Tensile characterization of unidirectional discontinuous bamboo

fibre/epoxy composites
D. Perremans
a*
, E. Trujillo
a
, L. Osorio
a
, A.W. Van Vuure
a
, J. Ivens
a
, I. Verpoest
a
a
Department of Metallur! an" Materials Enineerin, #at$olie%e &niversiteit Leuven, #asteelpar%
Aren'er (( 'us )(*+, ,++- .everlee, /elium
*0orrespon"in aut$or. Tel. 1,)-2,)-),-3 E4mail a""ress5 "ieter.perremans6mtm.%uleuven.'e
ABSTRACT
/am'oo 7ulms 7onsist of a no"al stru7ture in 8$i7$ t$e fi'res are as lon as t$e interno"e lent$
9'et8een -* an" ,+ 7m:, limitin t$e lent$ of t$e reinfor7in fi'res. T$e implementation of t$ese
fi'res to reinfor7e pol!mers in lare4s7ale appli7ations lea"s to t$e pro"u7tion of "is7ontinuous
7omposites in uni"ire7tional 7onfiuration. T$e influen7e of t$e averae overlappin lent$ 'et8een
a"ja7ent fi're la!ers on t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7s of aline" ;s$ort; 9* 7m: fi're 'am'oo4epo<!
7omposites is investiate" usin a tensile testin pro7e"ure. T$e overlappin patterns 8ere
pre"efine" at 7ertain reular positions. Aline" "is7ontinuous 'am'oo4epo<! 7omposites 8it$ "ifferent
overlappin lent$s are pro"u7e" 8it$ a li$t =TM. Tensile testin results $ave in"i7ate" t$at t$e
overlappin patterns $ave a sinifi7ant influen7e on t$e tensile strent$ of t$e 7omposite samples an"
lo8 impa7t on t$e stiffness of t$e 7omposite. A mo"ifie" lo7al loa" s$arin mo"el 9LL>: 8as applie" to
simulate t$e tensile strent$ of an aline" s$ort fi're 'am'oo4epo<! 7omposite 8it$ t$e "ifferent
overlappin patterns an" also a ran"om "ispersion of fi're alon t$e samples.
-. INTRO!CTION
"#" $eneral introduction and problem outline
?o8a"a!s rational e<ploitation an" use of sustaina'le natural resour7es are a ne7essit! an" t$e! 8ill
pla! a 7ru7ial role in t$e near future. In re7ent !ears t$ere $as 'een an in7reasin interest to
s7ientifi7all! stu"! t$e potential of 'am'oo fi're as reinfor7in material for pol!mer matri< 7omposites
@-4,A. /am'oo 9Guadua angustifolia) fi'res, referre" in t$is stu"! as te7$ni7al fi'res or fi're 'un"les
97ompose" of elementar! fi'res: an" o'taine" after a stan"ar" e<tra7tion pro7ess, are 'e7omin a
real alternative for lass fi'res as reinfor7ement for 7omposite materials.
/am'oo fi'res, amonst ot$er natural fi'res, $ave one of t$e most favora'le 7om'inations of lo8
"ensit! 9-.(B7mC: an" oo" me7$ani7al properties t$at 7an 7ompete 8it$ lass fi'res in terms of
spe7ifi7 properties, as visi'le in fiure - @(A. Durt$ermore, 'am'oo fi'res are an ine<$austi'le
rene8a'le 'io4resour7e 8it$ $i$ ro8t$ an" 0O) fi<ation rate @*A. T$ese a"vantaes ma%e t$at
'am'oo fi'res 'e7ome a sustaina'le 7an"i"ate to 'e e<ploite" at larer in"ustrial s7ale an" t$at t$e!
provi"e an alternative to re"u7e of t$e environment impa7t of 7omposite stru7tures '! repla7in less
environment4frien"l! fi'res 9e.. lass fi're:.
Diure -5 =epresentation of t$e spe7ifi7 me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7s of several natural fi'res. >!nt$eti7 lass fi'res are also
in7lu"e" to allo8 a 7omparison. Due to t$eir lo8 "ensities, t$e spe7ifi7 lonitu"inal stiffness an" tensile strent$ of natural
fi'res is similar to t$at of E4lass. ?atural fi'res 7an t$us repla7e lass fi'res in several appli7ations. @(A
A lare 'ottlene7% t$at impe"e" t$e intro"u7tion of 'am'oo fi'res as 7omposite reinfor7in materials
for man! !ears $as 'een t$e e<tra7tion of un"amae" lon fi'res, 'ut re7entl!, a ne8 environmental
frien"l! me7$ani7al pro7ess 8as "evelope" '! #& Leuven to pro"u7e $i$ Eualit! lon 'am'oo fi'res
suita'le to 'e use" as a reinfor7ement in pol!meri7 matri7es @2A. In t$is pro7ess, t$e use of $i$
temperature, $i$ pressure or 7$emi7als is avoi"e", re"u7in 'ot$ t$e "amae intro"u7e" to t$e
fi'res an" t$e amount of ener! reEuire" for t$e e<tra7tion of 'am'oo fi'res, 8$ile at t$e same time
as 8ell "e7reasin t$e environmental impa7t of t$e e<tra7tion met$o".
A se7on" "ra8'a7% to8ar"s t$e lare4s7ale in"ustrial appli7ation of 'am'oo fi're 7omposites is t$e
"is7ontinuous stru7ture of t$e 'am'oo fi're 7ulm, as visi'le in fiure ). T$e 'am'oo 7ulm is "ivi"e" in
interno"es, in 8$i7$ t$e reinfor7in fi'res are 8ell aline", an" no"es, 8$ere t$e reinfor7in fi'res
entanle an" 7ontri'ute as su7$ to t$e 'u7%lin strent$ of t$e 7ulm @F4GA . T$is stru7ture, in$erent to
t$e 'am'oo fi're plant, limits t$e e<tra7tion lent$ of t$e reinfor7in 'am'oo fi'res to t$e interno"e
lent$. Dor a (G4mont$4ol" 7ulm, t$e interno"e lent$ of Guadua angustifolia fi'res varies 'et8een )+
an" ,* 7m @FA. T$e fi're "iameter ranes 'et8een H+ an" )*+ Im t$at in 7om'ination 8it$ its $i$
mo"ulus ives a $i$ 'en"in stiffness of t$e fi'res impe"in t$e pro"u7tion of en"less 'am'oo !arns
@FA. T$erefore, an innovative approa7$ to8ar"s t$e use of 7ontinuous 'am'oo fi're material is t$e
"evelopment of a preform of uni"ire7tionall! aline" 'am'oo fi'res t$at 8ill allo8 t$e use of e<istin
te7$nolo! to pro"u7e $i$ performan7e 7omposite parts. T$e pro"u7tion of en"less 'am'oo fi're
preform, 8ill $elp to over7ome t$e a7tual restri7tion of $avin "is7ontinuous fi'res.
Diure )5 Guadua angustifolia 7ulm s$o8in its se7tionin into no"es an" interno"es. In t$e no"es, t$e reinfor7in fi'res are
entanle", 8$ile in t$e interno"es t$e! are severel! aline" @F4GA.
To 'rin t$is to realit!, is t$e aim of t$is 7urrent stu"!3 to perform a s!stemati7 7$ara7teriJation of t$e
effe7t of t$e overlappin lent$ for a set of fi're 'un"les, 'ut also to stu"! t$e influen7e of a 7omplete
ran"omiJe" overlappin patterns of uni"ire7tional sinle fi'res into t$e 7ontinuous perform. T$is
7$ara7teriJation, 'en7$mar%e" 8it$ t$e me7$ani7al 'e$aviour of a full! 7ontinuous &D fi're
7omposite, 8ill s$o8 t$e feasi'ilit! to use $i$l! oriente" "is7ontinuous 'am'oo fi'res in 7ontinuous
preforms t$at 7an 'e applie" in "ifferent e<istin manufa7turin te7$niEues.
"#% Scientific modellin& bac'&round
In t$is paper, t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7s of aline" s$ort4fi're 'am'oo4epo<! 7omposites are
investiate" usin tensile test e<periments. T$e e<perimental results are t$en 7ompare" 8it$ a series
of mo"els t$at allo8 a pre"i7tion of t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7s of t$ese 7omposites. T$e up7omin
pararap$s rall! t$rou$ t$e applie" mo"els to pre"i7t t$e lonitu"inal stiffness an" tensile strent$ of
aline" uni"ire7tional s$ort4fi're 7omposites an" set fort$ t$eir main assumptions.
1.2.1 Prediction of longitudinal stiffness of aligned UD short-fibre composites
T$e rule of mi<tures is t$e simplest me7$ani7al mo"el to estimate t$e properties of a multiple
7omponent s!stem. It estimates t$e 7omposite material properties '! ta%in a volume 8ei$e"
averae of t$e 7orrespon"in properties of t$e in"ivi"ual 7onstituents. 0on7ernin t$e pre"i7tion of
t$e lonitu"inal stiffness of a 7omposite, t$is mo"el assumes t$e presen7e of 7ontinuous aline"
fi'res t$rou$4out t$e entire lent$ of t$e 7omposite. Durt$ermore, it a"apts t$e isostrain assumption
t$at refle7ts t$e ne7essit! t$at planar 7ross4se7tions remain planar "urin loa"in 7on"itions. Appl!in
.oo%eKs la8 an" previous assumptions !iel"s t$e follo8in formula to estimate t$e lonitu"inal
stiffness of a 7omposite5
9-:
T$e s$ear la t$eor! 7onsi"ers a sinle 7!lin"ri7al linear elasti7 an" isotropi7 fi're of finite lent$ Lsf
an" ra"ius rsf t$at is en7ase" in a 7on7entri7 7!lin"ri7al s$ell of linear elasti7, isotropi7 matri< 8it$
ra"ius =m. A uni"imensional stress4state situation is applie" in 8$i7$ t$e matri< tensile strain 'e7omes
eEual to t$e applie" strain 9 : at a ra"ial "istan7e =m from t$e fi're a<is. Durt$ermore, it assumes
t$at t$e fi're a<ial stress vanis$es at t$e fi're en"s an" t$at t$e s$ear for7e is 7onstant at 7on7entri7
7!lin"ri7al surfa7es aroun" t$e fi're @HA. Dull anal!sis of t$e mo"el results in a lent$ "epen"in
mo"ifie" rule of mi<tures, as iven in eEuations )4(.
T$e .alpin4Tsai eEuations are a series of semi4empiri7al eEuations to "etermine t$e "ifferent mo"uli
of 7omposites. Oriinall!, t$e! are "evelope" to pre"i7t t$e entire set of mo"uli of 7ontinuous fi're
7omposites. .o8ever, '! appl!in a num'er of restri7tive assumptions, t$e results 7an 'e e<ten"e"
to8ar"s s$ort4fi're 7omposites. T$e .alpin4Tsai eEuations are "e"u7e" from t$e 8or% of .ermans
an" .ill. T$e! assume a 7omposite in 8$i7$ t$e em'e""e" p$ase 7onsists of 7ontinuous an"
perfe7tl! aline" 7!lin"ri7al fi'res. T$e fi'res are mo"elle" as transversel! isotropi7 an" linearl!
elasti7. T$e matri< p$ase is 7onsi"ere" to 'e linearl! elasti7 an" isotropi7. .ermans anal!ti7all!
esta'lis$es t$e strain fiel" in t$e em'e""e" s!stem un"er an applie" stress '! assumin
"ispla7ement an" stress 7ontinuit! at t$e fi're ra"ius. T$e stress an" strain fiel" are t$en volume
averae" to !iel" one of t$e stiffness tensor terms. /! var!in t$e applie" stress, t$e entire stiffness
tensor 7an t$us 'e "e"u7e". .alpin an" Tsai arue t$at t$ese results 9for t$e 7ontinuous fi're: 7an 'e
8ritten in a more eneral form '! t$e insertion of t8o varia'les, L an" M, an" t8o a""itional
assumptions. T$e first appro<imation !iel"s t$at M is insensitive to t$e matri< Poisson 7oeffi7ient. T$e
se7on", more ina77urate one, states t$at t$e 7omposite 7ontra7tion 7oeffi7ient an" lonitu"inal
stiffness must follo8 t$e rule of mi<tures relations. T$e eneral form is s$o8n in eEuations * an" 2, in
8$i7$ N represents one of t$e 7omposite mo"uli @-+4-)A. EEuation F visualiJes t$e ne7essar!
assumptions.
T$e Mori Tana%a mo"el em'roi"ers on t$e 7on7ept of an eEuivalent in7lusion. In t$is 7ase, an infinite
soli" 'o"! 8it$ stiffness Cm t$at is initiall! in a stress4free state is 7onsi"ere". An in$omoeneous
in7lusion 8it$ "ifferent material properties 7ompare" to t$e soli" 'o"! is t$en intro"u7e" an" t$e
entire s!stem is su'je7te" to a uniforml! applie" strain at infinit! OA. T$e i"ea is to $omoeniJe t$e
in$omoeneous in7lusion '! 7ompensatin for t$e material properties 8it$ t$e intro"u7tion of a virtual
transformation strain t$at lea"s to same stress state in t$e in7lusion. In t$e Mori4Tana%a met$o" t$e
influen7e of multiple in7lusions on t$e strain fiel", 7ompare" to t$e one4in7lusion s!stem, is in7lu"e" in
an imae strain. T$is imae strain is appro<imate" '! its mean value, 8$i7$ is t$e same an!8$ere, in
all t$e in7lusions an" in t$e matri<. T$is mean fiel" assumption implies t$at ea7$ in7lusion onl! feels
t$e presen7e of t$e ot$er in7lusions in"ire7tl! t$rou$ t$e total strain in t$e matri<. To o'tain t$e
$omoeniJe" stiffness of a 7omposite usin t$e Mori4Tana%a met$o", t$e volume averae of t$e
7omposite stresses is re8ritten usin .oo%eKs La8. T$e strains in in7lusions an" matri< are t$en
lin%e" to t$e e<ternall! applie" strain usin strain 7on7entration tensors. T$e mo"el assumes t$at t$e
total "istur'an7e strain in t$e 7omposite s$oul" 'e a'sent, 8$i7$ lea"s to eEuations G4-+, in 8$i7$
represents t$e strain 7on7entration tensor t$at lin%s t$e total strain in t$e in7lusion to t$e applie"
strain. It 7an 'e state" in terms of t$e "ilute strain 7on7entration tensor t$at relates t$e total strain
in t$e in7lusion to t$e averae matri< strain 98$i7$ is t$e sum of t$e applie" strain an" t$e imae
strain: @-,A.
It is remar%e" t$at t$is mo"el a""itionall! assumes t$at fi're an" matri< are linearl! elasti7 an"
perfe7tl! 'on"e" t$rou$ t$e entire "eformation state. T$e matri< is usuall! 7onsi"ere" isotropi7,
8$ereas t$e fi'res are mo"elle" as transversel! isotropi7. T$e Mori4Tana%a aloritm "oes not "epen"
on t$e siJe of t$e in7lusion, nor on t$eir positional 7oor"inates. It "oes "epen" on s$ape an"
orientation of t$e in7lusions, as 8ell as t$eir volume fra7tion @-,A.
1.2.2 Prediction of longitudinal tensile strength of aligned UD short-fibre composites
T$e rule of mi<tures applies t$e iso4strain assumption, in"i7atin t$at t$e 7omponent 8it$ t$e lo8est
'rea%ae strain 8ill fail first. >in7e 'am'oo fi'res, utiliJe" in t$is resear7$, are more 'rittle t$an t$e
epo<! matri< an" sin7e t$e pro"u7e" 7omposites 7ontain $i$ fi're volume fra7tions, t$e! 8ill 'rea% at
t$e 'rea%ae strain of t$e fi'res, re"u7in t$e rule of mi<tures to eEuation --, in 8$i7$ in"i7ates
t$e lonitu"inal fi're tensile strent$, t$e lonitu"inal tensile stress in t$e matri< at fi're failure an"
Vf an" Vm t$e volume fra7tions of respe7tivel! fi're an" matri< T$is e<planation furt$er assumes t$at
t$e stress 7on7entration aroun" one 'ro%en fi're initiates an avalan7$e of ot$er fi're failures 9at t$e
same strain: an" t$at no me7$anisms of 7ra7% propaation "e7eleration are present.
T$e #ell!4T!son mo"el is 'ase" on t$e s$ear la t$eor! an" t$erefore puts fort$ t$e same
assumptions as previousl! "es7ri'e" in pararap$ -.).-. It em'roi"ers on t$e intera7tion 'et8een
a<ial tensile stresses in t$e fi're an" s$ear stresses at t$e interfa7e of t$e fi're. T$e #ell!4T!son
mo"el furt$er assumes interfa7e failure to o77ur first an" mo"els t$e s$ear stress at t$e interfa7e as a
7onstant in t$e "e'on"e" or !iel"e" area @-(A. /! intro"u7in t$e 7riti7al aspe7t ratio >7 as t$e
smallest fi're aspe7t ratio at 8$i7$ t$e a<ial fi're tensile stress 7an just rea7$ t$e fi're strent$ an"
'! assumin t$at fra7ture o77urs 8$en t$e a<ial fi're tensile stress rea7$es t$e fi're strent$, t$e
7omposite strent$ is "etermine" as state" in eEuation -).
T$e lo'al loa" s$arin mo"el 9PL>:, invente" '! 0urtin, in7orporates statisti7s in t$e estimation of
7omposite tensile strent$. T$e mo"el 'uil"s furt$er on t$e pioneerin 8or% of Wei'ull, 8$o "e"u7e"
a semi4empiri7al e<pression for t$e strent$ "istri'ution of 'rittle materials 'ase" on a 7$ain4of4lin%s
s!stem, an" =osen, 8$o intro"u7e" t$e 8ea%est4lin% t$eor! in t$e pre"i7tion of t$e tensile strent$ of
fi're reinfor7e" plasti7s. 0urtin mo"ifies =osenKs 7$ain4of4'un"les i"ea '! a77ountin for loa"
7ontri'utions of 'ro%en fi'res. .e arues t$at stress re7over! o77urs in t$e ineffe7tive lent$ "ue to
t$e presen7e of a presume" 7onstant interfa7ial s$ear stress. In $is mo"el, t$e ineffe7tive lent$ is
7al7ulate" usin t$e #ell!4T!son appro<imations, lea"in to eEuation -, for t$e lonitu"inal tensile
strent$ of 7omposites @-*4-FA.
T$e lo7al loa" s$arin 9LL>: mo"el "eroutes from t$e intention to pre"i7t t$e 7omposite tensile
strent$ in an anal!ti7al 8a!. It in7orporates matri< s$ear loa"in to re4"istri'ute t$e applie" loa"
'et8een a"ja7ent fi'res an" t$erefore 7an a77ount more a77uratel! for fi're 'rea%aes. &suall!, a
sprin element mo"el is 7onsi"ere" in 8$i7$ t$e fi're is represente" '! a<ial sprins in t$e
lonitu"inal "ire7tion an" t$e matri< '! s$ear sprins in t$e transverse "ire7tion. Ea7$ of t$e sprin
elements is assine" a stiffness matri<. >trent$ variation is in7lu"e" t$rou$ a Wei'ull "istri'ution. At
ea7$ strain in7rement, t$e stresses in t$e sprins are 7ompare" to t$e fi're strent$. If t$e fi're
strent$ is e<7ee"e", t$e sprin element stiffness is remove" an" a stress re4"istri'ution is
performe". At ea7$ step t$e normaliJe" 7omposite stress is also 7al7ulate". T$is iterative s7$eme is
repeate" until t$e relative "ifferen7e in t8o su'seEuent 7omposite stress values is larer t$an a pre4
set value. Monte 0arlo simulation is t$en performe" an" t$e 7omposite strent$ is ta%en as t$e
averae of t$e simulate" values @-GA.
%# (AT)RIA*S AN ()T+OS
/am'oo 7ulms 9Guadua angustifolia: are e<tra7te" from a t!pi7al 'am'oo plantation in 0olom'ia,
spe7ifi7all! from t$e 0offee =eion, at -.,++ meters a'ove sea level. Te7$ni7al fi'res are e<tra7te"
from t$e 'am'oo 7ulms usin a me7$ani7al e<tra7tion pro7ess t$at neit$er uses 7$emi7als nor $i$
temperature. T$e ma<imum lent$ of t$e e<tra7te" fi'res is t$e interno"e lent$, 8$i7$ for (G mont$
7ulms is reporte" to 'e 'et8een )+ an" ,* 7m. T$e fi're "iameter ranes 'et8een H+ an" )G+ Qm.
T$e 'am'oo fi'res are la!er48ise positione" in a uni"ire7tional 8a! in a 7$annel of pre"efine"
"imensions 9)G<)7m:. In a first stae, "is7ontinuities in t$e fi're preform are intro"u7e" '! t$e
appli7ation of a repetitive series of slits over $alf t$e 8i"t$ of ea7$ la!er. T$e lent$ 'et8een t8o $alf4
8i"t$ slits oriinatin at t$e same si"e 8it$in one la!er is referre" to as t$e slit lent$ an" fi<e" at
*7m. >u'seEuentl!, a series of slits of 8$i7$ t$e initial position is s$ifte" over a 7ertain lent$, referre"
to as t$e overlappin lent$ 9LO:, are applie" 8it$in t$e same la!er, 'ut to8ar" t$e ot$er si"e. T$e
overlappin lent$ is varie" as a fun7tion of t$e slit lent$ an" ta%es on t$e values of +.*, -.* an"
).*7m respe7tivel!. Dor ea7$ sta7%in la!er, t$e initial position of all t$e slits is s$ifte" '! $alf a slit
lent$ 9L>: in or"er to re"u7e stress 7on7entrations. ?o slits are inserte" in t$e 7lamp area. T$e entire
pattern 7onstru7tion is visi'le in fiure ,.
Diure ,5 T$e e<planation of t$e inversion s!mmetr! t$at e<ists 'et8een a"ja7ent fi're assem'lies. T$e left4$an" si"e of t$e
fiure s$o8s t$e upper vie8 of t$e alternatin fi're assem'lies. T$e 7uts t$at are ma"e in one of t$e assem'lies are also ma"e
in t$e nei$'ourin assem'lies, 'ut from t$e ot$er e"e on. T$e ri$t part reveals t$e lateral vie8 of t$e 7omposite. >oli"
!ello8 lines in"i7ate t$at t$e fi're 7ut is ma"e to t$e vie8erKs si"e. Dotte" !ello8 lines represent fi're 7uts to t$e 'a7% of t$e
7omposite.
In a se7on" stae, t$e effe7t of t$e slits is re"u7e" '! re"u7in t$e 7uttin lent$ to one fift$ of t$e
7omposite 8i"t$ an" '! ran"omiJin t$e overlappin lent$ 'et8een "ifferent fi're 'un"les. To
esta'lis$ su7$ a 7onfiuration, a ran"om num'er enerator 9=?P: is as%e" to pro"u7e a 7olle7tion of
)+ num'ers in 'et8een + an" )*+. T$e en" value of t$e =?P e<presses t$e lent$ "imension of t$e
fi're in mm, as iven '! t$e A>TM stan"ar". T$e applie" ran"om num'er enerator ma%es use of t$e
ran"om variation in atmosp$eri7al noise to 'rin fort$ t$e "esire" set of values. T$e values are lin%e"
to t$e fi're 'un"les in t$e or"er t$e! are enerate", startin from t$e 'ottom 8all of t$e moul"
7$annel an" 7ontinuin until a fi're la!er is 7ompletel! fille". T$is num'erin seEuen7e is visualiJe"
8it$ re" in"i7es for t$e 'ottom fi're assem'l! in fiure (. T$e 7olle7tion of =?P values e<presses t$e
"istan7e 'et8een t$e 7uts an" t$e left si"e of t$e fi're 'un"les. To avoi" 'rea%ae of t$e 7omposite
samples in t$e 7lampe" area "urin tensile testin, values t$at are lo7ate" 'et8een t$e interval @+,*+A
are s$ifte" *+mm to t$e ri$t an" values 8it$in t$e interval @)++,)*+A are s$ifte" -++mm to t$e left.
Diure (5 >7$emati7 7larifi7ation of t$e lin%in pro7e"ure to relate t$e =?P4values to t$e fi're 7uts in ea7$ assem'l!. T$e
seEuen7e is s$o8n for t$e first , =?P4values. To $i$lit$ t$e 7uts, t$e remainin si"e fi're 'un"les are not "epi7te".
In a t$ir" stae, t$e s$ort fi're 'un"les are repla7e" '! 7ut in"ivi"ual te7$ni7al 'am'oo fi'res. T$ese
s$ort 'am'oo fi'res are ran"oml! pla7e" in t$e 7$annel a77or"in to t$e ran"omiJation seEuen7e of
fiure (.
T$e resin s!stem use" in t$is master t$esis 7onsists of an Epi%ote G)G LVEL epo<! resin an" a
DRTE# D0.4HH "iamino7!7lo$e<ane $ar"ener in a mass ratio of *++BF2. T$is resin s!stem reEuires a
7urin temperature of F+S0 for an $our an" an a""itional post47urin step at -*+S0 for an $our. T$e
mass Euantities of ea7$ 7onstituent are measure" usin a Mettler PJ(+++ 8it$ an a77ura7! of -. To
$omoeniJe t$e resin s!stem, a F+W #i%a La'orte7$ni% =W )+.n mi<in element 8it$ an operational
velo7it! of (++rotationsBmin is applie" "urin -+minutes. As t$is mi<in element intro"u7es air 'u''les
in t$e resin s!stem, t$e resin s!stem is put in a -.2%W .eraeus VT2+2+M "eassin ma7$ine for a
perio" of time of )*minutes. >amples are pro"u7in usin va7uum infusion 8it$ a top plate to 7ontrol
t$e t$i7%ness.
Tensile test samples are prepare" a77or"in to A>TM D,+,H. Measurements are 7arrie" out usin an
Instron ((2F 8it$ a loa" 7ell of ,+%?. T$e 7ross$ea" spee" is )mmBmin. T$e "imensions of t$e
spe7imens are )*+<)*<)mm. T$e samples are me7$ani7all! 7lampe". >an" paper is inserte"
'et8een t$e 7lamps an" t$e samples to prevent slippae. T$e aue lent$ is set at -*+mm. An
Instron t!pe )2)+42+( e<tensometer 8it$ a aue lent$ of )*mm is use" to a77uratel! measure
"ispla7ement "ata. Data is at$ere" at a samplin rate of -+pointsBse7on". Dor ever! test
7onfiuration, 2 samples are teste".
,# R)S!*TS AN ISC!SSION
,#" ! continuous fibre composites
T$e results of t$e tensile tests performe" on t$e 7ontinuous fi're 7omposite samples are "epi7te" in
ta'le ). T$is ta'le reveals t$at t$e e<perimental values respe7tivel! rea7$ H)T an" FHT of t$e
lonitu"inal tensile stiffness an" strent$ as o'taine" usin t$e rule of mi<tures, 8$i7$ assumes a
perfe7t 7omposite.
Ta'le )5 =esults of t$e tensile test of t$e uni"ire7tional 7ontinuous fi're 7omposites. T$e effi7ien7! fa7tor is 7al7ulate" as t$e
ratio 'et8een t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7 of t$e sample an" t$e same 7$ara7teristi7 as 7al7ulate" usin t$e rule of mi<tures
at t$e same volume fra7tion. T$e results are iven 8it$ a representative volume fra7tion of (+T.
Mechanical characteristic Efciency
factor (%)
Average value
Longitudinal stifness (GPa) 92.3 6.4 17.6 1.4
Longitudinal tensile strength (MPa) 78.9 4.6 222. 13.!
"train at #rea$age (%) % 1.4 !.2
T$e fra7ture plane is e<amine" usin >EM at se7on"ar! ele7tron mo"e 8it$ an applie" voltae of )%V
to avoi" 7$arin of t$e sample. T$e result is "epi7te" in fiure *. T$e left4$an" si"e of fiure *
in"i7ates a 'rittle fra7ture. It reveals t$at 7ra7%s mostl! propaate in t$e same 7ross4se7tion, 7uttin
t$e fi'res alon its 8a!. T$is points out t$at a stron fi're4matri< interfa7e is present an" t$at t$e resin
imprenates t$e fi'res ver! 8ell, 8$i7$ is as 8ell atteste" '! t$e resin fille" lumen on t$e ri$t4$an"
si"e of fiure *. It is also visi'le from fiure * t$at t$ere is a oo" "ispersion of t$e fi'res. T$e la!er4
8ise 7onstru7tion of t$e 7omposite is not refle7te" in t$e final 7onfiuration.
Diure *5 >EM4 o'servations of t$e fra7ture plane of 7ontinuous fi're 7omposites after tensile testin. T$e left4$an" si"e ives
an overvie8 of t$e 'rittle fra7ture. T$e ri$t4$an" si"e reveals t$e presen7e of paren7$!ma 7ells an" provi"es evi"en7e of t$e
prematurit! of t$e 'am'oo fi'res t$rou$ t$e presen7e of an unusuall! lare, resin4fille" lumen 7$annel.
,#% ! discontinuous fibre bundle composites -ith fixed o.erlappin& len&th
T$e results of t$e tensile tests, performe" on &D4"is7ontinuous 7omposites in 8$i7$ t$e overlappin
lent$ is fi<e", are iven in ta'le ,.
Ta'le ,5 =esults of t$e tensile tests of t$e "is7ontinuous fi're 'un"le 7omposites 8it$ fi<e" overlappin lent$. T$e effi7ien7!
fa7tor is 7al7ulate" as t$e ratio 'et8een t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7 of t$e sample an" t$e same 7$ara7teristi7 as 7al7ulate"
usin t$e rule of mi<tures at t$e same volume fra7tion. * T$e results are iven 8it$ a representative volume fra7tion of (+T.
L
O
=50% L
O
=30% L
O
=10%
Mechanical
characteristi
c
Efciency
factor (%)
Averag
e
value
Efcien
cy
factor
(%)
Averag
e
value
Efciency
factor (%)
Average
value
Longitudinal
tensile
stifness (GPa)
91.1.1
16.2.
2
89.87.
7
16.91.

86.67.8 16.31.
Longitudinal
tensile
strength
(MPa)
28.94.9
81.613
.2
28.34.
2
79.911
.9
3!.!6.
84.618.
2
"train at
#rea$age (%)
% !.!.1 % !.!.1 % !.!.1
As e<pe7te", t$e intro"u7tion of slits seriousl! re"u7es t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7s of t$e
7omposite samples. T$e strent$ is almost 'ise7te" 8it$ t$e insertion of t$ese 8ea% points an" t$e
effi7ien7! fa7tor "rops to appro<imatel! ,+T. T$e strain falls 'a7% from appro<imatel! -.)T to onl!
+.*T. It is arue" t$at t$e intro"u7tion of t$ese slits results in t$e presen7e of a matri< enri7$e" area
in t$e 7omposite, as visi'le in fiure 2. T$e appli7ation of a tensile for7e pro"u7es intensive stress
7on7entrations aroun" t$e "is7ontinuous fi're 'un"les. T$ese stress 7on7entrations eventuall! result
in s$ear !iel"in of t$e matri< an" trier 7ra7% initiation. T$e initiation of multiple tin! 7ra7%s in t$e
"ifferent resin ri7$ Jones is propose". In one of t$e matri< enri7$e" areas, several tin! voi"s
7oales7en7e to form a 7riti7al 7ra7%. T$e stress sinularities at t$e tip of t$is 7riti7al 7ra7% are initiall!
re"u7e" "ue to plasti7 !iel"in of t$e matri<. .o8ever, t$e limite" "u7tilit! of t$e epo<! resin fa7ilitates
7ra7% propaation.
Diure 25 T$e left4$an" si"e s$o8s t$e presen7e of resin4ri7$ Jones in t$e fi're slit of a &D4"is7ontinuous 7omposite 8it$
LOU,+T, o'serve" '! >EM. T$e la!er48ise 7onstru7tion seems visi'le. It is note" t$at 'elo8 t$e t$i7% resin Jone in t$e mi""le,
t$e fi're 'un"les are still present. T$e ri$t4$an" si"e in"i7ates t$e 'rittle fra7ture, a77elerate" '! t$e slit presen7e, of a t!pi7al
"is7ontinuous &D 'am'oo fi're 7omposites.
,#, ! discontinuous fibre bundle composites -ith random o.erlappin& len&th
T$e results of t$e tensile tests, performe" on &D4"is7ontinuous 7omposites 8it$ ran"om overlappin
lent$, are iven in ta'le (. As 7ompare" to t$e 7omposites 8it$ fi<e" overlappin lent$, t$e
re"u7tion of t$e slit 8i"t$ an" t$e ran"omiJation of t$e overlap allo8 an in7rease in effi7ien7! fa7tor '!
V*T for t$e lonitu"inal tensile strent$. >EM o'servation $o8ever points out a similar fra7ture
p$enomenon as iven in t$e previous pararap$. T$is in"i7ates t$at t$e slit 8i"t$ still a7ts as a 7ra7%
initiator lea"in to premature failure of t$e samples.
Ta'le (5 =esults of t$e tensile tests of t$e "is7ontinuous fi're 'un"le 7omposites 8it$ ran"om overlappin lent$. T$e effi7ien7!
fa7tor is 7al7ulate" as t$e ratio 'et8een t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7 of t$e sample an" t$e same 7$ara7teristi7 as 7al7ulate"
usin t$e rule of mi<tures at t$e same volume fra7tion. * T$e results are iven 8it$ a representative volume fra7tion of (+T.
Mechanical
characteristic
Efciency
factor (%)
Average value
Longitudinal stifness
(GPa)
89.3 .2 16.8 1.!
Longitudinal tensile
strength (MPa)
3. 6.3 1!!.1 17.8
"train at #rea$age (%) % !.7 !.1
,#/ ! discontinuous fibre composites -ith random o.erlappin& len&th
T$e latter set of e<periments is "esine" to full! remove t$e 7ra7% initiator effe7t of t$e slits. T$e
results of t$e tensile tests, performe" on &D4"is7ontinuous 7omposites 8it$ ran"om overlappin
lent$, are iven in ta'le *.
Ta'le *5 =esults of t$e tensile tests of t$e "is7ontinuous fi're 7omposites 8it$ ran"om overlappin lent$. T$e effi7ien7! fa7tor
is 7al7ulate" as t$e ratio 'et8een t$e me7$ani7al 7$ara7teristi7 of t$e sample an" t$e same 7$ara7teristi7 as 7al7ulate" usin
t$e rule of mi<tures at t$e same volume fra7tion. * T$e results are iven 8it$ a representative volume fra7tion of (+T.
Mechanical
characteristic
Efciency
factor (%)
Average value
Longitudinal stifness
(GPa)
9!.1 4.6 17.2 !.8
Longitudinal tensile
strength (MPa)
63.7 3.8 19!.9 2!.8
"train at #rea$age (%) % !.83 !.!3
T$ese results 7learl! postulate t$at ran"omiJation of t$e "is7ontinuities in 'am'oo fi're 7omposites is
a"amant to utiliJe t$e oo" me7$ani7al properties of t$e fi'res. Intro"u7tion of ran"omiJe"
"is7ontinuities lea"s to a preservation of G*T of t$e lonitu"inal tensile strent$ of a 7ontinuous
uni"ire7tional 'am'oo fi're epo<! 7omposite. /! var!in t$e fi're en"s over t$e lent$ of t$e
sample, t$e overall stress fiel"s surroun"in t$e "is7ontinuities are e<pe7te" to 'e sinifi7antl!
re"u7e", "e7eleratin as su7$ t$e initiation of 7ra7%s. T$e lonitu"inal tensile testin spe7imen
still e<$i'it a 'rittle fra7ture, 'ut t$e 7ross4se7tional plane of fra7ture is s7attere" more ran"oml!
alon t$e lent$ of t$e samples, in"i7atin t$at t$e 7ontri'ution of t$e a""itive stress
7on7entrations, in"u7e" '! t$e appli7ation of "is7ontinuous en"s, in"ee" is rat$er small.
,#0 CO(1ARISON O2 T+) T)NSI*) T)ST R)S!*TS 3IT+ (O)*S
3.5.1 Stiffness comparison
In t$is pararap$, t$e lonitu"inal stiffness of t$e 7omposites 8it$ a fi<e" overlappin lent$ is
7ompare" 8it$ t$e pre"i7tions of several mo"els. T$e 7$osen mo"els are t$e rule of mi<tures,
t$e s$ear la t$eor!, t$e Mori4Tana%a mo"el an" t$e .alpin4tsai eEuations. T$e results of t$e
7omparative s7$eme are iven in ta'le 2. As no statisti7al "ifferen7e is "ete7te" 'et8een t$e
lonitu"inal stiffness of t$e "is7ontinuous 7omposites, t$e results of t$e "ifferent overlappin
"istan7es are 7om'ine" to !iel" an appro<imate" averae.
Ta'le 25 0omparison of t$e lonitu"inal stiffness of 7omposites 8it$ a fi<e" overlappin lent$ 8it$ t$e pre"i7tions of several
mo"els. As t$ere are no sinifi7ant "ifferen7es 'et8een t$e lonitu"inal stiffness of t$e "is7ontinuous 7omposites, t$eir results
are 7om'ine" to !iel" an appro<imate averae. T$e ta'le in"i7ates t$at t$e .alpin4Tsai eEuations ive t$e 'est estimation.
Mechanical
characteris
tic
E!"eri#ental
average
$ule of
Mi!ture
s
%hear
lag
theory
Mori&
'ana(a
#o)el
*al"in&
'sai
e+uatio
n
Longitudinal
tensile
stifness
(GPa)
16.7 1.7 18.8 18.6 18.9 17.2
Ta'le 2 reveals t$at t$e semi4empiri7al .alpin4Tsai eEuation ives t$e 'est estimation of t$e
lonitu"inal tensile stiffness of t$e "is7ontinuous 'am'oo fi're reinfor7e" epo<! 7omposites. T$e
parameter t$at refle7ts t$e eometri7al pa7%in of t$e reinfor7in fi'res 9M: is set at t8o times t$e
aspe7t ratio of t$e fi'res. T$is !iel"s a value of F2.H. T$e remainin misfit is attri'ute" to an
in"u7e" misalinment in t$e 7omposite preparation step.
T$e rule of mi<tures ives a relativel! lare over4pre"i7tion of t$e lonitu"inal stiffness of t$e
"is7ontinuous 7omposites. T$is is allo7ate" to t$e lare simplifi7ation, set fort$ in t$is mo"el, '!
assumin t$e fi'res to 'e infinitel! lon an" appl!in t$e iso4strain 7on"ition.
T$e s$ear la t$eor! overt$ro8s t$e fi're 7ontinuit! ne7essit! an" a77ounts for a stress re7over!
Jone at t$e e"es of t$e s$ort fi're t$at re"u7es t$e averae a<ial stress 9an" stiffness:. T$is
results in a sli$tl! 'etter appro<imation of t$e lonitu"inal stiffness. It assumes $o8ever t$at t$e
fi'res 7an 'e mo"elle" to fit t$e 7!lin"ri7al s$ape. /am'oo fi'res "o not satisf! t$is reEuirement.
T$e $!pot$esis t$at t$e s$ear for7e is 7onstant at 7on7entri7 surfa7es aroun" t$e fi're "oes not
onl! "epen" on ra"ial 7oor"inates, 'ut also on t$e anular position. T$e entire "erivation
t$erefore nee"s an a"aptation to fit t$e eometri7al s$ape of t$e 'am'oo fi're.
T$e appli7ation of t$e Mori4Tana%a mo"el reEuires %no8le"e of t$e "ifferent enineerin 7onstants
t$at set up t$e stiffness or 7omplian7e matri<. 0onsi"erin t$e 'am'oo fi'res as transversel!
isotropi7 an" t$e epo<! matri< as isotropi7, a total of G enineerin 7onstants are reEuire".
.o8ever, t$e ne7essar! transverse stiffness an" Poisson ratioKs for 'am'oo fi'res are un%no8n.
To surpass t$is o'sta7le, t$e 'am'oo fi'res are also assume" to 'e isotropi7 8it$ a fi<e"
Poisson ratio of +.,. T$e result of ta'le 2 reveals t$at t$e nelien7e of t$e anisotropi7 'e$aviour
is unjustifie".
3.5.2 Strength comparison
3.5.2.1 Adaptation of the local load sharing model
T$e lo7al loa" s$arin mo"el implements intera7tions 'et8een a"ja7ent fi'res t$at lea" to a stress re4
"istri'ution t$rou$ t$e appli7ation of matri< s$ear sprin elements. T$e oriinal mo"el onl!
allo8s t$e pre"i7tion of t$e tensile strent$ of 7ontinuous fi're 7omposites. Wit$ ea7$ strain
in7rement, t$e resultin tensile stresses in t$e a<ial fi're sprin elements are 7ompare" to t$e
fi're strent$. If t$e fi're strent$ is e<7ee"e", t$e fi're sprin element is remove" from t$e
s!stem, simulatin a 'ro%en fi're. .o8ever, it is remar%e" t$at, in previous 7onsi"erations, t$e
7ontinuous fi're 7omposite a7tuall! 'e$aves as a "is7ontinuous one on7e multiple a<ial fi're
sprin elements are remove" from t$e s!stem at in7remente" strains. T$is %no8le"e t$rives t$e
reformulation of t$e oriinal 7on7ept in or"er to implement t$e "is7ontinuities as 'ro%en a<ial
fi're sprin elements at an initial strain in7rement. To avoi" numeri7al insta'ilities, t$e strent$ of
ea7$ of t$e slit elements is re"u7e" to H*-+4HMPa. T$e value of t$e matri< s$ear sprin element
stiffness is "etermine" '! fittin t$e simulate" averae tensile strent$ of t$e 7ontinuous
7omposite 8it$ t$e e<perimental values. T$e simulations are repeate" ten times to allo8
statisti7al variations. T$e list of intro"u7e" parameters in t$e lo7al loa" s$arin mo"el is iven '!
ta'le F.
Ta'le F5 Overvie8 of t$e "ifferent parameters t$at are initiall! set in t$e 7al7ulation of t$e tensile strent$ usin t$e lo7al loa"
s$arin mo"el.
.
,ara#eter -alue ,ara#eter
-alu
e
&i#re 'oung(s )odulus (GPa) 43 Matri* 'oung(s )odulus (GPa) 2.73
&i#re radius (+)) 8! ,olu)e -ra.tion (/) 4!
0ei#ull s.aling 1ara)eter
(MPa)
492 2o)1osite length ())) 1!
0ei#ull )odulus (%) 2.2
3fe.ti4e )atri* shear 5ield stress
(GPa)
32
Length o- 0ei#ull
1ara)eters ()))
1!! Length o- 6#re ele)ent ())) 1
3.5.2.2 Discussion of the different modelling results
In t$is se7tion, several of t$e "is7usse" mo"els are a"ministere" to pre"i7t t$e tensile strent$ of t$e
'am'oo4epo<! s$ort4fi're 7omposite. T$e results of t$ese mo"els are visualiJe" in ta'le G. T$is ta'le
"istinuis$es 'et8een t$e mo"els t$at are fit to in7orporate t$e propose" overlappin pattern. T$e
results of t$e 7ontinuous fi're 7omposites are iven as a referen7e.
Ta'le G5 Overvie8 of t$e "ifferent mo"ellin attempts to pre"i7t t$e tensile strent$ of 'am'oo4epo<! uni"ire7tional s$ort4fi're
7omposites. T$e e<perimental results are also in7lu"e" as a 7omparison. It is remar%e" t$at t$e oo" 7orrespon"en7e 'et8een
t$e tensile strent$ of t$e 7ontinuous fi're 7omposite, 7al7ulate" 8it$ LL> simulations, an" t$e e<perimental results is "ue to
t$e fittin of t$e stiffness of t$e matri< s$ear sprin elements.
A""lie)
#o)el (
)
./
continuo
us
co#"osit
es
./ )iscontinuous 01re 1un)le
co#"osites
./
)iscontinuo
us 01re
co#"osites
L
O
=10
%
L
O
=30
%
L
O
=50
%
L
O
=ran)o
#
ran)o#
3*1eri)en
tal
222.
13.!
84.6
18.2
79.9
11.9
81.6
13.2
1!!.1
17.8
19!.9 2!.8
7oM 262.9
8ell59:5son 248.6 2!.8
GL" 131.8
LL"
219.3
14.
96.3
11.7
98.1
14.
9.7
13.8
12.7
19.6
213 1.8
Alt$ou$ most of t$e anal!ti7al mo"els manae to pre"i7t t$e lonitu"inal tensile strent$ of
7ontinuous 'am'oo fi're epo<! 7omposite 8it$in a reasona'le "eree of 7ertaint!, t$e! all fail to
a77uratel! pre"i7t t$e lonitu"inal tensile strent$ of "is7ontinuous samples. T$ere are several
sour7es of ina77ura7! for t$at, nevert$eless, t$e main reason is t$e impossi'ilit! to in7lu"e in t$e
mentione" mo"els 7ertain parameters, su7$ as5 t$e statisti7al variation of t$e fi're stiffness, t$e
in7orre7t assumption of t$e ineffe7tive lent$ in 8$i7$ stress re7over! ta%es pla7e, t$e intro"u7tion of
a77urate Wei'ull parameters an" t$e impossi'ilit! to in7orporate stress re"istri'ution from t$e 'ro%en
fi're to t$e a"ja7ent fi'res. All t$ese parameters seem to $ave an important 7ontri'ution on t$e
pre"i7tion of t$e lonitu"inal tensile strent$ of t$e 7omposites.
A numeri7al met$o" appears to 'e ne7essar! to pre"i7t t$e tensile strent$ of "is7ontinuous
7omposites 8it$ suffi7ient a77ura7!. T$e lo7al loa" s$arin mo"el allo8s t$e "istri'ution of t$e applie"
loa" 'et8een a"ja7ent fi'res '! t$e insertion of matri< s$ear sprin elements. T$e implementation of
t$e "ifferent patterns in numeri7al 7o"e $as 'een a""resse" in t$e previous se7tion. T$e mo"ifie"
lo7al loa" s$arin mo"el is a'le to pre"i7t t$e 7omposite tensile strent$ 8it$in an error marin of
-*T. T$ese "ifferen7es are a77ounte" to a re"u7e" s$ear !iel" stress upon in7rease" loa"in. T$e
loa" transfer to a"ja7ent fi'res is in7orporate" '! t$e presen7e of matri< s$ear sprin elements. T$e
lo7al loa" s$arin mo"el assins a 7onstant stiffness value to t$ese sprin elements, 8$ile
e<perimental results s$o8 a "e7rease of t$e s$ear !iel" stress upon in7rease" loa"in. A""itional
errors ma! also 'e e<plaine" '! t$e insertion of in7orre7t Wei'ull parameters.
CONC*!SION
/e7ause of $i$ lonitu"inal tensile strent$ an" lo8 8ei$t, 'am'oo fi're reinfor7e" epo<!
7omposites s$o8 $i$ potential to in"ustriall! su'stitute lass fi're 7omposites. T$e in"ustrial s7ale4
up of lare 'am'oo fi're 7omposites reEuires t$e invention of a pro7essin te7$niEue to "iminis$ t$e
effe7t of t$e "is7ontinuous 7$ara7ter of 'am'oo fi'res, in$erent to t$e 'am'oo 7ulm 7omposition.
T$rou$ an optimiJe" pro"u7tion met$o", t$e insertion of slits t$at lo8er t$e lonitu"inal tensile
strent$ '! more t$an 2+T is avoi"e". T$e full ran"omiJation of "is7ontinuous fi'res is a7$ieva'le,
re"u7in t$e lonitu"inal tensile strent$ '! onl! -*T. Durt$ermore, a lo7al loa" s$arin mo"el is
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