Microwave Radio

1/144 D.
Courivaud, Groupe ESIEE, Paris, May 2004

R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Microwave radio
A very brief history of microwaves
Introduction
Propagation
Digital coding
Systems
2/144 D. Courivaud, Groupe ESIEE, Paris, May 2004
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
1. A very brief history of microwaves
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Theoretical foundation
Maxwell 1831-1879
light consists of transverse
undulations of the same medium
which is the cause of electric and
magnetic phenomena: "On a
Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field" (1865).
formulation of electricity and
magnetism: A Treatise on
Electricity and Magnetism (1873),
which included the formulas today
known as the Maxwell equations that
implicitly required the existence of
electromagnetic waves traveling at
the speed of light.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
First experimental proof
Hertz 1857 1894
He proved experimentally the
existence of electromagnetic
waves (1888)
a wire connected to an
induction coil produces the
waves and induced current
produced a spark across a
small loop of wire
he showed his
electromagnetic waves to
have analogous properties
as light.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
First commercial exploitation
Marconi 1874 1937
In 1895 he began laboratory
experiments and succeeded in
sending wireless signals over a
distance of one and a half miles
In 1899 he established wireless
communication between France
and England across the English
Channel
He obtained the first patent in
the history of radio (1900)
On December 12, 1901, he sent
a radio signal across the Atlantic
(2100 miles)
Nobel Prize in physics (1909)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
2. Introduction
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between
identical points in the adjacent cycles
of a waveform. In wireless systems,
this length is usually specified in
meters, centimeters, or millimeters
The size of the wavelength varies
depending on the frequency of the
signal. Generally speaking, the
higher the frequency the smaller the
wavelength
Wavelength is of great interest for
antenna dimensioning and
positionning
300
m
MHZ
c
f f
= =
At 10 GHz, = 3 cm
At 1 GHz, = 30 cm
At 100 MHz, = 3 m
At 10 MHz, = 30 m

R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Frequency
Frequency is the number
of complete cycles per
second in alternating
current direction. The
standard unit of
frequency is the hertz,
abbreviated Hz. If a
current completes one
cycle per second, then
the frequency is 1 Hz.
10
3
= Kilohertz (kHz)
10
6
= Megahertz (MHz)
10
9
= Gigahertz (GHz)
10
12
= Terahertz (THz)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Power units
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Path loss in dB
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
dBm
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
What is Spectrum ? (1/8)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
A continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged according
to frequency and wavelength
Electromagnetic waves:
Vibrations of electric and magnetic fields that travel through
space.
The electrical fields and magnetic fields are coupled together but
are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the wave.
Same frequency and phase
Mostly invisible except for the visible spectrum
Speed of light (c = 3 x 10
8
m/s (vacuum)) (light is EM)
Sinusoidal waves
Do not need molecules to transmit energy. Can travel through air,
solid materials and empty space.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Electromagnetic Wave
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Can be described in terms of wavelength, frequency
and energy
These terms are all related mathematically
Use most convenient units
For example:
Radio waves - frequency
Light - wavelength
X-rays - energy
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio spectrum (a.k.a. RF) (frequency)
Microwave (frequency)
Infrared
Visible Spectrum
Ultraviolet
X-rays
Gamma-Rays
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Ultra-low frequency (ULF)
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
Voice Frequencies
Very Low Frequency (VLF)
Low Frequency (LF)
Medium Frequency (MF)
High Frequency (HF)
Very High Frequency (VHF)
Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
Super High Frequency (SHF)
Extremely High Frequency (EHF)
3-30 Hz
30 300 Hz
300 Hz 3 kHz
3 30 kHz
30 300 kHz
300 kHz 3 MHz
3 30 MHz
30 300 MHz
300 MHz 3 GHz
3 30 GHz
30 300 GHz
AMBroadcast
Microwave Relay
Earth-Satellite
Radar
Mobile Radio
Aeronautical
Navigation
Navigation
Satellite
UHF Television
Mobile Radio
VHF Television
FMBroadcast
Mobile Radio
Aeronautical
Amateur radio
International radio
Citizen band
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Relationship between Data Rate and
Bandwidth
The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
Hints
Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth
that can be transmitted
AND, for any given medium, the greater the
bandwidth transmitted, the greater the cost
HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates
distortions
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Reasons for Choosing Data and Signal
Combinations
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-
analog equipment
Analog data, digital signal
Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
Examples include optical fiber and satellite
Analog data, analog signal
Analog data easily converted to analog signal
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Analog Transmission
Transmit analog signals without regard to
content
Attenuation limits length of transmission link
Cascaded amplifiers boost signals energy for
longer distances but cause distortion
Analog data can tolerate distortion
Introduces errors in digital data
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Digital Transmission
Concerned with the content of the signal
Attenuation endangers integrity of data
Digital Signal
Repeaters achieve greater distance
Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
Analog signal carrying digital data
Retransmission device recovers the digital data from
analog signal
Generates new, clean analog signal
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
About Channel Capacity
Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that
can be achieved
For digital data, to what extent do impairments
limit data rate?
Channel Capacity the maximum rate at which
data can be transmitted over a given
communication path, or channel, under given
conditions
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Concepts Related to Channel Capacity
Data rate - rate at which data can be
communicated (bps)
Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal as constrained by the transmitter and the
nature of the transmission medium (Hertz)
Noise - average level of noise over the
communications path
Error rate - rate at which errors occur
Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and
receive 1
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Nyquist Bandwidth
For binary signals (two voltage levels)
C = 2B
With multilevel signaling
C = 2B log
2
M
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise thats present at a
particular point in the transmission
Typically measured at a receiver
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low
number of required intermediate repeaters
SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
power noise
power signal
log 10 ) (
10 dB
= SNR
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Shannon Capacity Formula
Equation:
Represents theoretical maximum that can be
achieved
In practice, only much lower rates achieved
Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
Impulse noise is not accounted for
Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not
accounted for
( ) SNR 1 log
2
+ = B C
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and 4
MHz ; SNR
dB
= 24 dB
Using Shannons formula
( )
251 SNR
SNR log 10 dB 24 SNR
MHz 1 MHz 3 MHz 4
10 dB
=
= =
= = B
( ) Mbps 8 8 10 251 1 log 10
6
2
6
= + = C
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
How many signaling levels are required?
( )
16
log 4
log 10 2 10 8
log 2
2
2
6 6
2
=
=
=
=
M
M
M
M B C
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
3. Propagation
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Classifications of Transmission Media
Transmission Medium
Physical path between transmitter and receiver
Guided Media
Waves are guided along a solid medium
E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable,
optical fiber
Unguided Media
Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
Usually referred to as wireless transmission
E.g., atmosphere, outer space
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Twisted Pair Wire
Two or more pairs of single conductor wires
that have been twisted around each other.
Twisted pair wire is classified by category.
Twisted pair wire is currently Category 1
through Category 5e.
Twisting the wires helps to eliminate
electromagnetic interference between the two
wires.
Shielding can further help to eliminate
interference.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Coaxial Cable
A single wire wrapped in a
foam insulation surrounded
by a braided metal shield,
then covered in a plastic
jacket. Cable can be thick
or thin.
Baseband coaxial
technology uses digital
signaling (DC) in which the
cable carries only one
channel of digital data.
Broadband coaxial
technology transmits
analog signals (RF) and is
capable of supporting
multiple channels of data.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Fiber Optic Cable
A thin glass cable approximately a little thicker than a
human hair surrounded by a plastic coating and packaged
into an insulated cable.
A photo diode or laser generates pulses of light which travel
down the fiber optic cable and are received by a photo
receptor.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Mixing Media
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Unguided Media
Transmission and reception are achieved by
means of an antenna
Configurations for wireless transmission
Directional
Omnidirectional
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
General Frequency Ranges
Microwave frequency range
1 GHz to 40 GHz
Directional beams possible
Suitable for point-to-point transmission
Used for satellite communications
Radio frequency range
30 MHz to 1 GHz
Suitable for omnidirectional applications
Infrared frequency range
Roughly, 3x10
11
to 2x10
14
Hz
Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within
confined areas
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Terrestrial Microwave
Description of common microwave antenna
Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving
antenna
Located at substantial heights above ground level
Applications
Long haul telecommunications service
Short point-to-point links between buildings
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Satellite Microwave
Description of communication satellite
Microwave relay station
Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
Receives transmissions on one frequency band
(uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits
it on another frequency (downlink)
Applications
Television distribution
Long-distance telephone transmission
Private business networks
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Broadcast Radio
Description of broadcast radio antennas
Omnidirectional
Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment
Applications
Broadcast radio
VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Broadcast
Guided propagation
Immunity to
interferences and noise
Quality of reception
Wide frequency band
No antenna
Free space propagation
Free space propagation is
naturally omni-directional
Infinite number of receivers
Large area coverage
Attenuation
(dB)
Guided propagation
Radio propagation
Distance (m)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Point to point
Guided propagation
Well known medium
Easy frequency reuse
with a new medium
Length and density are
not limited by
interferences
Confidential
communications
Long life
Free space propagation
Communications possible
with difficult access area
Temporary communications
are possible
Quasi ready-to-use
Cost in quasi independant
of bandwith
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Multiplexing
Capacity of transmission medium usually
exceeds capacity required for transmission of a
single signal
Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a
single medium
More efficient use of transmission medium
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Multiplexing
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Reasons for Widespread Use of
Multiplexing
Cost per kbps of transmission facility declines
with an increase in the data rate
Cost of transmission and receiving equipment
declines with increased data rate
Most individual data communicating devices
require relatively modest data rate support
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Multiplexing Techniques
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that the useful
bandwidth of the medium exceeds the required
bandwidth of a given signal
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit
rate of the medium exceeds the required data rate of
a digital signal
Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
Takes advantage of the fact that each individual
communication is below the noise floor
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
FDMA-TDMA-CDMA
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Free space vs transmission line propagation
Guided
propagation
Free space
propagation
Increase with d
Increase with f
1/2
Distance (d)
Frequency (f)
Increase with d
2
Increase with f
2
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Wired technology
Advantages
High-quality 2-way Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC) Networks
Data Networking Infrastructure: Routers, Routing
Switches, Switches, Servers, Network Management
Systems, Cable Modem Internet Connectivity
Serve Thousands of Broadband Internet Subscribers
Disadvantages
High Cost
Broadband Internet Connection over a Cable Network
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Wireless technology (1/2)
Broadband Fixed Wireless Systems Operate at
Different Frequencies
Multichannel Multipoint
Distribution System (MMDS)
1-way Video Broadcast Service
Operates at 2 GHz
Microwave Video
Distribution System (MVDS)
Local Multipoint Distribution
System (LMDS)
Undergo Technical Trials
Operate at 12GHz and 42 GHz
Operates at 26 - 31 GHz
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Wireless technology (2/2)
Advantages
Lower Cost of Deployment
Lower Cost of Network Maintenance, Management
and Operating Costs
Easier to Adapt to Changing Market Conditions
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Media Selection Criteria
Speed:
What level of data transfer do we need (10Mbps-
100Mbps+)?
Cost:
What can we afford (cat5e relatively inexpensive)?
Distance and expandability
Environment:
What is the noise level?
Security/encryption:
Possibility of wiretapping/hot spots?
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Radio Propagation modes
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Fading
Fade duration T
D
Fade occurrence interval T
I
Defined at the signal level
Rp that is exceeded P(%) of
the time.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Radio path planning design (1/2)
1. Select the most direct route using survey maps. If
possible inspect the terrain (by air!) for possible
obstacles
2. Break route into sections approximately 40-50km long. A
zigzag path may be required to avoid interference.
Locate repeaters so as to use vantage points such as
hills or tall buildings.
3. For each hop, plot the profile of the terrain taking
elevations from a contour map. Remember to take into
account unmarked obstructions such as buildings and
forests.
http://ludo.ece.jcu.edu.au/subjects/ee3710/notes/Propagation.PDF
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Radio path planning design (2/2)
4. Select antenna heights and superimpose the beam profile
and the 1st Fresnel zone on the terrain profile.
5. Inspect the path profile for obstructions and repeat step 4
until the first Fresnel zone or at least 0.6 of it is clear. If
the path remains obstructed calculate additional losses
expected.Ensure the selected antenna heights do not
leads to severe fading under varying conditions. For
example, could there be reflections from the earth, will
trees grow so as to obstruct the path?
6. Determine total path losses and assign a fading margin.
From the specified system signal-to-noise ratio Determine
the antenna gains and the transmitter power.
http://ludo.ece.jcu.edu.au/subjects/ee3710/notes/Propagation.PDF
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Free space propagation (1/4)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Assumptions: isotropic
antennas (homogeneous
propagation in all
directions)
P
T
= power radiated
Power density
Field strength
Tx
Rx
( )
2
2
W/m
4
T
P
PD
d
=
d
( )
120 V/m FS PD =
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Received power depends on
effective aperture of receiving
antenna
For the hypothetical isotropic
receiving antenna
Free space loss equation
Free space losses
( )
W
R eff
P PD A =
2
4
eff
A

=
( )
2 2
2 2
4
W
4
R T T
P P P f d
d c

= =

10 10
32.44 20log ( ) 20log ( )(dB)
MHz km
FSL f d = + +
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Free space losses
increase with the
distance
Radiated power is
spread on the surface of
a sphere with increasing
radius
Free space losses
increase with the
frequency
Receiving antenna
effective aperture
decreases with
frequency
But, antenna directivity
gain increases
Loss (dB)
Distance (m)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Free Space Losses Calculations
Hertzian Link
40 km @ 3.5 GHz
Spatial Link
36000 km @ 12 GHz
GSM Link
5 km @ 900 MHz
UMTS Link
500 m @ 2 GHz
135.4 dB
205.1 dB
105.5 dB
92.44 dB
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Propagation Mechanisms
Reflection
Propagating wave impinges on an object which is large
compared to wavelength
E.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by
surface with sharp irregular edges
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS does not
exist
Scattering
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagating
wave
E.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
2nd* 2nd*
1st* 1st*
3rd* 3rd*
* * Fresnel Fresnel
Zones Zones
Fresnel Zones
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Fresnel Zone diameter depends upon Wavelength, and Distances from
the sites along axis
For minimum Diffraction Loss, clearance of at least 0.6F1 is required
Radius of n
th
Fresnel Zone given
by:
2 1
2 1
d d
d d n
r
n
+
=

The First Fresnel Zone
Site A
Site B
d2
d1
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
The Path Profile (1/3)
Path Profile characteristics may change over time,
due to vegetation, building construction, etc.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
See calculations on next slide
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
d
1
= 4 km
d
2
= 33.6 km
f = 6 GHz
= 5 cm
1 2
1
1 2
13.4 m
d d
r
d d
= =
+
d
1
d
2
60% clearance of F
1
= 8 m
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Path loss
Received power = K d
-n
n = 2 for free space propagation
2 < n < 4 for practical cases
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Long term propagation modes
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Short term propagation modes
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Line of sight : radio horizon
Radio horizon: The locus of
points at which direct rays
from a point source of radio
waves are tangential to the
surface of the Earth.
Radio waves go behind the
geometrical horizon due to
refraction in the air
Approximate distance 17 17
km Tx Rx
d h h = +
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Radio Horizon Calculation
h
Tx
= 60 m
h
Rx
= 60 m
Radio Horizon is about 64
km
Geometrical Horizon is
about 55 km
r = 6368 km (earth radius)
h = tower height
2 2
( ) GH r h r = +
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Diffraction
Caused by obstacles in or near path
Examples: buildings, hills
Can cause destructive interference which
weakens received signal
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Multipath
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Atmospheric Attenuation (1/2)
attenuation caused by atmospheric gases
note molecular resonance peaks
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Atmospheric Attenuation (2/2)
attenuation caused by rain
can increase path loss by an order of magnitude (
10 x)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
ITU North American rain zones
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
ITU European rain zones
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Rainfall effects
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Parameters affecting propagation
Free space parameters
Frequency (GHz)
Path Length (km)
Excess attenuation due to water vapor
Excess attenuation due to mist and fog
Excess attenuation due to Oxygen
Gaseous loss
Excess attenuation due to rainfall
Others
Trees, Buildings, Terrain and other blockage
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Example of total excess attenuation
(LMDS)
a = excess attenuation in dB
due to water vapor
0.08 dB/km at sea level and 15
degrees C (7.5 g/m3)
b = excess attenuation in dB
due to mist/fog
0.1 dB/km
c = excess attenuation in dB
due to Oxygen
0.02 dB/km at sea level and 15
degrees C
d = absorption losses due to
other gases
0.08 dB/km
e = excess attenuation due to
rain
3.67 dB/km for Dallas-Houston,
Vertical Polarization, 99.9
Avail.
= 2.0 dB/km for Chicago,
Vertical Polarization, 99.9
Avail.
Total = 3.95 dB/km (Dallas-Houston)
Total = 2.28 dB/km (Chicago)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Basic link budget (1/5)
Coverage radius = 2.3 km
Rain zone = K
Horizontal polarization
41 GHz band with a 99,985 %availability.
AP antenna gain: 18 dBi 1 dB
(90 sector antenna)
AT antenna gain: 37 dBi 1 dB
(30 cm diameter antenna)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Rain attenuation = 23 dB
ITU-R Recommendation P.530-6
ITU-R Recommendation P.838
ITU-R Recommendation P.837-1
Free space loss = 133.1 dB
Antenna gain = 55 dB
Required system gain (@ 99,985 %)
= Rain attenuation + Free space loss - Antenna gain
= 101.1 dB.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
BER = 10
-6
for link availability
BER = 10
-11
for link quality.
Receiver sensitivity
loss includes all implementation losses
Rxloss is the receiver branching loss
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
PHY
C/N dB
(BER=10
-6
)
10
-6
10
-11
Prx @ 28 GHz
dBm
10
-6
10
-11
Prx @ 32 GHz
dBm
10
-6
10
-11
Prx @ 42 GHz
dBm
QAM4 5 -88 -87 -87 -86 -86 -85
QAM16 18 -75 -74 -74 -73 -73 -72
QAM64 25 -66 -65 -65 -64 -64 -63
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Sources of Interference
Intra-System Interference
Multipath
Cross Polarization Component
Adjacent Channel Interference
Co-channel Interference
Inter-System Interference
Satellite Systems
Other Systems
Out-of-Band Interference
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Interference Mitigation (Intra-System) (1/2)
Multi-Path
Use Highly Directional Antennas
Give Careful Consideration to Placement of Antennas
Use antennas with low side lobes for CPE
Use robust modulation and error correction techniques
Cross Polarization
Major factor for systems which exploit polarization at same
base
station for frequency reuse--need antennas with good cross-pol
Minor problem for systems which use polarization for separating
base stations
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Interference Mitigation (Intra-System) (2/2)
Adjacent Channel
Use constant envelope modulation
Use linear power amplifiers
Co-Channel Interference
Use highly directional antennas with low side lobes for CPE
Deploy base stations with maximum separation distance for
same
frequency, same polarization
Use minimum transmit power; control TX power on return path
Use adaptive interference suppression techniques
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Interference Mitigation (Inter-System)
Use highly directional antennas with low side lobes
Use high-dynamic range LNAs and first mixers
Develop standards for coexistence
Employ low LO leakage designs in TX and RX circuits
Develop adequate image rejection receivers
Employ filtering at MMWfrequencies
Use linear Power Amplifiers
Use constant envelope modulation
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Frequency Diversity (1/2)
Use two transmitters and two receivers
operating at different frequencies, preferably
separated by at least 5%.
Phase relationship between direct and
reflected path will be different at the two
frequencies
Also provides a redundant system in case of
equipment failure (hot standby)
Disadvantage: uses twice the bandwidth
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Frequency Diversity (2/2)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Space Diversity (1/2)
Use two receiving antennas separated in
space (preferably by 200 wavelengths or more,
though less separation is often used)
Path length will be different to the two
antennas, so cancellation is unlikely over both
paths
Needs larger towers, but does not require
increased bandwidth
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Space Diversity (2/2)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
4. Digital coding
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Digital Coding
Character: A symbol that has a common,
constant meaning.
Characters in data communications, as in
computer systems, are represented by groups
of bits [1s and 0s].
The group of bits representing the set of
characters in the alphabet of any given
system are called a coding scheme, or simply a
code.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Digital Coding
A byte consists of 8 bits that is treated as a unit or
character. (Some Asian languages use 2 bytes for each
of their characters, such as Chinese.)
(The length of a computer word could be 1, 2, 4 bytes.)
There are two predominant coding schemes in use
today:
United States of America Standard Code for Information
Interchange (USASCII or ASCII)
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
(EBCDIC)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Advantages of Digital Transmission
The signal is exact
Signals can be checked for errors
Noise/interference are easily filtered out
A variety of services can be offered over one
line
Higher bandwidth is possible with data
compression
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Why Use Analog Transmission?
Already in place
Significantly less expensive
Lower attenuation rates
Fully sufficient for transmission of voice signals
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Analog Encoding of Digital Data
Data encoding and decoding technique to
represent data using the properties of analog
waves
Modulation: the conversion of digital signals to
analog form
Demodulation: the conversion of analog data
signals back to digital form
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Methods of Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM) or amplitude shift
keying (ASK)
Frequency modulation (FM) or frequency shift
keying (FSK)
Phase modulation or phase shift keying (PSK)
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In radio transmission, known as amplitude
modulation (AM)
The amplitude (or height) of the sine wave
varies to transmit the ones and zeros
Major disadvantage is that telephone lines are
very susceptible to variations in transmission
quality that can affect amplitude
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Amplitude Modulation and ASK
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
In radio transmission, known as frequency
modulation (FM)
Frequency of the carrier wave varies in
accordance with the signal to be sent
Signal transmitted at constant amplitude
More resistant to noise than ASK
Less attractive because it requires more
analog bandwidth than ASK
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Frequency Modulation and FSK
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Phase Modulation
Frequency and amplitude of the carrier signal
are kept constant
The carrier signal is shifted in phase according
to the input data stream
Each phase can have a constant value, or
value can be based on whether or not phase
changes (differential keying)
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Phase Modulation and PSK
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
0 1 1
0
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
PSK constellation
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Analog Channel Capacity: BPS vs. Baud
Baud=# of signal changes per second. ITU-T now
recommends the term baud rate be replaced by the term
symbol rate.
BPS=bits per second
In early modems only, baud=BPS. The bit rate and the
symbol rate (or baud rate) are the same only when one bit is
sent on each symbol.
Each signal change can represent more than one bit,
through complex modulation of amplitude, frequency, and/or
phase
Increases information-carrying capacity of a channel without
increasing bandwidth
Increased combinations also leads to increased likelihood of
errors
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Sending Multiple Bits Simultaneously
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
In practice, the maximum number of bits that
can be sent with any one of these techniques is
about five bits. The solution is to combine
modulation techniques.
One popular technique is quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM) involves splitting the signal
into eight different phases, and two different
amplitude for a total of 16 different possible
values.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
The 4-PSK method
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
The 4-PSK characteristics
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Time domain for an 8-QAM signal
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
The 4-QAM and 8-QAM constellations
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Trellis coded modulation (TCM) is an
enhancement of QAM that combines phase
modulation and amplitude modulation. It can
transmits different numbers of bits on each
symbol (6-10 bits per symbol).
The problem with high speed modulation
techniques such as TCM is that they are more
sensitive to imperfections in the
communications circuit.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
16-QAM constellations
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Modem
An acronym for modulator-demodulator
Uses a constant-frequency signal known as a
carrier signal
Converts a series of binary voltage pulses into
an analog signal by modulating the carrier
signal
The receiving modem translates the analog
signal back into digital data
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Digital Transmission of Analog Data
Codec = Coder/Decoder
Converts analog signals into a digital form and
converts it back to analog signals
Where do we find codecs?
Sound cards
Scanners
Voice mail
Video capture/conferencing
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Codec vs. Modem
Codec is for coding analog data into digital
form and decoding it back. The digital data
coded by Codec are samples of analog waves.
Modem is for modulating digital data into
analog form and demodulating it back. The
analog symbols carry digital data.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Digital Encoding
of Analog Data
Primarily used in retransmission devices
The sampling theorem: If a signal is sampled at
regular intervals of time and at a rate higher
than twice the significant signal frequency, the
samples contain all the information of the
original signal.
Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
8000 samples/sec sufficient for 4000hz
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
5. Communication systems
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Fixed Wireless - Broadband
MMDS: Multi-channel multi-point distribution
service at 2.5 GHz
Point-to-point wireless broadband at greater
than 18 GHz
LMDS: Local multi-point distribution service at
28 GHz
Note: Cell size for low frequency solutions are large,
while cell size for high frequency solutions are small
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Frequency spectrum
1 GHz 2.5 3.5 5.8 10 24 26 28 38 40 60
LOS LOS
5000 2000 1350 1000 400 300
200
20 30
Voice,
Data, Fax,
ISDN
256 Kbps 256 Kbps
1 to 50 1 to 50
Mbps Mbps
+ TDM
Leased Lines
B
a
n
d
w
i
d
t
h
(
M
H
z
)
1400
200
100
+ High Speed
Internet and
Multimedia
+ Ultra
High-Speed
LAN/WAN
No LOS No LOS
10 to 100 10 to 100
Mbps Mbps
>100 Mbps >100 Mbps
LMDS MMDS UNII
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Cost per suscriber
CPE Cost
# of Subscribers
C
o
s
t

P
e
r

S
u
b
s
c
r
i
b
e
r
This is the point at
which PMP becomes more
economically viable than
a PTP network, generally ~8 links.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Reach Distance From Hub
Point-to-Point Links
Point-to-Multipoint
28 GHz
38 GHz
5.34 6.92
Reach Distance,
Km
3.57 7.5 5.0
2.5 GHz
20.0 50.0
23 GHz
6 GHz
28 GHz
2.5 GHz
40
24 GHz
2.5 GHz
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
MMDS, MVDS (1/3)
MMDS, MVDS
2,5 GHz, 40 GHz
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
MMDS, MVDS (2/3)
Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS)
A cost-effective, wireless alternative to digital subscriber
lines (DSL) and cable modem service for delivering
broadband wireless access (BWA) to the last mile (> T1
connexion)
MMDS uses licensed microwave frequencies in the 2.1
GHz to 2.7 GHz band
MMDS is less affected by weather and can deliver
reliable service up to a 25 mile radius under line-of-sight
(LOS) conditions
MMDS offers physical layer technologies for next
generation broadband wireless access.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
MMDS, MVDS (3/3)
Start with very large cells and expand capacity with cell
splitting and antennas on CMRS towers
Originally used for analog wireless cable
One way broadcast video of up to 28 channels
Up to 168 MHz of spectrum
Up to 25 miles coverage from one antenna
In the USA, FCC modified rules to increase competition
Two way digital services allowed
Use for video, data, or voice telephony
Allow point-to-multipoint operation
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
PMP
2 Mbit/s
broadband PMP
3,5 GHz, 10,5 GHz, 26 GHz
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Point to multipoint
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
LMDS
1 Mbit/s
LMDS
28 GHz, 40 GHz
25-50 Mbit/s
n*2 Mbit/s
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
LMDS
Use Millimeter-wave Signals
Can be used for voice, data, and/or video
Intended for point-to-multipoint operation, but early
implementations have been PTP
Much smaller cells than MMDS (3-10 miles in diameter)
Unlikely for residential video / telephony because of high
cost & line-of-sight issues
Likely use is DS3 to business customer
Travel through Copper Wire, Co-axial Cable,
CAT5
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
LMDS concept
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
LMDS & MMDS COMPARISON
Wireless Systems LMDS MMDS
Frequency Range 10-43 GHz 2.5-2.7 GHz,
3.4-3.7 GHz
Signal Radius Two-way Mostly One-way
Access Interface TDMA, TDMA
FDMA, TDM
Bandwidth IP, ATM IP, ATM
Allocation Method
Target Market Multi-dwelling Rural and Urban
high-rise units, Residential, SOHO
SME, SOHO
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Modulations vs Data rate
0.4 MHz 0.4 MHz 64 64- -QAM QAM
0.6 MHz 0.6 MHz 16 16- -QAM QAM
1.4 MHz 1.4 MHz 4 4- -QAM QAM
0.8 MHz 0.8 MHz 8PSK 8PSK
1.4 MHz 1.4 MHz QPSK QPSK
1.4 MHz 1.4 MHz DQPSK DQPSK
2.8 MHz 2.8 MHz BPSK BPSK
MHz for 2Mbps CBR MHz for 2Mbps CBR
Connection Connection
Name Name
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
LMDS key applications
Broadband Access for SOHOs and SMEs
Cellular Backbone
Consumer Multimedia
Copper or Fibre Backup
LAN Interconnect
Video Conferencing
Video Monitoring
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
LMDS
An LMDS system consists
of a series of cells whose
centers are defined by
individual base stations,
and of a central control
point to which all of the
base stations communicate
LMDS network uses highly
directional antennas -
sectorized antennas at the
base station and single-
beam parabolic microwave
reflectors at the subscriber
site
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Advantages of LMDS
Fast to deploy, no
digging roads
Solution to lack of fiber in
some rural areas
Build-out on demand,
scalable
Multi-Gigabit capacity
Can provide integrated
services:
voice/data/video
Challenges
Requires line of sight
between Tx and Rx
Signal attenuation by
rain and moisture in
vegetation
Shorter range requires
more hub sites for
coverage
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Experience with LMDS
Quick to deploy (enables service provider to
capture customers before a competitor does)
Build-out, or relocate, as needed
Useful for sites not readily accessible to other
broadband services
Signal loss due to rain must be compensated for
Operation, Administration, Maintenance, and
Provisioning is similar to other telecomm. equip.
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Bibliography (1/2)
www.terena.nl/conferences/nato-anw2000/ 03_bb_fixed_wirel.ppt
Broadband Radio Access Networks (BRAN); HIPERACCESS; System
Overview - ETSI TR 102 003 V1.1.1 (2002-03)
Broadband Wireless Access - IEEE 802 Executive Committee Meeting
Albuquerque, NM November 12, 1998
Fixed Radio Systems; Digital Multipoint Radio Systems; Part 1:
Common Characteristics and Non Essential Parameters of Multipoint
Radio Systems ETSI DEN/TM-04130-1 v0.0.2 (2003-03-25)
Fundamentals of Communications 15: Radio Channels - Professor Ian
Groves - King's College London
Local Multipoint Distribution System - Berkin zmen. Sercan Uslu -
Computer Networks.
Local Multipoint Distribution Service Tutorial - 1999 IEEE Emerging
Technologies Symposium on Wireless Communications and Systems -
Langston, Marks, Reese
R O U P E G
Microwave radio
Bibliography (2/2)
Physical Layer Chapter 8: Data communication Fundamentals
Computer Science Department University of Geneva
Propagation Considerations important for todays Radiocommunication
Systems - Kevin A. Hughes - ITU Radiocommunication Bureau
Radio Propagation Katz - University of California, Berkeley
Radio-wave Propagation Basics - Struzak Radio Regulations Board,
ITU
Terrestrial Microwave Systems Niagara College Canada
Transmission fundamentals, The Media Conducted and Wireless
Georgia State University
The last mile: wireless technologies for broadband and home networks
Cordeiro, Gossain, Ashok, Agrawal University of Cincinnatti
ITU-T Recommendation G.821: "Error performance of an international
digital connection operating at a bit rate below the primary rate and
forming part of an integrated services digital network".

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