OBJECT-BASED IMAGE ANALYSIS FOR MAPPING LAND-COVER IN A FOREST

AREA


Y. Gao*, J . F. Mas*, I. Niemeyer #, P. R. Marpu #, J . L. Palacio*

* Instituto de Geografa, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico (UNAM), Antigua Carretera a Ptzcuaro, No.
8701, Col. Ex Hacienda de San J os de la Huerta, Morelia, Michoacn, Mxico. gaoyan@igg.unam.mx,
jfmas@igg.unam.mx, palacio@servidor.unam.mx
#Institute for Mine-Surveying and Geodesy, Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Reiche Zeche,
Fuchsmuhlenweg 9 D-09599 Freiberg, Germany. Irmgard.Niemeyer@tu-freiberg.de, prashanthreddym@gmail.com


KEY WORDS: Image segmentation; eCognition; Object-based image analysis; SEaTH (SEparability and THresholds)


ABSTRACT:

This paper investigated the potential of object-based image analysis in mapping land-cover of a forest area with a Landsat ETM+
scene. Four classifications were carried out (i) pixel-based Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC), (ii) classification based on
segmentation result, in which image was segmented in SPRING; the mean spectral values of the segments were used and image was
classified by MLC. As a separate experiment, MODIS Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) information was used to check if it will
improve the classification. (iii), object-based image analysis in eCognition by Nearest Neighbour classifier. (iv), object-based image
analysis in eCognition in which the favorable objects features were extracted with SEaTH (SEparability and THresholds)
algorithm. Results showed that pixel-based MLC was limited by using only spectral information; classification which was based on
segmentation result only showed a small improvement over the pixel-based one, although it overcomes the salt-and-pepper problem.
The third classification in eCognition obtained a significantly better accuracy than that obtained by pixel-based classification; as the
classification was still mostly based on spectral-related information, the possible reason for the accuracy improvement is multi-
resolution segmentation in which both spectral and spatial information was used, and the classification in eCognition in which the
result can be improved in a way by allocating the wrongly classified objects to the correct one. The last classification obtained the
best result. With SEaTH algorithm, favorable object features were used in the classification which includes objects spectral, spatial,
texture and contextual information and it greatly minimized the mis-classification rate. This paper showed that only with spectral
related information limited the classification results, better results can be achieved when objects geometric and texture attributes of
objects are used in addition to spectral information.


1. INTRODUCTION

Traditional pixel-based image classification algorithms do not
make use of semantic information in the image and thus are not
suitable to deal with the inherent heterogeneity within typical
land-cover units. The resulting thematic maps typically suffer
froma salt-and-pepper effect, and lead either to very general
land-cover information, or else detailed maps with limited
accuracies (Franklin et al. 2003). The development of object-
based image analysis (OBIA) stems primarily from the desire to
use the important semantic information necessary to interpret an
image, which is not presented in single pixels but rather in
meaningful objects and their mutual relations. In particular in
OBIA, homogeneous image objects at a chosen resolution are
first extracted and subsequently classified. In addition to
spectral information, this allows a multitude of additional
information, such as shape, texture, area, context, topological
relationship with other objects, and information from other
object layers, to be derived from objects and used in image
classification (Shackelford and Davis 2003).

This paper investigates the performance of OBIA for mapping
land-cover in a mountainous forested area. To be comparable,
four kinds of image classifications were performed: pixel-based
supervised image classification; classification based on the
segmentation result; OBIA in eCognition with multi-resolution
segmentation and standard nearest neighbour classifier; and
OBIA in eCognition with multi-resolution segmentation and
membership function in which the classification rule base is
constructed with objects features extracted with a SEaTH
(SEparability and THresholds) algorithm.

In this study, enhanced vegetation index (EVI) data from
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) is
also used to examine the effects on image classification.
MODIS EVI data is designed to provide consistent, spatial and
temporal comparisons of vegetation conditions, and it offers the
potential for regional analysis and systematic and effective
monitoring of the forest area.


2. STUDY AREA, DATA AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 Study area and data

The study area is located in Michoacan state, central west of
Mexico, covering an area of approximately 58*60 km
2
, within
the longitude of 102 00 W and 102 32 W, and latitude of
19 02 N and 19 36 N. The predominant vegetation types
include temperate forests, tropical dry forests, grasslands and
tree plantations. The available data comprised of a Landsat
ETM+image obtained on 16 February 2003, containing 6 bands
with a spatial resolution of 30m, a mosaic of 25 ortho-corrected
photos taken in 1995 with 2 meters spatial resolution, a land-
cover map from Forest Inventory generated in 2000, and
MODIS EVI data from 2001 to 2003. The Landsat image was

geometrically corrected by 86 well distributed GCPs using
ortho-corrected photos as master image and the correction was
carried out at a sub-pixel accuracy level, with a RMS error
(16.5 m) well below one pixel (30m). 13 land cover types are
to be extracted: orchards, dense temperate forests, sparse
temperate forests, forests on the top of Tancitaro, sparse
vegetation, fields with crops, dry fields without crops, wet fields
without crops, lava flows, tropical dry forests, grass land,
shadows, and human settlements.



Figure 1. The study area. Left side of the figure are two sketch
maps indicating Mexico and Michoacan state where the study
area is locating; right side is the false colour composite of
Landsat image with RGB represented by bands 4, 3, and 2.

2.2 Pixel-based classification and classification based on
segmentation result

Pixel-based classification identifies the class of each pixel by
comparing its value with the training data and allocates it to a
proper class based on a certain algorithm. The functionality of
pixel-based classification algorithms such as MLC can be found
in standard literature, like Lillesand et al (2004). In the
classification based on segmentation result, image is firstly
segmented and then classified based on the mean spectral
information of the segments.

Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) is a data product from the
MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)
sensor aboard Terra spacecraft. EVI improves upon the quality
of NDVI product. It corrects for some distortions in the
reflected light caused by the particles in the air as well as the
ground cover below the vegetation. The EVI data product also
does not become saturated as easily as NDVI when viewing
rainforests and other area of the Earth with large amounts of
chlorophyll. MODIS product is mainly used to monitor
forest/vegetation (change) at regional and global scale.

2.4. OBIA in eCognition

OBIA in eCognition (Definiens 2006) comprises two parts:
multi-resolution segmentation and context-based classification.
Multi-resolution segmentation allows generating image objects
on an arbitrary number of scales taking into account criteria of
homogeneity in colour and shape. Additionally, the created
segments are embedded into a hierarchical network in which
each object knows its neighbouring objects in horizontal and
vertical direction (Baatz and Schape 1999). The image objects
can then be described and classified by an extensive variety of
features that include colour, texture, form, and context
properties in several forms. This is usually done with a standard
nearest neighbour classifier (NN) or fuzzy membership
functions, or a combination of both. The variety of object
features can be used either to describe fuzzy membership
functions, or to determine the feature space for NN (Baatz and
Schape 1999).

2.5. OBIA in eCognition with features extracted by SEaTH
algorithm

Generally, a semantic class can be described by its
characteristic features and their distribution in the feature space.
Using an object-based classification approach to analyze an
image, there are many possible features to take into
consideration in order to describe the object classes of interest.
Therefore it is necessary to determine the prominent features
for each object class for the succeeding image analysis
(Nussbaum et al. 2005). Marpu et al. (2006) and Nussbaum et
al. (2006) proposed a feature analyzing tool SEaTH
(SEparability and THresholds) which identifies the
characteristic features with a statistical approach based on
training objects. This tool measures the statistical distance
(J effries-Matusita distance) of the features of two interested
classes. The measure result is in interval of [0, 2], and J =0
implies that the two distributions are completely correlated and
J =2 implies that the distributions are completely uncorrelated.
The features which have very high J value are the optimum
features which characterize the classes (Nussbaum et al. 2006,
Marpu et al. 2006). By this method, first of all, samples of the
interested classes are selected in eCognition and the statistics of
those samples are exported. The separability of the classes
represented by features J distance is then calculated. Based on
the calculated results, the features with the high J distance are
favorable feature to differentiate between land-cover classes.
The selected favorable features can then be used to build the
rule base for image classification in eCognition. For the details
of SEaTH algorithm see Nussbaumet al. (2006).

2.6. Statistically comparison of classification results with
McNemars test

In many remote sensing studies, the same set of ground data are
used in the assessment of the accuracy of the thematic maps
obtained by different classifiers. Foody (2004) stated that for
dependent samples, the statistical significance of the difference
between two classifiers maybe evaluated using McNemars test.
It is a non-parametric test based upon confusion matrixes and
the focus is on the binary distinction between correct and
incorrect class allocations. In this case, McNemars test is based
upon a chi-square distribution with one degree of freedom
(Foody 2004).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Results of pixel-based classification and classification
based on segmentation result

Pixel-based classification was carried out with MLC and the
training samples for the five land-cover classes. Classification
accuracy was assessed with an error matrix using independent
ground data. It obtained an overall accuracy of 75.99%. In the
classification which is based on the segmentation result, Image
was segmented in a free program SPRING (Cmara et al.
1996). The segmented image was classified based on the mean
spectral value of each segment with MLC and it obtained an
overall accuracy of 78.29%. Checked by McNemars test, the
difference between the segment-based and the pixel-based
classification is not significant, with p=0.05.


The classification result, with MODIS EVI as extra data layer,
gained an accuracy 76.64% which decreased comparing with
the result without EVI data layer, though the decrease is not
significant, by McNemars test, with p=0.05. The spatial
resolution of EVI data is 250mand the mixed pixels problem
negatively influenced the classification result.

3.2 OBIA in eCognition by Nearest Neighbour classifier

The Landsat image was segmented with multi-resolution
segmentation. The first level was created with scale factor 10,
colour factor 0.7, compactness 0.5. Most of the interested image
objects were correctly extracted based on visual checking. The
second segmentation level was created using a vector layer
containing human settlements information. These two levels
were differentiated using hierarchical membership function; the
first level is the actually classification level and the second
level acts as super level. First the super-level was classified by
Nearest Neighbor (NN) into two classes Human settlements and
non-settlement. In the first level, human settlement was
classified using super level classification result; the rest 12
classes were also linked with the super level class non-
settlement. Training samples were selected and they were
classified with standard nearest neighbour classifier. The
wrongly classified objects were corrected until the result
reached an overall accuracy 80.59%. By McNemars test, it is
significantly better than pixel-based classification, with p =
0.05.

3.3. OBIA in eCognition using objects features extracted by
SEaTH algorithm

Principle Component Analysis (PCA) was carried out to the six
landsat bands. NDVI was calculated based on bands 3 (red),
and 4 (near infrared) and its value was calibrated into the range
of 0-300. The three PCA bands, the calibrated NDVI, and the
six land cover bands were used in this OBIA while only PCA
bands and the calibrated NDVI were used in image
segmentation which was done with scale factor 20, colour
factor 0.7, compactness 0.5. Based on visual inspection, most of
the expected objects are well-represented as individual
segments.

For the SEaTH analysis about 5-10 sample objects of each land
class was selected as training data. Then 104 characteristic
features including spectral, shape, and texture features were
selected for the training objects. Then SEaTH tool calculated,
for every object class combination, the separability and
thresholds for each of the 104 features.

Spectral
features
NDVI; Mean, StdDev, Ratio in Channels 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6
respectively; Max. Diff. Brightness
Shape
features
Area (m2); Length (m); Length/width; Compactness;
Elliptic Fit; Rectangular Fit; Border length (m); Shape index;
Density; Main direction; Asymmetry
Texture
features
GLCM Homogeneity, Contrast, Dissimilarity, Entropy, Ang.
2
nd
moment, Mean, stdDev, Correlation (all dir.) in Channels
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively.
GLDV Ang. 2
nd
moment, Entropy, Mean, Contrast (all dir) in
Channels 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively.
Table 1. Features used for image analysis with SEaTH.

Based on the separability value, the best among 104 features
are selected for each object class combination, and the features
with maximum separability are used for classification. Table 2
shows the selected features based on SEaTH result for the land
cover classes. The classification result is shown in Figure 2.

Classes Features used in the rule base
Orchards Mean layer 1 <170
Mean layer 2 >=199
Mean layer 5 <=105
Sparse
temperate
forest
Max. diff. <1.7
Mean layer 2 <=179
Mean layer 4 >=143
Mean layer 5 >=94.19
Mean layer 6 <=191
Mean layer 6 >=83
Dense
temperate
forest



Max. diff. >=1.7
Mean layer 5 <=72
Not fields with crops (inherited)
Not grass land (inherited)
Not orchards (inherited)
Not human settlements (inherited)
Forest on the
top of
tancitaro



GLCM Mean (quick 8/11) layer 1 (all dir.) <=187
GLCM Mean (quick 8/11) layer 1 (all dir.) >=13.5
GLCM Mean (quick 8/11) layer 3 (all dir.) >=165
GLCM Mean (quick 8/11) layer 4 (all dir.) <=190
Mean layer 4 <=187
Not dense forest
Not sparse forest
Not tropical dry forest
Sparse
vegetation
Mean layer 4 >=60
Not forest type 3
Not dense forest
Not sparse forest
Fields with
crops


Mean layer 3 <=105
Mean layer 4 >=127
Mean layer 5 <=233
Mean layer 5 >=101
Wet fields
without
crops
GLCM Ang.2
nd
moment (quick 8/11) layer 3 (all dir.) >=0.004
GLCM Mean (quick 8/11) layer 1 (all dir.) <=197.5
Mean layer 1 <145
Mean layer 3 <=77.5
Mean layer 4 <=160
Mean layer 5 >=130
Dry fields
without
crops
Brightness >=206
GLCM Mean (quick 8/11) layer 1 (all dir.) >=197

Lava flow Brightness <=70
Mean layer 10 >=43
Mean layer 2 <=3.5
Ratio layer 1 <=0.041
Not vegetation (inherited)
Tropical dry
forest
Max. diff <=1.95
Mean layer 3 >=91
Mean layer 5 >=122
Not dry fields without crops
Grassland Mean layer 10 >=200
Mean layer 7 >=219
Mean layer 9 >=181
Not dry fields without crops
Shadow Mean layer 10 <=43
Mean layer 4 <=49
Human
settlements
GLCM Mean (quick 8/11) (all dir.) <=173.5
Mean layer 10 <=233
Mean layer 10 >=171
Mean layer 3 <=100
Mean layer 9 <=182
Table 2. Rules used for classification in eCognition.





Figure 2. OBIA classification result with the SEaTH tool.


4. CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, OBIA in mapping land-cover of a forested
mountainous area was investigated. Pixel-based classification
used only the layer values of single pixels, which limited its
performance. The classification based on segmentation result
used still the spectral information, in a manner that is similar to
pixel-based one. So its ability in classification is still limited,
although it eliminated the misclassification of single pixels. The
negative result with the MODIS EVI data still did not prove that
the EVI data would not improve the classification accuracy, as
it is only a single data layer, while the value of EVI data is
more evident when more data from different dates are included,
since it reflects the difference in land cover reflectance in
different time. Here more experiments are needed with more
EVI data from different date to find out its effects to
classification accuracy. OBIA in eCognition with NN classifier
showed a significant improvement in accuracy. As the
classification was still mostly based on spectral related
information, the improvement is probably due to multi-
resolution segmentation in which both objects spectral and
spatial information was involved. Also, the friendly manner in
eCognition which allows the correction of classification results
greatly improved the accuracy. The last classification, OBIA
based on SEaTH tool, used not only spectral but objects and
texture information for image classification with the correct
thresholds. The image segmentation with the spectral bands
after the PCA extracted better the image objects and the SEaTH
calculated features and thresholds minimized the mis-
classification rates.

Acknowledgement

Gao Yan thanks CONACYT, Mexico for supplying funds from
the project CONAFOR 2005-C02-14741 during the writing up
of the paper.

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