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Early Christianity in the Upper G ksu

Valley
Introduction
The religious practices and experiences of 4
th
-6
th
century Christians in the Upper Gksu River Valley
should not be seen in isolation but instead as having close associations with a busy surrounding early
Christian landscape. This essay will look at this landscape of cemeteries, rural settlements, ascetic
retreats, and over 36 other religious features. The ecclesiastical complex at Alahan is examined in
terms of movement, boundaries, pilgrimage, and conversion. Finally we examine the role the Gksu
River Valley played in terms of the perceived needs of privacy and monumentality in a Christian
landscape.
Introduction to the landscape
The Gksu River Valley offers a natural route through the Taurus Mountains that divide the
Mediterranean coastline and northern Syria from central Anatolia (Figure 1). The main route
between Karaman and Mut continued south via the ola Canyon to the ecclesiastical and civic
capital of Seleucia (Elton, 2013, 233; Elton 2005, 335). A number of caravanserais in the area would
have offered stopping points for travellers and visitors to the ecclesiastical sites (Elton et al, 2006,
302; Gough, 1985, 7). Crossing points across the Gksu, such as that north of Derinay, would have
created direct links between both sides of the river valley (Elton, 2005, 335).

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Figure 1: The Gksu River Valley offers one of the only routes connecting the
North-East Mediterranean with Central Anatolia. Area of study marked.
(Map data from OpenStreetMap Cycle Map, http://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=8/36.671/33.679&layers=C)

Figure 2: General map of study area (Elton, 2013, 234, Fig 19.1)
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Caves
Caves may have been used there as sites for worship from at least the second century CE (Elton,
2013, 236). Caves used for Christian religious purposes are found at Aloda, Alahan, Oprukkaya,
Mahras Da, Gzenek, as well as further down the river valley at Mut (Figure 2) (Elton, 2013, 236;
Elton 2005, 333; GAP, no date, C).
Caves may have been the first Christian outposts in the landscape. At Alahan, caves may have been
modified into churches, with up to three storeys, before the West Church was built at the mouth of
the cave (Gough, 1985, 12). Similarly, some of the multi-storey caves at Gzenek might be churches,
with evidence of painted interiors and an apse (GAP, no date, A). Another church at the cave
complex at Aloda has views of Mahras Da from the entrance (Figure 3) (GAP, no date, D). If caves
were being used as sites for pagan worship, the occupation of caves by Christians would indicate
that conversion occurred by modifying what already existed in the religious landscape. The lack of
evidence for pagan worship does not mean it was not happening, merely that the Christian monks or
converts thoroughly erased them (Evans, 2001).





Figure 3: Caves at Aloda exterior
(Panoramio A) and interior (GAP, no date, D)

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Burial
At least 175 tombs are known within two kilometres of Alahan alone (Elton, 2005, 333). Further
tombs have been found around Gzenek, Aloda and at least 54 funerary inscriptions in the little-
studied city of Sinobu (Elton, 2005, 333-4; Elton, 2013, 240). Three types of tombs have been
identified: doorway tombs, sunken tombs (chamosoria), and rock-cut sarcophagi (Figure 4). These
have all been carved from the local limestone, many within a deep arcosolium, or recess (Elton,
2005, 333). Decorated with Christian symbols, they would have been a ubiquitous feature of the
worshipers movements and thoughts of life after death as they went about their actions.

Figure 4: Rock-cut tombs at Alahan (Panoramio B)

Architecture
At least 36 sites identified as churches exist in the Upper Goksu River Valley (Elton, 2013, 233). Many
villages in the region appear to have had two to three churches, for example the Roman village near
Barabanl (Elton, 2013, 243). Larger towns, have evidence for many more churches, for example five
at Adrassus. The four at Dapazar may have also contained the regional bishopric (Elton, 2013, 243;
GAP, no date, C). Elton argues that it is likely that Isauria contained at least 1100 churches by the
mid-6
th
century, placing the Gksu Valley within an extremely busy Christian landscape (Elton, 2013,
234).

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Religious practice and experience in the Alahan church complex
As well as these urban sites, several more isolated and rural churches exist, such as the ecclesiastical
complexes at Alahan and Mahras Da. However, recent studies have shown that interpretations of
their apparent isolation are not quite accurate. At Alahan, the complex has close associations with
the busy Christian landscape it is part of.
Art and architecture: impact on the body and experience of the worshiper

The hardship of regular daily movement around the
topographically-challenging landscape was certainly part of the
worshipers bodily experience. The anticipation of the traveller
climbing the rock-cut staircase leading from the settlement to
the forecourt of the West Church (Elton et al, 2006, 311) would
have been enhanced by the formidable sight of the buildings
above the 17
th
century Ottoman Evliya elebi is recorded
describing the East Church as a castle (Elton et al, 2006, 302).
Some sculptural motifs in the complex further link Alahan with
the landscape, such as the decorative partridges (keklik) found
on the small shrine of the colonnaded walkway (Figure 5), that
are still found in the area today (Gough, 1985, 8). Other motifs,
such as the fish, could have had clearer numinous influences
with widespread manufacture of wine in the area (Figure 6)
(GAP, no date, A), Christian Bible stories and practices such as
communal dining may have been invoked in the viewer.
Figure 5: Shrine on colonnaded walkway showing
partridges (keklik) found in the region
(Gough, 1985, 186, Fig 57)
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Figure 6: Showing location of rock-cut wine and oil presses in the landscape (From GAP, no date, A)
Pilgrimage
The use of Alahan as a pilgrimage centre has been suggested based on its isolated, mountain-top
location, the possible presence of a hospice, and the linear design of the site (Gough, 1985, 13; Elton
et al, 2006, 311). Small steatite crosses, and a ring stone with Pegasus in intaglio may be small
pilgrim goods exchanged, or instead the daily objects used by the residents of the complex (Figure 8)
(Harrison, 1985, 28). We can add to this the ecclesiastical complexs location on the only major route
passing through the Taurus Mountains, which surely would have resulted in frequent travellers
passing through the settlement below (Figure 1). However, no saint has been associated with the
site, though St. Thecla has been associated with the wider region (Honey, 2013, 256).
Nonetheless, it is likely the complex received many visitors, and the layout of the complex suggests
areas of inclusion and exclusion. The high northern supporting wall of the walkway connecting the
West Church with Koca Kilise prohibited access and views of the northern facilities from the
walkway. It is possible that this was intended to keep visitors from the grave area, though this
contrasts more exposed tombs in the surrounding landscape (Elton et al, 2006, 333). Instead, it is
possible that this was done to separate the areas of daily activity of the permanent residents of the
church complex, such as the rock-cut rooms on the northern edge of the area, kitchens, and possible
refectory (Gough, 1985, 15), from temporary visitors to the site (Figure 7).
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Figure 7: Alahan Site Plan (Gough, 1985, end of book, Fig 71)
Figure 8: Alahan small finds (Gough, 1985, 72, Fig 11)
Figure 9: Alahan baptistery plan (Gough, 1985, 189, Fig 62)
and font (Panoramio, C)
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Conversion (and possible syncretism)
Conversion is indicated by the presence of a number of baptisteries in the landscape, for example, at
Alahan and Mahras Da (GAP, no date, C). The baptistery at Alahan is particularly well preserved
with steps in each arm of the cruciform font (Figure 9). However, unlike the purely functional
interpretations of water supply described by Gough (1985, 9), we should consider the numinous
qualities of the use of such baptisteries. A possible gateway on the western end of the walkway
could have excluded the entire complex East of the West Church (Figure 7). This may have been
exclusive to select persons, such as new converts entering to be baptised. Being part of such a
privileged party would have given great feelings of anticipation as new converts were brought down
the colonnaded walkway to the baptistery, an unfamiliar construct in the landscape and quite a
mysterious and new experience for them as they descended into water, led from a small aqueduct in
the rock face (Gough, 1985, 14), and accepted a new God.
Some decorative elements of the site might indicate lingering pagan influences. For example, the
Pegasus motif on a ring stone (Figure 8) (Harrison, 1985, 28) or the tetramorph relief of the West
Church, showing archangels trampling demons, might indicate some amount of syncretism whilst
conversion occurred (Harrison, 1985, 33).
The role of the Gksu valley as a sacred landscape
Public and private in the religious landscape
Although considering Ingolds warnings of mapping abstract boundaries on the landscape (1993,
156), we can see from the evidence that more ephemeral boundaries in relation to peoples activities
and experiences existed in the Gksu River Valley. Potential exclusion at Alahan examined above
implies boundaries between converts and non-Christians, as well as permanent residents and
temporary visitors.
We can examine the provision of water in the landscape in this way. A water spring at Karaba, with
a carved and painted opening (Elton, 2013, 237), implies that the supply of water may have been
particularly revered in ways other than merely functional. The remote location and small size of a
bathhouse at Alahan suggests that this was privately used by the residents of the ecclesiastical
complex. The most likely means of accessing the bathhouse was via the Alahan complex, as indicated
by a path still there today (Gough, 1985, 15). Here, water takes on a luxurious quality, with Roman
hypocausts and small furnace room offering a heated experience to those that had access to it
(Gough, 1985, 15-6). Thus, provision of water can be said to differ between groups those at the
settlement of Alahan receive their water from channels leading down from the complex above
(Gough, 1985, 9), whereas new converts could access the water closer to the source in the
baptistery, and finally the permanent residents of the site may have exclusive access to this isolated,
but comfortable, spring. Besides purely materialist benefits to this, the numinous experience of
receiving Gods gift of water might have been enhanced the closer one was to the holy complex at
Alahan. Thus, the landscape might appear Christian, but there might be many variations in religious
practice and experience within that Christianity.
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Monumental and minor in the landscape
The perceived needs of a Christian landscape can be seen in differences of scale. This might be
interpreted as evidence for different levels of prosperity in this region compared to others, though
recent studies argue that this was not necessarily the case (Elton, 2013, 233).
More likely, caves advocating material absence (Ingold, 2007, 6), rather than monumental features
such as the churches and baptisteries at Mahras Da and Alahan, indicate different perceptions of
Christianity were being practiced conceivably eremitic hermits required less imposing
environments to worship than a larger community of cenobitic monks (Figure 3). As the landscape
became increasingly Christianised, the caves were presumably but not necessarily disused in
favour of more monumental complexes (Gough, 1985, 13). If there was a monastic community living
at Alahan, it seems likely that they continued to reside in modified cave residences similar to those
at Mahras Da. These caves had constructed elements, such as roof beams, perhaps indicating a
transition between cave-use and constructed churches.
Visibility plays as much a role in the landscape. From the valley, and complexes at Alahan and Aloda,
the view is dominated by the monumental flat-topped mountain of Mahras Da (Gough, 1985, 7).
The red-tiled roof and white limestone walls of the Mahras Da monastic complex would have been
clearly visible (GAP, no date, C), and the religious practices of that site must have been in the minds
of the residents of the landscape, pagan or Christian.


Figure 10: View from Alahan West Church (Panoramio D)

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Cnclusin
By taking a multiscalar approach, closely studying sites such as Alahan and viewing them as part of a
connected landscape, we can see that both religious practices and experiences might have been
done in select locations and including particular groups. Likewise, differences in scale can indicate
that the monumental nature of features in the ecclesiastical landscape reflect differences in religious
practices and messages, as well as magnifying the worshipers experience.



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Bibligraphy
Elton, H. (2013) Late Roman Churches in the Upper Gksu Valley, Isauria. In Hoff, M. and
Townsend, R. (eds.) Rough Cilicia : new historical and archaeological approaches :
proceedings of an international conference held at Lincoln, Nebraska, October 2007. Oxford:
Oxford Bow Books, 233-246
Elton, H., Jackson, M., Mietke, G., Newhard, J., zgenel, L., Twigger, E. (2006) A new Late-Roman
urban centre in Isauria. Journal Of Roman Archaeology 19, 301-311
Elton, H. (2005) "Gksu Archaeological Project 2002-2004", Aratrma Sonular Toplants 23(1)
(Ankara, Ministry of Culture and Tourism), 331-342.
Evans, J. A. (2001). "View from a Turkish Monastery: an Introduction to the Early Byzantine Period."
Athena Review 3(1) (http://www.athenapub.com/9evans1.htm) Last visited 02/12/2013
Goksu Archaeological Project (GAP), A (no date) The 2003 Season: Brief Report
(http://web.archive.org/web/20040814013409/http://212.174.26.236/goksu/2003.html)
Last visited 02/12/2013
Goksu Archaeological Project (GAP), B (no date) A Brief History of the Upper Gksu Valley
(http://web.archive.org/web/20040816170641/http://212.174.26.236/goksu/regionalhistor
y.html) Last visited 02/12/2013
Goksu Archaeological Project (GAP), C (no date) Mahras Da
(http://web.archive.org/web/20040720094116/http://212.174.26.236/goksu/sites/mahrasd
ag2.htm) Last visited 02/12/2013
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(http://web.archive.org/web/20040605101155/http://212.174.26.236/goksu/sites/aloda.ht
m) Last visited 02/12/2013Gough, M. (1985). Alahan: an early Christian monastery in
Southern Turkey. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies
Harrison M., (1985) "The Inscriptions and Chronology of Alahan", M. Gough (ed.), Alahan: an early
Christian monastery in Southern Turkey. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies,
21-27
Honey, L. (2013) Topography in the Miracles of Thecla: reconfiguring Rough Cilicia. In Hoff, M. and
Townsend, R. (eds.) Rough Cilicia : new historical and archaeological approaches :
proceedings of an international conference held at Lincoln, Nebraska, October 2007. Oxford:
Oxford Bow Books, 252-259
Jackson, M. (2013) Byzantine Settlement at Kilise Tepe in the Gksu Valley. In Hoff, M. and
Townsend, R. (eds.) Rough Cilicia : new historical and archaeological approaches :
proceedings of an international conference held at Lincoln, Nebraska, October 2007. Oxford:
Oxford Bow Books, 219-232
Ingold, T (2007) Materials against materiality. Archaeological Dialogues 14, 1-16.
Ingold, T. (1993). The temporality of the landscape. World archaeology, 25(2), 152-174
Mitchell, S. (1993) Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. Volume 2: The Rise of the Church.
Oxford: Clarendon Press
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Panoramio A (no date) Tombs of the early Christian monks -
(http://www.panoramio.com/photo/85385447) Last visited 02/12/2013
Panoramio B (no date) The Monks Cells in Alahan Monastery, Mut, Mersin, Turkey
(http://www.panoramio.com/photo/15251861) Last visited 02/12/2013
Panoramio C (no date) Alahan (http://www.panoramio.com/photo/20134264) Last visited
02/12/2013
Panoramio D (no date) Western Church in Alahan Monastery, Mut, Mersin, Turkey
(http://www.panoramio.com/photo/15251328) Last visited 02/12/2013