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Single storey industrial buildings

Single storey buildings are by far the largest sector of the UK structural steelwork market,
representing nearly two thirds of total activity. These buildings are typically used for
workshops, factories, industrial and distribution warehouses and retail and leisure. Referred to
colloquially as sheds, sizes vary from small workshops of just a few thousand square feet up
to distribution warehouses covering over one million square feet.
Steel dominates this sector with a market share in excess of 90%. Whilst most single-storey
buildings are relatively straightforward building projects, increasing levels of specialisation
by steelwork contractors and other supply chain members have, in recent years, led to huge
improvements in quality, cost and delivery performance of single-storey steel buildings.
These improvements have been achieved through increasingly efficient use of the portal
frame by design-and-build steelwork contractors, improved project planning, and active
supply chain management by main contractors.
This article deals specifically with single storey industrial buildings. Single storey buildings in
other sectors are addressed in other articles, e.g. retail and leisure.
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Contents
[hide]
1 Attributes of steel construction
o 1.1 Speed of construction
o 1.2 Flexibility and adaptability
o 1.3 Maintenance
o 1.4 Resource efficient design
o 1.5 Sustainability
Aggreko facility, Scotland
G. Park Blue Planet,
Newcastle-under-Lyme
Tesco distribution centre,
Reading
Recycled paper mill,
Partington
ProLogis Park, Bradford
Manufacturing Technology
Centre, Coventry
Bolton IVC Plant
McLaren Production
Centre, Woking
West Burton Power Station
Energy from waste facility,
La Collette, Jersey
Siemens Facility, Lincoln
(Video case study)
Sainsburys distribution
centre, Basingstoke
Guinness, Dublin, New
Brewhouse
Essex Mechanical
Biological Treatment
Facility, Basildon
Great Island Power Station,
Wexford

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o 1.6 Value for money
2 Anatomy of typical single storey building
o 2.1 Framing options
o 2.2 Geometry and layout
o 2.3 Secondary steelwork
o 2.4 Envelope
o 2.5 Floor slabs
o 2.6 Office areas
o 2.7 Mezzanines
3 Forms of construction
o 3.1 Choice of building form
o 3.2 Types of portal frame
o 3.3 Lattice structures
o 3.4 Suspended structures
4 Design
o 4.1 Design concept
o 4.2 Frame choice
o 4.3 Structural design
o 4.4 Interdependence of frames and envelopes
o 4.5 Operational energy performance
o 4.6 Service integration
o 4.7 Roof drainage systems
o 4.8 Floors and foundations
o 4.9 Connection details
o 4.10 Fire Safety
o 4.11 Sustainability
4.11.1 Operational energy use in single storey industrial buildings
4.11.2 BREEAM for industrial buildings
5 Construction
o 5.1 Lead-in times
o 5.2 Site erection periods
o 5.3 Safe site erection
o 5.4 Envelope erection
6 Procurement
o 6.1 Design & Build
o 6.2 Traditional
o 6.3 Project management
o 6.4 Early involvement of the supply chain
o 6.5 Selection of the supply chain
o 6.6 Achieving collaborative working
o 6.7 Achieving commitment
7 Case studies
8 References
9 Further reading
10 Resources
11 See also
12 External links
13 CPD
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Attributes of steel construction
Main articles: The case for steel, Sustainability, Cost of structural steelwork, Cost planning
Industrial buildings

Co-op distribution centre, Andover
(Image courtesy of Atlas Ward Structures Ltd)
All clients commissioning buildings have a business case for doing so; they may be building
it for their own use, to rent out, as an investment or to sell on. Although industrial buildings
are one of the least complicated building forms, there are several criteria which can affect the
value that the building brings to the clients and users alike. The attributes of steel construction
are routinely used to optimise the business case for single-storey buildings.

Speed of construction

Prefabricated components are easily and rapidly connected onsite
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Early return on investment is particularly important for retail and logistics companies and
therefore speed of construction is vital. This can affect the design in many ways that are
perhaps not immediately apparent. For example:
The layout and components can be designed so that parallel rather than sequential
construction can take place
Interfaces between trades need to be minimised
Collaborative discussion between trades will be needed to ensure that, whatever is
decided, all aspects of construction can proceed quickly and safely.

Structural steel components are pre-fabricated off-site by a steelwork contractor; any
protective coatings that are required can be applied at this stage. Site activity is primarily an
assembly operation, bolting steelwork parts together, which leads to short construction
programmes. The building can be made weathertight quickly, allowing the following on
trades early access to commence their work.

Flexibility and adaptability

Slender construction takes up less space and results in transparent buildings
Change is now a fact of life for most UK businesses, with the likelihood of substantial
evolution in the activities undertaken within their premises during their design lives. The long
spans and minimal use of internal columns that are easily and cost effectively achieved with
steel construction offer the maximum opportunity for the building to be able to accommodate
change efficiently.
Steel buildings can be easily modified, strengthened and extended. The facility to extend the
structure at some future stage can be incorporated into the original design and construction
details. The external envelope maybe renewed, upgraded or modified. Future owners/users
with different requirements can readily adapt a steel building to their requirements.
The client may at some point wish to sell the building to an investment organisation. To
facilitate this option, institutional criteria such as minimum height and more onerous imposed
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loads can be specified to maintain the asset value and provide flexibility for unknown future
uses.

Maintenance
Many buildings are constructed for owner occupation. Where a building is let, full-repairing
twenty-five year leases, where the tenant is responsible for maintenance, are being replaced
by shorter ones, where the owner carries maintenance responsibility. Any situation where the
owner, who originally specified the building, has responsibility for maintenance, encourages
the choice of better quality materials with a longer life expectancy in order to reduce
maintenance costs. Increasingly, suppliers are providing guarantees and advice on necessary
maintenance.
Resource efficient design
Steel enables large spans to be constructed with relatively small construction depths. The
typical construction solution of an insulated external envelope supported on steel secondary
members is a very well-developed solution, optimised over many years, leading to a
structurally efficient and cost effective solution.
For pitched roofs or short span flat roofs, the construction depth of the roof beams or rafters
can be as low as 1/40 of the span between columns. If internal columns are required for multi-
span structures, they may be chosen to be small members, or the internal columns may be
provided on every second or third frame, maximising internal space and flexibility (so called
hit-and-miss).

Lightweight, structurally efficient portal frame

The relatively low self-weight of steel
structures reduces material use and
deliveries to site
Sustainability
Energy costs and the reduction of operational carbon emissions are becoming increasingly
important and sustainability is now a key issue within the planning process. In future, it is
likely that planning permission will be easier to obtain with sustainable, environmentally
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friendly, solutions. Many clients, potential clients and occupiers have sustainability policies
against which their performance is monitored by shareholders and the public.
Steel can be recycled any number of times without loss of quality or strength. Steel building
components are fabricated under factory-controlled conditions with minimal waste (off-cuts
are recycled as scrap). As the site activity is mainly assembly, there is rarely any waste on
site.
Steel structures, particularly the relatively simple structures commonly used in single storey
buildings, can be easily dissembled. The steel members may be reused in other structures
portal frames and similar structures are frequently dismantled and used at other locations.
The Blue steel building in Leeds is shown before and after refurbishment to bring it up to
current standards in terms of functionality and envelope performance.
Blue steel building in Leeds

Before....

.....and after refurbishment
In addition to re-cladding the building using composite steel panels, the height of the building
was increased by 3m by introducing column splices (as shown ) before re-erecting the original
bracing, rafters and purlins; a great example of adaptable and reusable steel buildings.

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Column splices used to increase the height of the existing building


Value for money
The dominance of steel in this sector demonstrates the value for money that steel construction
provides. This is primarily due to the increasingly efficient use of the portal frame by design
and build steelwork contractors, improved project planning, and active supply chain
management by main contractors. Information on the cost of structural steelwork generally
and cost planning for industrial buildings specifically is readily available.

Dramatic, expressed steelwork


Anatomy of typical single storey building
Main article: Concept design, Trusses, Portal frames, Building envelopes
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Arrangement of a single-storey building
Single storey buildings are usually required to provide large open floor areas, with few
internal structural columns, thus offering maximum flexibility in use and freedom for
activities that involve moving plant and equipment inside the building. These requirements
are most often achieved by using a relatively light structural frame spanning from one side of
the building to the other, clad with a weathertight envelope. The design of the structural
framework and the envelope are closely linked.
The figure shows the schematic arrangement of a typical single storey building showing both
the structural frame and the building envelope. There are essentially three layers to the
structure:
The primary steel frame, consisting of columns, rafters and bracing. The example
shown is a portal frame, however, it is equally applicable to other types of structural
frames.
The secondary steelwork, consisting of side rails and purlins for the walls and roof
respectively. These members serve three purposes:
o To support the envelope
o To transfer load from the envelope to the primary steel frame
o To restrain the primary steel frame members
The roof and wall cladding, whose functions include some or all of the following:
o Separating the enclosed space from the external environment
o Transferring load to the secondary steelwork
o Restraining the secondary steelwork
o Providing thermal insulation
o Providing acoustic insulation
o Preventing fire spread
o Providing an airtight envelope
o Providing ventilation to a building (ventilated or unventilated roofs and walls).
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Multi-bay portal frame during construction
The cladding will also normally include ancillary components such as windows, rooflights,
vents and gutters.
In most cases both building length and building width are much larger than the height of the
building. Single-bay and multi-bay buildings can be used depending on the overall size of the
building. A multi-bay portal frame is shown.
Overview of single storey industrial steel buildings
Framing options
There are two main framing options for single storey industrial buildings:
Portal Frames

Hit and miss multi-bay building during construction
The vast majority of single storey buildings are portal frames. These were first widely used in
the 1960s. During the 1970s and early 1980s they developed rapidly to become the
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predominant form of single storey construction. Using plastic design techniques first
developed at Cambridge University, for spans up to about 50m portal frames are the most
economical solution available. Large column-free areas can be achieved at relatively low cost.
Often on multi-span frames the intermediate valley columns are omitted (hit-and-miss) so that
on, say, a 45m span frame, with bay centres of 8m, each column-free box covers an area of
over 700m
2
, which is nearly a fifth of an acre!
Portal frames typically use hot-rolled beams and columns for the roof rafters and supporting
columns, although cold formed sections may be adequate for some small span structures.
Portal frames come in a variety of different shapes and sizes, with flat and pitched roofs. The
schematic arrangement of a typical single storey portal frame building is shown.

Single span symmetric portal frame


A small number of steelwork contractors offer portal frames made wholly from plates, to form
a tapered rafter section, which more closely follows the load profile on the steel member. The
extra fabrication cost involved is offset by savings in the material content of the resultant
frame. However, overall this form of frame has not been successful in the UK, mainly due to
the efficiency of steelwork contractors offering parallel flange frames.
Sophisticated computer software is widely available to design portal frames to the optimum
efficiency. These programs use plastic or elastoplastic design techniques, and can handle
multi-span frames with varying geometries and multiple load cases. Design is normally
carried out to BS 5950-1
[1]
, with loads taken from BS 6399
[2]
, although this is rapidly
changing with the introduction of the Eurocodes.
Lattice trusses
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Lattice truss using tubular members
The main alternative to portal frames is lattice construction. Lattice trusses are generally more
expensive than portal frames for routine applications and spans. However, for certain
applications they will offer the best framing solution, such as: for very large spans (greater
than 50m), for production facilities needing heavy plant suspended from the roof area, or
where deflection criteria are particularly critical.
Trusses are a triangulated assembly of members usually either rolled or structural hollow
sections. The internal members can be angles, beams or hollow sections, depending on the
design loads, configuration and fabrication costs. Two basic configurations are used in single
storey buildings pitched roof trusses and flat trusses of near uniform depth. Trusses are
usually planar and will generally require bracing of some form to provide stability. As an
alternative, three-dimensional trusses can be created.
Trusses typically have a greater depth than single beams or plate girders. The deflection of a
truss is modest, and can be controlled, making them especially suitable when significant loads
have to be supported from the roof structure, or when a flat (or nearly flat) roof is to be
provided. The larger depth of the trusses increases the dimensions of the faade, but also
provides space for services to be placed in the roof structure instead of below.
The weight of a trussed roof structure per unit area of roof is, in general, less than that of
single beam girders, but the fabrication costs are higher. Trusses may be exposed in the
completed structure, which may increase the fabrication costs if, for example, hollow sections
are used for the members.
Cable stayed roofs
In a cable-stayed structure, tensile members (wire ropes or bars) are provided to give
intermediate support to members such as roof beams, thus allowing those members to be
reduced in size. The stays need to be supported by columns or masts and those members need
to be anchored or braced with other stays. The bracing arrangement is usually very
conspicuous and the aesthetics of the building must be considered carefully. An example of a
cable stayed building structure is shown .
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Cable stayed roof beams of a storage facility


As most of the structure is outside of the building, maintenance costs can be high for this form
of construction. Care must be taken in detailing the waterproofing where the stays pass
through the envelope.
Geometry and layout
Column positions may be restricted to suit the layout of equipment inside the building, such
as racking in a warehouse, or machinery in a production unit. A good understanding of the
costs of portal frames and the impact of different span and bay centre options is crucial to
achieve an optimum building layout. Good advice can be obtained from steelwork contractors
specialising in single storey buildings.
With increasing spans the unit structural cost falls gradually to a minimum at a span of around
30-35m. Above this distance costs start to increase quickly. Graphs can be produced for
differing bay centres and height combinations to optimise the layout. The range of
combinations escalates quickly, and the steelwork contractor will need to run a number of
alternative designs to identify the best layout for the proposed building.
The height given in the performance specification should normally be specified to the
underside of the roof steelwork, which in the case of portal frames is the underside of the
haunch at the point where it meets the column. This is the clear height required by the
buildings operator, and allows the steelwork contractor to design a frame to clear this level,
the top of the column being determined by the total depth of the steelwork in the haunch area.
Column bases are typically set about 450mm below finished floor level, although this may
vary on sloping sites or to suit door details.
The layout and design of the structure will also need to take full account of the required speed
of erection. Decisions made at this stage will have a large impact on the number of work
fronts available to the erectors, so the overall layout of the building may need to be changed if
a particularly quick site programme is required.
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As a guide to steelwork sizes, on a typical 36m span multi-span frame, with a height to
underside of haunch of 12m, one might see portal rafters 457mm or 533mm deep, the portal
legs 686mm deep and a total steelwork weight of about 35 kg/m
2
.
Secondary steelwork
One feature of single storey buildings is the relatively high proportion of the steelwork that is
cold rolled. Roof purlins and side rails for supporting roof cladding sheets and vertical
cladding respectively are available as proprietary products from a number of manufacturers,
for incorporation into the steelwork project. Although these items are very light, weighing
only a few kilograms per metre, they typically account for 15-25% of the total weight of the
steelwork in the building.
There are many more pieces of cold rolled steel than hot rolled (main) steelwork to erect and
therefore this element of the erection needs to be carefully planned and controlled.

Secondary steelwork
Envelope

Metal clad single storey industrial building
All buildings, whatever their use, must provide a controlled internal environment that is
protected from the variable and uncontrollable external climate. The required internal
environment will depend on the intended use of the building and this will determine the
specific requirements for the building envelope. Regulatory requirements under Part L of the
Building Regulations are also forcing significant attention on the design and construction of
building envelopes.
Generating and maintaining a controlled internal environment is a complex process, requiring
a combination of mechanical and electrical services to heat and/or cool the building and a
well-designed building envelope to regulate the heat gain and loss.
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In addition to forming the building envelope, the roof and wall cladding may also have an
important role to play in the structural performance of the building, by providing restraint to
the secondary steelwork. Where such restraint is assumed (as is often the case in the purlins
and side rails manufacturers load/span tables), it is essential that the cladding is capable of
providing this restraint in practice.
The most common types of cladding used in single storey industrial buildings are double
skin systems comprising two metal sheets with a layer of insulation between. Double skin
metal systems can be divided into four basic categories:
Built-up systems
Insulated panels
Standing seam systems
Structural liner trays.
These are shown below.
Metal cladding systems used in single storey buildings

Built-up systems

Insulated panels

Standing seam systems

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Liner tray systems


Built-up cladding system
Composite cladding system

Floor slabs
In most cases, the floors of singe-storey industrial buildings are used for vehicles, heavy
machinery and racking systems. They are designed to support heavy loads and have to be
flat. Concentrated loads due to vehicles, machines, racking and containers have to be
considered, depending on the application and local thickening of the slab can be undertaken if
the configuration of any heavy machinery, etc. is known at the design stage. Most industrial
buildings have a concrete floor with a minimum thickness of 150 mm on top of a layer of
granular fill, which is also at least 150 mm thick. For large floor areas, a sliding layer between
the base layer and the concrete is required, typically using two layers of synthetic material.
Office areas

Entrance and office accommodation ProShed, Daventry
In almost all cases, there will be offices incorporated into the development. These are
typically two storeys high, generally either within a corner of the building, or attached to the
front and side elevations. The office floor area is usually about 5% of the total area of the
building, but is dependent on the clients or tenants specific requirements.
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Most of the offices incorporated into industrial buildings are designed to conform to normal
commercial standards and the envelope may be curtain walling rather than a steel sheet based
system.
In multi-storey office areas, suspended floors are commonly composite floor slabs with in-situ
topping or precast units. The choice will often depend on the programme and construction
process selected by the main contractor.
Although the office areas are usually very much smaller than the remainder of the building, its
construction involves many more trades and is consequently often the most critical area in
terms of the overall construction programme.
Mezzanines
Mezzanine floors in single storey industrial buildings offer the flexibility of providing
additional floor space without extending the overall size of the building. They can be part of a
new building construction, or as an upgrade to an existing building. Mezzanine floors tend to
be separate steel framed structures which are supported directly off the ground floor concrete
slab and tied into the main structural framing of the building. However, in industrial buildings
it may be a requirement that uninterrupted working spaces are provided over the whole of the
ground floor area (support forklift traffic). In these cases the mezzanine floor structure can be
supported directly off the roof main framing members, thereby providing an unobstructed area
underneath. Typically mezzanine floors are lightweight open grid floors. To restrict the loss of
headroom to a minimum, cellular beams can be specified which will allow services to be
provided within the depth of the mezzanine floor beams. A typical mezzanine floor in an
industrial facility is shown.

Typical mezzanine floor in an industrial building



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Forms of construction
Main article: Trusses, Portal frames
Choice of building form
A single large hall is the main feature of most industrial buildings. The construction and
appearance of a single storey industrial building provides the design engineer with a wide
range of possible configurations in order to realise the architectural and functional
requirements of the building. Generally, an industrial building has a rectangular foot-print,
which is extendable in its long direction. The design of the building has to be coordinated
with its functional requirements and its operational energy performance, including lighting.
A comparison of the benefits and the reasons for choosing a particular building form (simple
beam structure, portal frame or truss) is shown in the table.
Comparison of basic structural forms for single storey buildings
Simple beam/column Portal frame Truss
Advantages
Simple design Long span
Very long spans
possible
Designed to be stable in-plane
Heavy loads may be
carried

Member sizes and haunches may be
optimised for efficiency
Modest deflection
Disadvantages
Relatively short span Software required for efficient design
Generally more
expensive fabrication
Bracing needed for in-
plane stability
Limited to relatively light vertical loading,
and modest cranes to avoid excessive
deflections
Generally bracing is
used for in-plane
stability
No economy due to
continuity

Types of portal frame
Portal frames are the most commonly used type of structural frame for industrial buildings
because they are a highly cost-effective solution.
Steel portal frames are widely used because they combine structural efficiency with functional
application. Various configurations can be designed using the same structural concept as
shown. Multi-bay frames can also be designed, as in (e) and (f), using either single or pairs of
internal columns.
Various forms of portal frames
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(a) Portal frame
medium span

(b) Curved portal
frame

(c) Portal frame with
mezzanine floor

(d) Portal frame with
overhead crane
Various forms of portal frames

(e) Two bay portal frame

(f) Portal frame with integral
office

(g) Mansard portal frame
These simple types of structural systems can also be designed to be architecturally more
appealing by using curved members, cellular or perforated beams etc. Innovative structural
systems have also been developed in which portal frames are created by moment resisting
connections using articulations and ties.
Lattice structures
Long-span industrial buildings can be designed with lattice trusses, using channel, beamor
tubular sections. Lattice trusses tend to be beam and column structures and are rarely used in
portal frames. Various configurations of lattice trusses are illustrated. The two generic forms
are W or N bracing arrangements. In this case, stability is generally provided by bracing
rather than rigid frame action.
Using lattice structures, a comparatively high stiffness and load bearing resistance can be
achieved while minimising material use. Besides the ability to create long spans, lattice
structures are attractive and enable simple service integration.
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Various forms of lattice truss used in industrial buildings


Suspended structures
By using suspended structures, long span buildings with high visual and architectural quality
can be realised. The division into members that are predominantly subject to either tension or
compression permits the design of lightweight structures. However, structures that save on
materials use do not necessarily lead to economic solutions. Particularly in space structures,
the joints may be very complex and more time consuming to construct and install. Therefore,
possible applications of this type of structure are industrial buildings that also serve
architectural purposes rather than merely functional buildings.
Design
Main articles: Concept design, Trusses, Portal frames, Modelling and analysis, Member
design, Operational carbon, Single storey buildings in fire boundary conditions, Simple
connections, Moment resisting connections
Steel construction is one of the most efficient sectors in the construction industry. Leading
suppliers manufacture the components offsite, using computer controlled equipment driven
directly by information contained in 3D computer models used for detailing. In addition to
driving the manufacturing process, the information in the model is also used for ordering,
scheduling, dispatch and erection. Single storey construction at its best, with its highly
integrated design and manufacture, represents levels of efficiency to which other sectors
aspire. The key to realising the highest level of efficiency is to work in a way that enables the
optimum use of this infrastructure.
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Design concept
The development of a design solution for a single storey building, such as a large enclosure or
industrial facility is more dependent on the activity being performed within the building (and
possible future requirements) than other building types. Although single-storey buildings are
primarily functional, they are often designed with a strong architectural input dictated by
planning requirements and client branding.
The following overall design requirements should be considered at the concept design stage of
single storey industrial buildings:
Space use, for example, specific requirements for handling of materials or components
in a production facility
Flexibility of space in current and future use
Speed of construction
Environmental performance, including services requirements and thermal performance
Aesthetics and visual impact
Acoustic isolation, particularly in production facilities
Access and security
Sustainability considerations
Design life and maintenance requirements, including end of life issues.

To enable the concept design to be developed, it is necessary to review these considerations
based on the type of single storey building. For example, the requirements for a distribution
centre will be different to those for a manufacturing facility. A review of the importance of
various design issues is presented in the table for common single-storey industrial building
types. Retail and leisure building requirements are described specifically in the sector specific
sections of the website.

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Relative importance of different design issues in single-storey industrial buildings


Frame choice
The most popular choice of structural form for single storey buildings with spans of 20 to
60m is the portal frame because of its excellent structural efficiency and ease of fabrication
and erection. Portal frames may be designed using elastic or plastic analyses and design.
Elastically designed portal frames are likely to be heavier, as they do not fully utilise the
capacity of the sections, but are simpler to design and detail using non-specialist design
software.
For longer spans, lattice trusses may be used to advantage instead of portal frames. Trusses
are likely to be more efficient for spans over 60m and in buildings of shorter spans where
there is a significant amount of mechanical plant.
Structural design
Efficient portal frames with relatively low roof loads are slender structures and in some cases,
the slenderness is such that second-order effects need to be considered, when analysing the
structure. Generally, second order effects must be considered for the Ultimate Limit State
(ULS), but will have negligible effects at the Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
Portal frames provide sufficient in-plane stability, and thus only require bracing for out-of-
plane stability. However, their structural efficiency depends on the method of analysis, and
the assumptions that are made regarding the restraint provided to the structural members.
Efficient portal frame design
More efficient Less efficient
Analysis using elastic-plastic software Elastic analysis
Cladding considered to restrain the flange of the
purlins and side rails
Purlins and side rails unrestrained
Purlins and side rails used to restrain both flanges
of the hot-rolled steelwork
The inside flange of the hot rolled
steelwork is unrestrained
Nominal base stiffness utilised Nominal base stiffness ignored
The most economical structures are often those produced using plastic design techniques,
which in the UK, are well established and have been used for over 40 years.
Lattice trusses are typically designed using elastic analysis techniques.
The screen grab below is of a Fastrak model of a portal-framed building.
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Computer model of a portal frame
(Image courtesy of CSC)


Interdependence of frames and envelopes
The structural efficiency of portal frames is partly due to the provision of restraint to the
rafters and columns by the purlins and side rails respectively. Similarly, the efficiency of the
purlins is dependent on restraint provided by the cladding. The cladding sheets are profiled to
provide the necessary strength to span between the purlins and provide the required restraint.
The profile has also to accommodate storm water run off. Designers and contractors should
note that good interaction between the frame and envelope components is essential for
structural efficiency and, for this reason, the cladding must be fixed to all purlins and rails in
accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.
Operational energy performance
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Air pressure testing of an industrial building
(Image courtesy of BSRIA)
Driven by Part L of the Building Regulations, the required reductions in U-values over recent
years have led to a considerable increase in insulation thickness, with possible implications
for frame stability, cladding weight and consequential handling requirements. There is a
common perception that this trend will continue indefinitely as future regulatory changes
increase the demands on the building envelope. However, in reality the relationship between
insulation thickness and energy efficiency is subject to a law of diminishing returns and the
point has now been reached where further increases in insulation thickness are unlikely to
yield significant improvements in operational energy performance.
For many applications, the inclusion of roof lights is important because they reduce the
amount of artificial lighting that is needed and, consequently, the energy demands of the
building. However, they also increase solar gain, which can lead to overheating in summer
and increase cooling demand. Heat loss through thermal bridging also becomes more
significant (relatively) as the insulation thickness increases, requiring the use of enhanced
construction details and specialised components in order to satisfy regulatory requirements.
A balance of all the factors is necessary to optimise the reduction of carbon emissions in the
operation of any building.
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Mid-slope rooflights providing natural lighting in a distribution warehouse


Airtightness
The introduction of mandatory airtightness testing has highlighted the importance of
designing and delivering a building that is not draughty. Recent studies have demonstrated
that controlling airtightness is a very effective way of improving energy conservation. As an
example, while the current minimum standard for airtightness of buildings >500m
2
is
10m
3
/m
2
/hr at 50 Pascals, levels of airtightness down to a tested value of 2m
3
/m
2
/hr are
possible with standard construction. However, achieving this level depends on an assured
quality of construction and detailing. For buildings with floor areas less than 5,000 m
2

achieving good levels of airtightness becomes difficult to achieve due to the higher proportion
of openings relative to the envelope area. While a common view is that airtightness is the
responsibility of the cladding contractor, in reality the necessary quality of construction can
only be achieved if all parts of the supply chain understand the requirements and the building
design is well coordinated.
Lighting
Requirements for the lighting of industrial buildings depend on the type of building, its use
and occupancy pattern. The concept and arrangement of openings to provide natural lighting
permit diversity in architectural design. Rooflights and gable glazed roofs are common, along
with lightbands in the faade. Openings for natural lighting can serve as smoke and heat
outlets in case of fire. In the UK, single storey industrial buildings typically have rooflights
comprising 10 15% of the roof area.
Well-designed natural daylighting can have a significant impact on a buildings operational
carbon emissions. However, too much natural daylighting can result in excessive solar gain in
the summer, leading to overheating, and increased heat loss through the envelope in the
winter.
26
One factor which has a major impact on the efficiency of lighting large single-storey
industrial buildings (both natural and artificial) is the use of high bay shelving or racking.
Once obstructions such as high bay racking are installed, the building is effectively split into a
number of narrow, corridor-type spaces which require many more fittings, and hence more
energy, to achieve the same level and uniformity of lighting. If known at the design stage, the
configuration of racking should be taken into account in the design of rooflights and artificial
lighting systems.
The decision to utilise natural daylight within a building and the type of day-lighting selected
have important implications for the overall building design. It is discussed in detail in the
Target Zero Warehouse guidance
Service integration
For industrial buildings, special requirements for building services are often defined, which
may be necessary for the operation of machines and manufacturing lines. The service
integration should be taken into account in the early planning stages. In particular, the
position and size of ducts should be coordinated with the structure and any provisions for
natural lighting. The use of structural systems, such as cellular beams and trusses, can
facilitate easier integration of services and help to achieve a coherent appearance of the
building.
The design of the servicing machinery and rooms can be of major importance in industrial
buildings. Centralisation of the building services can offer the advantage of easy maintenance.
In large buildings, service runs can be very long and, particularly for ducts at roof level,
expansion and movement of the ducts should be considered and taken into account.
Natural ventilation reduces the reliance on air conditioning systems, which in turn means a
reduction in the buildings operational carbon emissions. The effectiveness of natural
ventilation depends on the size and orientation of the building. Roof vents are a common
option for natural ventilation in buildings without suitably large openings, however these need
to be carefully positioned so as to maximize their performance. Hybrid ventilation systems are
now popular in industrial buildings. They use predominantly natural ventilation, but with
mechanically driven fans to improve predictability of performance over a wider range of
weather conditions.
Roof drainage systems
27

Typical roof drainage system
(Image courtesy of A.C.Bacon Engineering Ltd.)
The design, detailing and erection of gutters is often neglected. Those involved in the design
of the supporting steelwork are often not aware of the impacts arising from the introduction of
insulated gutters and symphonic drainage systems. The weight of the gutter, both in terms of
the handling difficulties during installation and the strength and serviceability of the
supporting structure, is such that it requires specific attention. Attention is necessary to the
fixing details so that they can readily be attached to and restrain the supporting members. It is
also good practice to include a secondary drainage system to avoid flooding into the building
if the system clogs and fails. The gutter design should take account of the potential for flash
floods and the fact gutters have to be maintainable with good access for cleaning.
The image shows a typical roof drainage system used in single-storey industrial buildings.
Floors and foundations
The structural engineer will normally be responsible for the design details of the foundations.
The ground slab is normally designed and built by a specialist subcontractor working to a
performance specification prepared by the consulting engineer. The design and construction
details should be approved by the engineer prior to construction and the details must be
coordinated with all adjacent trades.
There are innovations in the use of precast concrete bases, ground beams and such items as
dock leveller surrounds and retaining walls, which are helping to increase the overall speed of
construction. The detailed design of these items and the adjacent elements of structure and
cladding has to be consistent with both the construction sequence and the need for access and
handling.
The structural engineer has to determine whether nominally pinned or nominally fixed bases
are appropriate for the steel frame. A site investigation should be commissioned and
information obtained on the anticipated ground conditions. The decision on appropriate
foundations will be based on this information and should be passed to the steelwork
contractor as the basis for his design.
28
With regard to the ground floor slab, the Concrete Society technical report TR34
[3]
sets out
good practice for design and construction, including advice on tolerances, loadings, finishes,
joints, sub base, a variety of alternative construction methods and necessary maintenance
measures.
The slab is generally laid after the cladding has been erected, which means that it should not
be affected by weather and dust. If acceptable methods can be developed, construction can be
accelerated by casting the slab prior to erection of the envelope.
Connection details
The three major connections in a single bay portal frame are those at the eaves, the apex and
the column base.
For the eaves, bolted connections are mostly used as shown in the figure below.

Typical eaves connection in a portal frame


The apex connection is often designed similarly.
The base of the column is often simple with larger tolerances to facilitate the interface
between the concrete base and steelwork. Pinned connections are typically preferred as they
enable smaller foundations to be designed, however, stability during construction needs to be
considered.
29

Example of a nominally pinned column base in a portal frame


Fire Safety
Single storey buildings are not usually required to have fire resistance. The most common, but
not the only, situation where fire resistance is required is when fire spread between buildings
is of concern. This is the well known boundary condition. Where this occurs, it is normally
only the external wall close to adjoining buildings and its supporting columns that requires
fire resistance. The rafters and any columns not considered to be in a boundary condition are
left unprotected. The bases of the protected columns must be designed however to resist the
overturning moment cause by the collapse of the rest of the structure.
Sustainability
In the context of modern industrial buildings, the principal sustainability issues to address
include how to minimise operational energy use (and associated carbon emissions),
particularly in the heating and lighting systems, how to achieve high BREEAM ratings and
any specific planning requirements.
30
Significant interest is also being shown in the integration of low and zero carbon technologies
into industrial buildings, particularly technologies that exploit their large envelope areas, such
as photovoltaics and transpired solar collector technologies (TSCs).
Operational energy use in single storey industrial buildings

Typical breakdown of operation carbon emissions in a large distribution warehouse
In the UK, the majority of new warehouse buildings are used for storage of goods prior to
distribution; these buildings are generally naturally ventilated and heated using radiant
systems. Cooling and mechanical ventilation are rarely required.
The breakdown in operational carbon emissions by energy use in a typical, large single-storey
industrial building, in this case a distribution warehouse, is shown.
Lighting is by far the most significant energy demand accounting for, in this case, around
three quarters of the total operational carbon emissions. Consequently efficient lighting
systems coupled with optimum rooflight design are key in delivering operational carbon
reductions. The complexity of the interaction between rooflight design, lighting systems,
daylight dimming and racking in industrial warehouse buildings requires detailed dynamic
thermal simulations in conjunction with good lighting design to develop an optimum lighting
solution. Guidance on the optimum area of rooflights in industrial buildings is given in the
Target Zero guide.
Significant reductions in operational carbon emissions are achievable in industrial buildings
using energy efficiency measures particularly measures relating to lighting. Significant further
reductions are achievable via the use of solar photovoltaic and transpired solar collector
(TSC) technologies which take advantage of the large roof and wall areas of industrial
buildings. The viability of such technologies is strongly dependent on the cost of technology
and particularly subsidies such as Feed-in tariffs and the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI).
31
The Target Zero project provides in depth guidance about how to achieve low and zero
operational carbon targets in single-storey buildings. Guidance is also available on External
links
BREEAM for industrial buildings
The BREEAM environmental assessment scheme provides a method for quantifying the
environmental performance of buildings. Although the scheme is voluntary, many
commercial sector clients are responding to demand and adopting BREEAM to deliver
buildings which are low energy, sustainable and future-proofed.
Results from the Target Zero programme suggest that for a single-storey industrial building,
the increase in capital cost (from a Part L 2006 compliant base case) to achieve the following
BREEAM (2008) ratings is:
0.04% to achieve BREEAM Very Good
0.4% to achieve BREEAM Excellent
4.8% to achieve BREEAM Outstanding.

More details are given in theTarget Zero guide and guidance is available by following
External links
Construction
Main articles: Construction, Fabrication, Health and safety
Lead-in times
The period from receipt of instruction (letter of intent or order) to arrival on site varies
depending on project size, complexity and the industrys workload levels. As a guide, for a
typical small or medium-sized industrial building (up to 100,000sq ft) a lead-in of eight weeks
would be normal, extending to 10-12 weeks on bigger projects. These periods can often be
improved if especially required on individual projects, by discussion with the steelwork
contractor.
Site erection periods
The speed of erection will depend on a number of factors:
Number of erection gangs an erection gang usually consists of 3 or 4 men, with a
crane and mobile elevated working platforms. As a rule of thumb, working an eight
hour day in reasonable weather, a gang will erect about 50 tonnes (hot and cold rolled)
per 5 day week. This is roughly equivalent to an area of 1,500m2 (15,000sq ft). The
overall speed of erection will depend on the resources available to the steelwork
contractor in terms of speed of the supply of steelwork to site, the number of erection
gangs at his disposal, and the number of work fronts that can be safely and efficiently
worked concurrently.
32
Time of year in the depths of winter daylight hours are restricted, and it is not
possible to work the same number of hours as in the summer months, when it may be
possible for the erectors to work much longer days.
Weather the programme needs to build in a sensible allowance for weather, based on
the time of year planned for erection of the steelwork.
Site conditions the planned programme will not be achievable in the absence of well
prepared and safe ground. Even if deemed safe for work, poor ground will result in a
serious loss of productivity for the erection process. This important aspect is
developed further in Safe site erection.
Site planning fast programmes will require large lay down areas so that steelwork
can be delivered and offloaded in the desired location prior to the erection gang
reaching that area.
Safe site erection
Erection of the structure is generally undertaken using mobile telescopic cranes and Mobile
Elevating Working Platforms (MEWPs), often referred to as cherry pickers. Wall cladding
is usually installed using scissor lifts. A key health & safety issue for the erection of single
storey industrial buildings is the condition of the site. MEWPs are very efficient and offer the
ability to safely access all areas of the structure, but their success is highly dependent on the
ground conditions. Poor or badly prepared ground will deteriorate rapidly once a MEWP
begins to move over the site and therefore it is important that the main contractor designs and
prepares the ground to take these loads.
Normally the whole of the area of the building footprint will need to be prepared for MEWP
and mobile crane access. Additionally, to fit the cold rolled side rails, a 34m wide strip for
MEWP access will need to be provided around the external perimeter of the building.
Before commencement of erection, the steelwork contractor will ask the main contractor to
complete and sign the BCSAs Safe Site Handover Certificate. This essential document sets
out in a checklist form the matters needed to ensure a safe site for steelwork erection.

Telescopic crane and scissor lift

Construction of a modern portal frame
33
building
Envelope erection
The greatest risks during building envelope (cladding) erection are those activities associated
with operatives working at height and materials falling from height. Particular attention needs
to be paid to both of these issues in terms of providing a safe working platform from which
the cladding operations can take place, a suitable means of access and egress, and effective
barriers to prevent falls of either people or materials. Wall cladding erection is generally
carried out from cherry pickers or scissor lifts which provide safe access and a safe working
platform.

Scissor lift used to safely erect wall cladding


Risk to workers during roof construction is minimised by providing several important safety
features:
Temporary boarding and platforms spanning between purlins
Safety nets
Perimeter edge protection (guard rails and toe boards).

More details are available on safe erection here.
34

Roof erection safety measures


Procurement
Although there is a proliferation of procurement processes in general construction, there are
only two processes in common use for industrial buildings: Design and Build and
Traditional. Of these, Design and Build has by far the largest share of the market with at
least three quarters of single-storey buildings constructed using this method. This situation has
evolved because:
The product, i.e. the building, is relatively simple when compared to other types of
buildings
There are well-developed systems for all parts of the construction, i.e. primary and
secondary steelwork and envelope systems
The client brief can be set out in a relatively straightforward manner
The size of the market has attracted many competent companies to develop systems
and offer their services.

The decision as to which process to employ depends on the relative importance of
maintaining control of the design process and the competitive edge offered by Design and
Build. Of particular note are the different responsibilities of the various parties in the different
contract arrangements.
Design & Build
The prime attraction for the client of the Design and Build process is that the risks are passed
to a contractor, who is responsible for all the design and construction aspects. The
contractors role is to manage all of the activities and ensure the quality of the completed
building. The work is carried out to a Performance Specification that normally includes
35
information such as an outline of the project, architects drawings, loading requirements, time
to first maintenance for painted steelwork, and descriptions of other trades such as cladding
materials and industrial doors. This situation works well in the industrial buildings sector
because there are sufficient companies within the sector, who have the relevant competence
and financial strength from which clients can select their team.
A number of steelwork contractors specialise in this market, and they are able to produce very
economical frames, with short lead times and fast erection periods. Detailed knowledge of
steel availability and relative costs, means that economical frames can be selected, purposely
designed to suit the specialist steelwork contractors own production facilities, and to make
site erection safe and efficient.
Many large clients with significant repeat business have developed good relationships with a
relatively small number of steel construction supply chains, who have become accustomed to
working with each other in informal and trusting partnership arrangements. This has proved
extremely beneficial to all parties involved.
An important ingredient in Design and Build relationships that tends to develop over a
considerable period is that of trust between the parties. This may be difficult to achieve in new
situations, but it should be a major objective. The working arrangements and form of contract
selected should be such that they encourage and reward helpful behaviour. This generally
requires communications of all kinds to be as transparent as possible.
Despite passing much of the risk and responsibility to the contractor, the client retains overall
responsibility for Health & Safety. The appointment of experienced, responsible contractors
and specialist contractors is an essential part of this duty.
Traditional
The alternative to Design & Build is the traditional approach, with the structural design
being carried out by a consulting engineer working for either the client or the main contractor.
The consultant also prepares the steelwork general arrangement drawings, showing all the key
dimensional information. Once designed and drawn, the steelwork is tendered to steelwork
contractors. The contract will include for connection design, detailed fabrication drawings,
fabrication, delivery and erection. This procurement route is sometimes chosen because it
gives greater perceived control over the project, although it is rarely going to achieve the
competitive edge available through the Design & Build route.
The main contractor, who is selected through a competitive tendering process, is responsible
for constructing the works according to the information provided by the design team. Much of
the construction work, including the erection of the steel frame and installation of the
cladding, is likely to be carried out by specialist subcontractors.
The traditional approach tends to be used for specialised buildings, since the architect, and
hence the client, retains more control. Some elements of the building, notably the frame, may
be procured through a limited design and build process.
Project management
36
The preparation of the detailed build programme for the overall project is normally the
responsibility of the main contractor.
Most single-storey buildings now have fast-tracked programmes. In the case of steelwork,
this means that following trades such as roof and wall cladding, brickwork and doors will be
starting whilst steelwork erection is progressing further down the building. To achieve this
type of programme, it is necessary to have a series of sectional handovers of the steelwork, at
say two week intervals down the building. Each section is fully erected, and then lined and
plumbed. After checking and approval by the main contractor, the steelwork bases are grouted
up, after which the following trades can commence.
The build sequence at major interfaces is particularly important for the steelwork contractor.
For example, the base of the door posts may be bolted to a pre-cast concrete ring beam.
Ideally therefore the ring beam should be in place before steelwork erection; otherwise it will
be necessary to leave out the door steelwork and associated sheeting rails until the ground
beams are fixed. Careful planning and good design co-ordination will in most cases eliminate
the need for steel components to be omitted, allowing the programme to proceed smoothly.
However, in some cases, a second fix of steelwork will be unavoidable. It is essential that
these cases are clearly identified in advance, and allocated a suitable duration in the build
programme. The steelwork contractor can then organise erection labour accordingly, and may
choose to keep the second fix steelwork off-site until required, avoiding site loss or damage to
the un-fixed components.
Early involvement of the supply chain
In most cases, an architect is commissioned to produce the concept designs and obtain the
necessary planning permissions together with sufficient information to obtain tenders from
contractors and select the successful bid. The pre-contract period should be used to sort out
the design responsibilities, the key roles which will be played by the project participants and
their employees and the skills required to perform these roles. These factors may influence the
choice of contractors.
Once a main contractor has been appointed, he becomes responsible for all design and
construction activities in the project, although it is common to employ specialist
subcontractors to carry out the actual construction work. The architect who produces the
concept design is often subsequently novated to the selected main contractor, together with
the engineer who initially appraises the ground conditions and drainage if this has not been
done already.
The main contractor has to manage all the interfaces between the various elements of the
work. This coordination role is very important and can be undertaken in-house, although in
many cases he will pay an architect to act on his behalf.
It is noteworthy that with experienced and knowledgeable clients, the specifications tend to be
thinner documents that make use of trusted manufacturers recommendations. Less
experienced clients and their advisors tend to produce thick specifications that aim to defend
against failure rather than encouraging energy to be spent in ensuring that all goes well. This
may be a reflection on the earlier state of the construction industry, but there is a growing
body of successful firms which can testify to the benefits of encouraging success.
37
The progressive approach does require greater engagement by all concerned rather than the
attitude of go away and sort it out amongst yourselves. As in all aspects of life, caring
attitudes are infectious.
Selection of the supply chain
It is important therefore to work with people who have demonstrated that they can deliver
predictably in terms of cost, time and quality. This is a familiar list of attributes, but the will
to work collaboratively and not cynically is an important addition.
The selection of the supply team is critical but not always easy. Clients should select an
architect and, where necessary, an engineer who is familiar with their business needs and the
type of work envisaged. The appointment of the main contractor and specialist sub-
contractors should be discussed between the client and his advisors who are already in place.
Help is available from reputable trade associations such as the Metal Cladding and Roofing
Manufacturers Association (MCRMA) and the British Constructional Steelwork Association
(BCSA). The latter maintains a Register of Steelwork Contractors with guidance on the type
and size of contracts for which they have the skills and financial stability.
Achieving collaborative working
The preferred key players should be brought together by the contractor as soon as practicable.
Initially, these players will be the architect, engineer and the steelwork and building envelope
contractors.
In terms of stages in the contract there are two important factors. Firstly, the participants have
to be certain they will be carrying out the work, even though, secondly, they will not be fully
committed financially at this stage. This is important, because they must be free to bring ideas
to the project, safe in the knowledge that the information will not benefit their competitors.
However, the joint discussions with fellow suppliers might affect the detail and costs of their
work package.
Cost reduction exercises are frequently part of the process, but the interdependence of the
systems must be remembered by all and the knock on effects taken into account.
There will obviously be a more cooperative approach if the appropriate mechanisms are in
place, rather than having to defend a fixed contract sum in which it may have been necessary
to include some guesstimates of what to include at a detailed level. To achieve this end there
are two possible approaches:
A partial order to cover the work in stages.
A letter of intent, but with recognition of the risks of cancellation incorporated.

Forward commitments need to include a recognition that suppliers have to manage the
efficient use of their resources and, while they will undoubtedly be as cooperative as possible,
it may be difficult to accommodate short term postponements in a busy schedule.
38
A key determinant of a successful project is the quality and timeliness of information. To
achieve a quick lead-in and efficient working, it is necessary to have other major
subcontractors appointed at the same time as the steelwork sub-contractor.

G.Park Blue Planet, Chatterley Valley during construction
(Image courtesy of Atlas Ward Structures Ltd.)
The main contractor has a major role to play in coordinating this part of the process. The
interfaces between steelwork, roof and wall cladding, doors, glazing, pre-cast units, etc. will
all need to be agreed. On a short lead-in project (say eight weeks or less), these dimensions
will need to be finalised in the first two weeks. Recent amendment to the Building
Regulations Part L, have resulted in particular care now being required in preparing details
around the key interfaces in the external envelope to minimise heat loss and air permeability.
Careful detailing and complete co-ordination of the steelwork and cladding contracts is
necessary to achieve these objectives.
Many main contractors are addressing these issues by establishing a Strategic Supply Chain,
selecting a small number of sub-contractors in each of the major specialist areas. By
encouraging team working between members of the supply chain, it is possible to capture
learning on one project and use it successfully on the next. A well run supply chain will result
in greater efficiency of all its participants, producing better quality and lower costs as the
team develops.
A series of quick-fire "Design Team meetings" in the critical early weeks, called and chaired
by the main contractor, is the best way to co-ordinate the project design. All major specialist
sub-contractors need to be present, together with the architects and other relevant
professionals. When time is pressing, it is usually most effective for the key decisions to be
taken at the meeting, rather than left to future meetings or for subsequent development.
Achieving commitment
Through early design orientated meetings, financial commitment can be finalised on the basis
of information which is consistent across the supply chain, knowing that all pertinent issues
and opportunities for improving performance have been explored. The contract should
provide a framework for resolving disagreements if something does go wrong rather than
attempting and, probably failing, to ensure that problems do not occur.
39
Minimising the occurrence of problems is achieved through improving relationships between
people. This is extremely difficult to achieve through the use of complex documents. People
perform best when they are incentivised and want to perform well, not because a piece of
paper says they ought to. Time spent defending a contract would be better spent improving
the job. However, protection for all is needed as things can go wrong.
Construction is not exempt from the law of unintentional consequences. If trust is to be
developed, it is important to ensure that agreements made by senior people in meetings are
followed by actions in practice. Care is needed to ensure that those working at the detail level
are fully conversant with the agreements reached and understand why they will improve the
performance of the overall project.
The actions and attitudes of the people involved are most important and these will be
determined by the company culture as much as by instruction. Partnership based procurement
has been extolled by some and in time, it may be the situation to which industry should aspire.
However, well run Design & Build is currently best practice and a good foundation on which
to move forward.
Case studies

Aggreko facility,
Scotland

G. Park Blue Planet,
Newcastle-under-Lyme

Tesco distribution
centre, Reading

Recycled paper mill,
Partington

ProLogis Park,
Bradford

Manufacturing
Technology Centre,
Coventry

Bolton IVC Plant

McLaren Production
Centre, Woking

40
West Burton Power
Station
Energy from waste
facility, La Collette,
Jersey
Siemens Facility,
Lincoln
(Video case study)
Sainsburys
distribution centre,
Basingstoke

Guinness, Dublin, New
Brewhouse

Essex Mechanical
Biological Treatment
Facility, Basildon

Great Island Power
Station, Wexford

References
1. ^BS 5950-1:2000 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design.
Rolled and welded sections. BSI
2. ^BS 6399-1:1996 Loading for buildings. Code of practice for dead and imposed loads
. BSI
3. ^TR 34 Concrete Industrial Ground Floors - A guide to their design and construction,
Concrete Society, 2003
Further reading
Steel Buildings, BCSA No. 35/03, Chapter 3 Single Storey Buildings
Steel Buildings, BCSA No. 35/03, Chapter 22 Building Envelope
Steel Designers Manual (7th Edition), SCI, Chapter 4 Single Storey Buildings
Steel Insight 6 Industrial buildings, February 2013, Building Magazine