1

1. Fluid as a continuum
2. Measures of fluid mass and weight
3. Ideal gas law
4. Velocity field
5. Flow classifications
6. Flow visualization methods
7. Stress field
8. Viscosity
9. Types of fluids
10. Surface tension
11. Classification of fluid motion
12. Bulk modulus
13. Compression and expansion of gases
14. Speed of sound
15. Vapour Pressure
16. Classification of Fluid Motions
Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts
2
1. Continuum assumption
Continuum assumption:
Valid if the mean free path of the molecules is (10
-9
m
for gases) much less than the smallest significant
dimension of the problem (<10
-6
m)
Both air and water under normal conditions satisfy
this condition
Under the continuum assumption
fluid properties are continuous functions of position
and time
E.g. =(x,y,z,t)
3
2. Measures of fluid mass and weight
= / m
1. Averaged density: mass per unit volume
(In SI, kg/m
3
)
(2.1)
2. Specific volume: volume per unit mass. It is the reciprocal
of the density
1/ = (2.2)
g =
3. Specific weight : Weight per unit volume
(In SI, kg/m
3
m/s
2
= N/m
3
)
(2.3)
4. Specific gravity SG: a non-dimensional quantity
Fluids: depends slightly on T and P under normal conditions.
Gases: depend significantly on T and P
2
@4
/
H O C
SG =
o
(2.4)
4
3. Ideal gas law
Ideal gas law:
P RT =
(2.5)
P: absolute pressure (N/m
2
), measured relative zero pressure,
p: gage pressure (Pa), measured by a pressure gage,
p
0
: Standard sea-level atmospheric pressure, 101.33 kPa.
T: absolute temperature (K); K =

C + 273.15 (K: Kelvin)

R: gas constant (air is R = 286.9 (Joule/(kg K)), depending on
gas types and is related to molecular weight
0
P p p = +
An ideal gas or perfect gas: hypothetical gas consisting of
identical particles of zero volume, with no intermolecular forces.
The constituent molecules undergo elastic collisions with the
walls of the container.
5
Example 2.1
A compressed air tank has a volume of 0.05 m
3
. When the tank
is filled with air at a gage pressure of 10 MPa, determine the
density of the air and the mass of air in the tank. Assume the
temperature is 15
o
C and the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa.
6
4. Velocity field
Velocity
One of the most fundamental quantities in fluid
mechanics,
Velocity at a point: the instantaneous velocity of the
fluid particle passing through the point
Velocity is a vector:
Expressed in terms of scalar components
( , , , ) V V x y z t =
r r
k w j v i u V
r
r r r
+ + = (2.6)
u
x
z
y
v
w
V
v
Magnitude:
2 2 2
w v u V + + =
7
An example of velocity vector
u
v
V
2 2
v u V + =

u
v
= tan
Resultant velocity
8
5. Type of flows-various classifications
(1). Does the flow properties depend on time?
No Steady: flow properties do not change with time:
where represents any fluid property
0
t

=

0 or ( , , ) x y z
t

= =

0 or V ( , , )
V
V x y z
t

= =

v
v v
Yes Unsteady: flow properties change with time:
0

9
(2). One, two-, and three-dimensional flows
Based on the number of space coordinates
required to specify the velocity field
Most of real flows are three-dimensional
Some flows can be simplified into 1 or 2-D
(

\
|
=
2
max
1
R
r
u u
10
(3). Is velocity constant over a cross-section?
Yes Uniform flow
Uniform flow at a cross section: velocity is
constant at this cross-section
Uniform flow field: a flow with constant velocity U
x
Uniform flow at a section
No non-uniform flow
11
6. Flow visualization methods
Pathlines
The path traced out by a moving particle
t
For a specific fluid particle
Streakline
A line joining particles passing through a fixed location in
space
t
At a fixed location of the flow field
y
12
Streamlines
A line that is tangent to the direction of velocity at every point
in the flow at a given instant
u v dx dy / / =
(2.7)
dx dy /
V
r
v
u

y
x
streamline
Slope:
Streamline equation:
tan / v u =
Question: Can a fluid particle pass across a streamline? Why?
Timelines
A set of adjacent fluid particles that
were marked at the instant in time
13
An example of streamlines
14
Summary of Last Lecture
Ideal gas law: (how to use it)
Velocity vector concept
Flow visualization techniques
In particular: streamlines
streamline equation:
P RT =
u v dx dy / / =
15
Example 2.1a
A velocity field is given by
Find:
1. Determine the velocity of a particle at point (2, 8)
2. Equations of streamlines in the x-y plane
3. Plot the streamline passing through the point (2, 8)
4. If the particle passing through the point (x
0
, y
0
) is
marked at time t = 0, determine the location of the
particle at t = 6 s?
5. Show that the equation of the particle path is the
same as the equation of the streamline.
) / ( 3 . 0 3 . 0 s m j y i x V
r r r
=
16
17
7. Stress field
Type of forces on fluid particles
Body forces: e.g. gravity, electromagnetic forces
Surface forces: e.g. pressure and friction
Surface forces stresses (forces per unit area)
Normal stress:
Shear stress:
n n
A
n
A F
n

/ lim
0
=
n t
A
n
A F
n

/ lim
0
=
(2.8)
(2.9)
18
Stress components in Cartesian coordinate system:
x x
A
xx
A F
x

/ lim
0
=
x y
A
xy
A F
x

/ lim
0
=
x z
A
xz
A F
x

/ lim
0
=
(2.10)
(2.11)
(2.12)
First subscript: direction normal to the surface
Second subscript: direction of shear stress
19
Stress at a point has nine components:
(
(
(

zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx



(2.13)
x
z
y
20
8. Viscosity
Rate of deformation
y
t u
y
l

= =
y
u
t

Taking limit:
dy
du
dt
d
=

Rate of shear strain

x
yx
x
F
A

=
Shear stress:
21
Shear stress is proportional to rate
of deformation Newtonian fluids
dy
du
yx

Or:
dy
du
yx
=
where is dynamic viscosity
(2.14)
Kinematic viscosity :
/ =
(2.15)
Question: for a fluid at rest, is there any stress? why?
22
Variation of shear stress with rate of shear strain for several types of fluids
23
Fluid viscosity depends on the type of fluids and temperature
Dynamic viscosity of some
fluids as a function of
temperature
24
25
26
9. Types of fluids
Newtonian fluids
Shear stress is proportional to deformation rate
= du/dy
Most of common fluids, e. g. water, air, gasoline
Non-Newtonian fluids
Shear stress is not proportional to deformation rate

yx
= k(du/dy)
n
Bingham fluids, shear thinning and shear thickening
fluids,
27
Summary of Last Lecture
Stresses: force per unit area (N/m
2
)
3 normal stress and 6 shear stresses
Symbols and sign conventions
Viscosity: a measure for fluidity of a fluid
Definition for Newtonian fluids (
yx
= du/dy);
Dynamic viscosity has a unit of kg/(ms) or Pas , or Ns/m
2
;
The kinematic viscosity ( =/, m
2
/s)
Viscosity depends on type of fluid, pressure and temperature
28
(a)The kinematic viscosity of the liquid (SI units)
(b)The shear stress and its direction on the upper plate
(c)The shear stress and its direction on the lower plate
Example 2.2
An infinite plate is moved over a second plate. Assume a linear
velocity distribution in fluid. The dynamic viscosity of the liquid
=6.510
-4
kg/(ms) and SG=0.88.
Determine:
y
x
U=0.3 m/s
d=0.3 mm
fluid
29
10. Surface tension
Develops at interfaces with other liquids or solids due to the
attraction between molecules as shown in the figures below
Surface tension: force per unit length (N/m)
The interface acts like a stretched elastic membrane (with a
contact angle ), creating surface tension
and depend on the type of liquid and contact surface
30
10.1. Pressure inside a drop of fluid:
Free-body diagram
: surface tension (N/m)
p = p
i
p
e
p
i
: internal pressure
p
e
: external pressure
Force around the edge: 2R
Force due to the pressure difference: pR
2
.
Using force balance:
2R = pR
2
p = 2 /R
(2.15a)
31
32
Insignificant for large scale of motions
Important for some of small scale motions: e.g.
capillary rise (or depression)
: angle of contact
10.2. Engineering applications
Vertical force balance:
Due to surface tension:
2R cos
Due to weight:
R
2
h

2 cos
h
R

=
1/ h R
Wet surface Free body Nonweting surface
(2.15b)
33
Example 2.3: Analysis of capillary effect in a tube
Create a graph for capillary rise or fall of a column of water or mercury
as a function of tube diameter D. Find the minimum diameter of each
column required so that the height magnitude will be less than I mm.
Solution:
Assumptions:
(1)h measures to the middle of meniscus
(2)Neglect the volume in the meniscus region
Water:
= 72.810
-3
N/m; = 0; = 1000 kg/m
3
Mercury:
= 48410
-3
N/m; = 140
o
; = 13550 kg/m
3
h
z
To let h = 1 mm:
D
min
(water) = mm
D
min
(mercury) = mm
34
11. Compressibility of fluids
1. Incompressible fluids
density change negligible:
Liquids and gases with small Mach number (M =
V/C<0.3, C is the speed of sound and V is flow velocity)
2. Compressible fluids
density change is not negligible
e. g. flow of gases (M>0.3); some flows of liquids under
extremely high pressure ( water hammer);
35
12. Bulk modulus
Bulk compressibility modulus (or modulus elasticity)
Ratio of pressure change to relative density change
(compressibility)
Has the unit of pressure (Pascal:N/m
2
)
Check Appendix A of Fox et al. Book for the values
for common fluids
) / ( d
dp
E
v
=
(2.16)
36
13. Compression and expansion of gases
When gases are compressed (or expanded) the
relationship between pressure and density depends
on the nature of the process;
Under constant temperature conditions
(isothermal):
constant
p

=
(2.17)
(2.18)
p E
v
=
37
Under isentropic conditions (frictionless compression
and no heat exchange with surroundings):
constant
k
p

=
K: ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure, c
p
, to the
specific heat at constant volume c
v
(R = c
p
c
v
).
Note: Pressure in the above equations has to be the absolute
pressure.
kp E
v
=
(2.19)
(2.20)
38
Example 2.4 One cubic meter of helium at an absolute
pressure of 101.33 kPa is compressed isentropically to 0.5 m
3
.
What is the final pressure. The value for k is 1.66.
39
Summary of Last Lecture
Concept of surface tension and capillary effect
Compressibility of Fluids
Compressible and incompressible fluids
Bulk modulus of fluids: a measure of compressibility
Compression and expansion of gases
Isothermal conditions
Isentropic conditions
40
14. Speed of sound
Disturbances in fluids travel at speed of sound;
Speed of sound in fluids:

v
E
d
dp
c = =
(2.21)
For gases undergoing isentropic process E
v
= kp
/ c kP =
(2.22)
kRT c =
(2.23)
Making use of the ideal gas law, it follows that
41
Air at 20
o
C with k = 1.4 and R = 286.9
s m kRT c / 14 . 343 ) 20 15 . 273 ( 9 . 286 4 . 1 = + = =
Water at 20
o
C, E
v
= 2.19 GN/m
2
and = 998.2 kg/m
3
s m
E
c
v
/ 12 . 1481
2 . 998
10 19 . 2
9
=

= =

For example:
42
Example 2.5 A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 1000 km/h at an
altitude of 12,000 m, where the temperature is -50
o
C. Determine the
ratio of the speed of the aircraft, V, to that of the speed of sound, c, at
the specified altitude. Assume k = 1.40.
Solution:
43
15. Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure: a pressure developed in a vacuum space left
above the liquid in a closed container.
It depends on temperature. Temperature , vapour pressure
Boiling: when the absolute pressure reaches the p
v
,
Importance in engineering applications:
For fluid passing valve and pumps, when p< p
v
vapor
bubble (low p) swept along high p bubble collapse
may damage the structures cavitation (picture above).
Values for water can be found in Table A.8
water
evaporate
p
v
water
To vacuum
44
16.1. Viscous and inviscid flows
All real flows are viscous
Flows are assumed inviscid when viscosity is not important
for problems of concern
Total drag on an airfoil
Analysis of inviscid flows is much simpler than viscous flows
Laplace equation (for irrotational flows)
Navier-stokes equations (for viscous flows)
16. Classification of Fluid Motions
45
Example of Viscous and inviscid flows
46
16.2 Laminar and turbulent flows
Laminar flow
Fluid particles move in smooth layers
Turbulent flow
Fluid particles mix rapidly with random three-
dimensional velocity fluctuations
47
16.3. Internal and external flows
Internal flows
Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces
e. g. flow in pipes
External flows
Flows over bodies immersed in unbounded fluid,
e. g. flow around a submarine
Both internal and external flows may be laminar or
turbulent, compressible or incompressible
48
Summary of Last Lecture
Classification of fluid motion
Concept of vapour pressure & its importance in engineering
Continuum
Fluid Mechanics
Inviscid flow
=0
Viscous
Laminar Turbulent
Internal External Compressible Incompressible