy can be lost to turbulence. The more abrupt
the change in geometry, the greater the energy loss. We can use the experimental data to calculate the
loss coefficients of the Venturi meter and orifice plate. The loss coefficients relate the loss in total
head across the change in geometry to the velocity head:

CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 5

2
2
2
2
T
LV V
O
LO O
U
h K
g
U
h K
g
=
=

Here, K
V
& K
O
are the loss coefficients of the Venturi and Orifice and U
T
and U
O
are the larger of the
two velocities at each geometry change (i.e. that in the throat of the Venturi meter and in the orifice,
respectively).

PRE-LAB QUESTION
Q1. Pressure head will vary along the pipe. Explain why this is the case.

PROCEDURE
1. Open the Main Supply Valve.
2. With the Flow Control Valve closed, slowly open the Secondary Supply Valve and fill the
Constant Head Tank until water flows over the upper weir. This should cause all the piezometers
to overflow, forcing out any air bubbles.
3. Check all the piezometers for air bubbles.
4. Open the Flow Control Valve until the water level in piezometer 14 is at the minimum readable
level, while adjusting the supply flow to keep the water level in the head tank just flowing over the
weir. This will represent the maximum flow rate that you can obtain in the experiment. Why is it
important to keep the constant head tank full? What happens if the flow through the Main Supply
Valve is too small?
5. Allow the flow rate to settle for a few minutes. Ensure that the measuring tank is being drained so
that the outflow pipe is not submerged (this will affect your measurements).
6. Record the water level in all the piezometers.
7. Using the probes in the measuring tank & a stopwatch, measure the flow rate.
8. Using the Flow Control Valve repeat this procedure for at least three lower flow rates. Try to get
as wide a range of flow rates as possible.
9. Turn off the Secondary Supply Valve slowly.
10. Turn off the Main Supply Valve.



CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 6

Record your results in the table below:
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Upstream head (manometer 1) (mm)
Measuring Tank Volume (L)
Discharge Time (s)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18


CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 7
QUESTIONS
Q2. Why is it important to keep the constant head tank full?
Q3. Plot the hydraulic grade lines for the four discharges. What does this plot tell you about
the interchange of different types of energy as the water flows through the different
configurations?
Q4. Plot the total energy lines for the four discharges. Compare the slopes of the total energy
line in the larger and smaller pipes. Why are they different?
BONUS MARK: Does your total energy line increase anywhere? Why is/isn't this
possible? Suggest a reason why your measurements indicate a rise in total energy along a
certain portion of the pipe.
Q5. Using the Darcy-Weisbach equation, determine the friction factor f of the smaller pipe
(stations 7-10) for each run. Also, calculate the Reynolds number in the smaller pipe for
each run. Plot your values on a Moody diagram and use them to obtain an estimate for the
roughness ( ) of the smaller pipe.
Q6. Determine the discharge coefficient for the Venturi meter (C
V
) using the pressure drop
between stations 6 and 7 for PH
V
. Is C
V
a true constant, or does it vary with Reynolds
number?
Q7. Determine the head loss coefficients K
V
and K
O
using the total head loss between stations 6
and 13 for the Venturi, and stations 13 and 14 for the orifice plate. Which is greater and
why?


CIVL2130/ENVE2602 Labs: Conservation of energy 8

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