1. What are the major loads acting on the aircraft?

The broad general category of external loads on conventional aircraft can be broken down into such classification as,
(a) Air Loads: Air Loads comprises loads imposed on the structure during flight by maneuvers (under the control of pilot)
and gusts (not under the control of pilot).
Basically, all air loads are the resultants of the pressure distribution over the surfaces of the skin produced by steady
flight, maneuver or gust conditions. Generally, these resultants cause direct loads, bending, shear and torsion in all parts
of the structure in addition to local, normal pressure loads imposed on the skin.
(b) Landing Loads: Ground loads encountered in landing and taxiing subject the aircraft to concentrated shock loads
through the undercarriage system. Aircrafts may be designed specifically for landing (i) on Land (wheel or ski type) (ii) on
Water and (iii) on Aircraft carriers (using Arrestor hooks).
(c) Power Plant Loads: These loads include engine thrust (for jet engines) and torque (for propeller engines) on the
wings or fuselage which acts in the plane of symmetry but may, in the case of engine failure, cause severe fuselage
bending moments.
(d) Take off Loads: These loads include loads experienced by the aircraft during takeoff segment. Aircraft may be
specifically designed for (i) Catapulting and (ii) Assisted takeoff with additional short period thrust units.
(e) Weight and Inertia Loads: These loads are due to the mass of the aircraft distributed along its entire length.
(f) Special Loads: These loads are due to actions such as (i) Hoisting of airplane (ii) Towing the airplane (iii) Cabin
Pressurization (iv) Gun recoil (v) Stores separation (vi) Aerial refueling
These two loads classes may be further divided into:
a) Surface Loads: Act on the surface of the structure, such as aerodynamic or hydrostatic loads
b) Body forces: Act over the volume of the structure and are generated by gravitational and inertia effects.
Ref: (1) Bruhn, Analysis of Aircraft Structures
(2) THG Megson, Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students

2. In fuselage construction, what are the three classes of monocoque design? Describe with illustrations.
The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque
design may be divided into three classesmonocoque, semi monocoque, and reinforced shell.
This is opposed to using an internal framework (or truss) that is then covered with a non-load-bearing skin.
(i) Monocoque: The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the
fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses.
Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.
The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within limits.
(ii) Semi monocoque: Semi monocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque construction.
In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi monocoque construction has the skin
reinforced by longitudinal members.
Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several points of support.
The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers. Stringers are more numerous and
lightweight than longerons.
(iii) Reinforced Shell: The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members.
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes.
Most are considered to be of semi monocoque-type construction.

There are a number of advantages in using the semi monocoque fuselage.
The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and construction of a streamlined fuselage.
They add to the strength and rigidity of the structure. The main advantage of the semi monocoque construction is that it
depends on many structural members for strength and rigidity.
Because of its stressed skin construction, a semi monocoque fuselage can withstand damage and still be strong enough
to hold together.
Ref: (1) http://home.iitk.ac.in/~mohite/Basic_construction.pdf

3. What are the main structural members of the wing in a fixed wing aircraft? Describe with illustrations.
Providing lift is the main function of the wings of an aircraft.
The wings consist of two essential parts, (i) the internal wing structure, consisting of spars, ribs and stringers, and
(ii) the external wing, which is the skin.
Ribs : The shape of the cross-section is governed by aerodynamic considerations and clearly must be maintained for all
combinations of load; this is one of the functions of the ribs.
They also act with the skin in resisting the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads; they distribute concentrated loads
(e.g. undercarriage and additional wing store loads) into the structure and redistribute stress around discontinuities,
such as undercarriage wells, inspection panels and fuel tanks, in the wing surface.
Ribs increase the column buckling stress of the longitudinal stiffeners by providing end restraint and establishing their
column length; in a similar manner they increase the plate buckling stress of the skin panels.
The dimensions of ribs are governed by their span wise position in the wing and by the loads they are required to
support.
In the outer portions of the wing, where the cross-section may be relatively small if the wing is tapered and the loads are
light, ribs act primarily as formers for the aerofoil shape.
A light structure is sufficient for this purpose whereas at sections closer to the wing root, where the ribs are required to
absorb and transmit large concentrated applied loads, such as those from the undercarriage, engine thrust and fuselage
attachment point reactions, a much more rugged construction is necessary.
Between these two extremes are ribs which support hinge reactions from ailerons, flaps and other control surfaces, plus
the internal loads from fuel, armament and systems installations.
Skin: The primary function of the wing skin is to form an impermeable surface for supporting the aerodynamic pressure
distribution from which the lifting capability of the wing is derived.
These aerodynamic forces are transmitted in turn to the ribs and stringers by the skin through plate and membrane
action.
Resistance to shear and torsional loads is supplied by shear stresses developed in the skin and spar webs, while axial and
bending loads are reacted by the combined action of skin and stringers.
Although the thin skin is efficient for resisting shear and tensile loads, it buckles under comparatively low compressive
loads.
Stringers: Rather than increase the skin thickness and suffer a consequent weight penalty, stringers are attached to the
skin and ribs, thereby dividing the skin into small panels and increasing the buckling and failing stresses.
This stabilizing action of the stringers on the skin is, in fact, reciprocated to some extent although the effect normal to
the surface of the skin is minimal.
Stringers rely chiefly on rib attachments for preventing column action in this direction.
The combined action of stringers and skin, results in resisting axial and bending loads.
Spars: The ribs also need to be supported, which is done by the spars. These are simple beams that usually have a cross-
section similar to an I-beam.
The spars are the most heavily loaded parts of an aircraft. They carry much more force at its root, than at the tip.
Since wings will bend upwards, spars usually carry shear forces and bending moments.
Aerodynamic forces not only bend the wing, they also twist it. To prevent this, the introduction of a second spar seems
logical.
Torsion now induces bending of the two spars, which is termed differential bending.
Modern commercial aircrafts often use two-spar wings where the spars are joined by a strengthened section of skin,
forming the so-called torsion-box structure.
The skin in the torsion-box structure serves both as a spar-cap (to resist bending), as part of the torsion box (to resist
torsion) and to transmit aerodynamic forces.

Ref: (1) http://home.iitk.ac.in/~mohite/Basic_construction.pdf
(2) THG Megson, Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students
4. Describe the various flight control surfaces with illustrations.
Flight control surfaces are hinged (movable) airfoils designed to change the attitude of the aircraft during flight. These
surfaces are divided into primary and secondary flight control surfaces.
The primary flight control surfaces include ailerons, elevators, and rudders.
The ailerons attach to the trailing edge of the wings. They control the rolling (or banking) motion of the aircraft. This
action is known as lateral control.
The elevators are attached to the horizontal stabilizer and control the climb or descent (pitching motion) of the aircraft.
This action is known as longitudinal control.
The rudder is attached to the vertical stabilizer. It determines the horizontal flight (turning or yawing motion) of the
aircraft. This action is known as directional control.
The ailerons and elevators are operated from the cockpit by a control stick. The rudder is operated by foot pedals.

Some of the secondary control surfaces are,
Trim tabs are small airfoils recessed into the trailing edges of the primary control surface. Each trim tab hinges to its
parent primary control surface, but operates by an independent control.
Trim tabs let the pilot trim out an unbalanced condition without exerting pressure on the primary controls.
Spring tabs are similar in appearance to trim tabs but serve an entirely different purpose. Spring tabs are used for the
same purpose as hydraulic actuators.
They aid the pilot in moving a larger control surface, such as the ailerons and elevators.
Wing flaps give the aircraft extra lift. Their purpose is to reduce the landing speed.
Reducing the landing speed shortens the length of the landing rollout. Flaps help the pilot land in small or obstructed
areas by increasing the glide angle without greatly increasing the approach speed.
The use of flaps during takeoff serves to reduce the length of the takeoff run. Some flaps hinge to the lower trailing
edges of the wings inboard of the ailerons.
The plain flap forms the trailing edge of the airfoil when the flap is in the up position.
In the split flap, the trailing edge of the airfoil is split, and the lower half is hinged and lowers to form the flap.
The fowler flap operates on rollers and tracks, causing the lower surface of the wing to roll out and then extend
downward.
The leading edge flap operates like the plain flap. It is hinged on the bottom side. When actuated, the leading edge of
the wing actually extends in a downward direction to increase the camber of the wing.
Landing flaps are used in conjunction with other types of flaps.
Spoilers are used to decrease wing lift. The specific design, function, and use vary with different aircraft. On some
aircraft, the spoilers are long narrow surfaces, hinged at their leading edge to the upper surfaces of the wings.
In the retracted position they are flush with the wing skin. In the raised position, they greatly reduce wing lift by
destroying the smooth flow of air over the wing surface.
Speed brakes are movable control surfaces used for reducing the speed of the aircraft. Some manufacturers refer to
them as dive brakes; others refer to them as dive flaps.
On some aircraft, they're hinged to the sides or bottom of the fuselage. Regardless of their location, speed brakes serve
the same purposeto keep the airspeed from building too high when the aircraft dives.
Speed brakes slow the aircraft's speed before it lands.
Slats are movable control surfaces that attach to the leading edge of the wing.
When the slat is retracted, it forms the leading edge of the wing. When the slat is open (extended forward), a slot is
created between the slat and the wing leading edge.
High-energy air is introduced into the boundary layer over the top of the wing. At low airspeeds, this action improves
the lateral control handling characteristics. This allows the aircraft to be controlled at airspeeds below normal landing
speed.
The high-energy air that flows over the top of the wing is known as boundary layer control air. Boundary layer control is
intended primarily for use during operations from carriers.
Boundary layer control air aids in catapult takeoffs and arrested landings. Boundary control air can also be accomplished
by directing high-pressure engine bleed air across the top of the wing or flap surface.

Ref: (1) http://home.iitk.ac.in/~mohite/Basic_construction.pdf
5. Describe the major components of a rotary wing aircraft with illustrations.
A helicopter has one or more power-driven horizontal airscrews (rotors) to develop lift and propulsion.
If a single main rotor is used, it is necessary to employ a means to counteract torque. If more than one main rotor (or
tandem) is used, torque is eliminated by turning each main rotor in opposite directions.
The fundamental advantage the helicopter has over fixed-wing aircraft is that lift and control are independent of
forward speed.
A helicopter can fly forward, backward, or sideways, or it can remain in stationary flight (hover) above the ground. No
runway is required for a helicopter to take off or land. For example, the roof of an office building is an adequate landing
area.
The helicopter is considered a safe aircraft because the takeoff and landing speed is zero, and it has auto rotational
capabilities. This allows a controlled descent with rotors turning in case of engine failure in flight.
Fuselage: Like the fuselage of a fixed-wing aircraft, the helicopter fuselage may be welded truss or some form of
monocoque construction. Many Navy helicopters are of the monocoque design.
The fuselage consists of the entire airframe, sometimes known as the body group. The body group is an all-metal semi
monocoque construction. It consists of an aluminum and titanium skin over a reinforced aluminum frame.
Modern helicopter fuselage design includes an increasing utilization of advanced composites as well. Firewalls and
engine decks are usually stainless steel.
Helicopter fuselages vary widely from those with a truss frame, two seats, no doors, and a monocoque shell flight
compartment to those with fully enclosed airplane-style cabins as found on larger twin-engine helicopters.
The multidirectional nature of helicopter flight makes wide-range visibility from the cockpit essential. Large, formed
polycarbonate, glass, or plexiglass windscreens are common.
Landing Gear or Skids: A helicopter's landing gear can be simply a set of tubular metal skids. Many helicopters do have
landing gear with wheels, some retractable. Some helicopters use a tail landing gear as an aft touchdown point for the
pilots to cushion the landing shock.
Main Rotor System: The rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which generates lift. The rotor consists of a
mast, hub, and rotor blades.
The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upwards from and is driven, and sometimes supported, by the
transmission.
At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are then attached to
the hub by any number of different methods.
Main rotor systems are classified according to how the main rotor blades are attached and move relative to the main
rotor hub. There are three basic classifications: rigid, semi rigid, or fully articulated.
In Rigid Rotor System, the rotor blades are rigidly attached to the main rotor hub and are not free to slide back and
forth (drag) or move up and down(flap).
The forces tending to make the rotor blades do so are absorbed by the flexible properties of the blade. The pitch of the
blades, however, can be adjusted by rotation about the spanwise axis via the feathering hinges.
The semi rigid rotor system makes use of a teetering hinge at the blade attach point. While held in check from sliding
back and forth, the teetering hinge does allow the blades to flap up and down. With this hinge, when one blade flaps up,
the other flaps down.
Flapping is caused by a phenomenon known as dissymmetry of lift. As the plane of rotation of the rotor blades is tilted
and the helicopter begins to move forward, an advancing blade and a retreating blade become established (on two-
bladed systems).
The relative windspeed is greater on an advancing blade than it is on a retreating blade. This causes greater lift to be
developed on the advancing blade, causing it to rise up or flap.
When blade rotation reaches the point where the blade becomes the retreating blade, the extra lift is lost and the blade
flaps downward.
In Fully Articulated Rotor System, there are hinges that allow the rotors to move fore and aft, as well as up and down.
This lead-lag, drag, or hunting movement as it is called is in response to the Coriolis effect during rotational speed
changes.
When first starting to spin, the blades lag until centrifugal force is fully developed. Once rotating, a reduction in speed
causes the blades to lead the main rotor hub until forces come into balance.
Constant fluctuations in rotor blade speeds cause the blades to 'hunt'. They are free to do so in a fully articulating
system due to being mounted on the vertical drag hinge.
One or more horizontal hinges provide for flapping on a fully articulated rotor system. Also, the feathering hinge allows
blade pitch changes by permitting rotation about the spanwise axis.
Various dampers and stops can be found on different designs to reduce shock and limit travel in certain directions.
Anti torque System: Ordinarily, helicopters have between two and seven main rotor blades. These rotors are usually
made of a composite structure.
The large rotating mass of the main rotor blades of a helicopter produce torque. This torque increases with engine
power and tries to spin the fuselage in the opposite direction.
The tail boom and tail rotor, or anti torque rotor, counteract this torque effect. Controlled with foot pedals, the counter
torque of the tail rotor must be modulated as engine power levels are changed.
This is done by changing the pitch of the tail rotor blades. This, in turn, changes the amount of counter torque, and the
aircraft can be rotated about its vertical axis, allowing the pilot to control the direction the helicopter is facing.
Fin: Similar to a vertical stabilizer on the empennage of an airplane, a fin or pylon is also a common feature on
rotorcraft.
Normally, it supports the tail rotor assembly, although some tail rotors are mounted on the tail cone of the boom.
Additionally, a horizontal member called a stabilizer is often constructed at the tail cone or on the pylon.
Controls: The controls of a helicopter differ slightly from those found in an aircraft.
The collective, operated by the pilot with the left hand, is pulled up or pushed down to increase or decrease the angle of
attack on all of the rotor blades simultaneously. This increases or decreases lift and moves the aircraft up or down.
The engine throttle control is located on the hand grip at the end of the collective.
The cyclic is the control 'stick' located between the pilot's legs. It can be moved in any direction to tilt the plane of
rotation of the rotor blades. This causes the helicopter to move in the direction that the cyclic is moved.
The foot pedals control the pitch of the tail rotor blades thereby balancing main rotor torque.

Power plant and Transmission: The two most common types of engine used in helicopters are the reciprocating engine
and the turbine engine. The turbine engine used in helicopters operates differently than those used in airplane
applications.
In most applications, the exhaust outlets simply release expended gases and do not contribute to the forward motion of
the helicopter.
The transmission system transfers power from the engine to the main rotor, tail rotor, and other accessories during
normal flight conditions.
The main components of the transmission system are the main rotor transmission, tail rotor drive system, clutch, and
freewheeling unit. The freewheeling unit, or auto rotative clutch, allows the main rotor transmission to drive the tail
rotor drive shaft during autorotation.
Ref: (1) www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aircraft/amt_airframe_handbook/media/ama_ch01.pdf
6. Describe different types of wing configurations.
Wing configurations can be distinguished based on,
(i) Taper ratio : Straight wing, Swept back wing, Swept forward wing, Variable Sweep wing;
(ii) Delta wing: Simple Delta, Compound Delta, Double Delta, Triple Delta
(iii) Wing attachment: High wing, Mid wing, Low wing; Full cantilever, Semi cantilever;
(iv) Location of wing tip: Dihedral, Anhedral
(v) Number of Lifting surfaces: Monoplane, Biplane, Tri-plane

Ref: (1) www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aircraft/amt_airframe_handbook/media/ama_ch01.pdf