REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature
Papaya
Papaya (Carica papaya) is a soft-stemmed tree of tropical America resembling a palm
with a crown of palmate lobed leaves. It is cultivated for its melon-like yellow fruits eaten raw or
cooked and, more recently, for the uice which has become a commercial item. !he uice
contains the en"yme papain, somewhat similar to pepsin and digestant in action# the en"yme is
used in commercial meat tenderi"ers. !he papaya is also called melon tree and pawpaw. In the
$aribbean area the fruit is called fruta bomba. %everal other Andean species, as well as the
genus Jacartia, also have edible fruits. !he papaya is classified in the division &agnoliophyta ,
class &agnoliopsida, order 'iolales, family $aricaceae (!he $olumbia (ncyclopedia, )th ed.,
*+,,).
Palm-like tree widely cultivated in tropical America for its fleshy, melon-like, edible
fruit. It also produces the en"yme papain, which breaks down proteins, and is used commercially
for a variety of purposes. -eight. to )m (*+ft) (/orld (ncyclopedia, *++0).
Mitosis
&itosis is the process of nuclear division in a living cell by which the carriers of
hereditary information, or the chromosomes , are e1actly replicated and the two copies
distributed to identical daughter nuclei. &itosis is almost always accompanied by cell division
(cytokinesis), and the latter is sometimes considered a part of the mitotic process. !he pattern of
mitosis is fundamentally the same in all cells. -owever, while animal cells apparently divide by
pinching into two separate cells, plant cells develop a cell plate, which becomes a cellulose cell
wall between the two daughter cells. !he importance of mitosis is the maintenance of the
chromosomal set# each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and
e2ual in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell (!he $olumbia (ncyclopedia, )th ed.,
*+,,).
It is the process of dividing chromosomes during cell division in eukaryotic cells. &itosis
is followed by cytokinesis, the splitting of the cytoplasm. In cell division, a parent cell splits,
producing two daughter cells that are identical to the parent. (ukaryotic unicellular organisms
like the protist Amoeba use cell division in the production of new individuals, propagating their
species. &ulticellular eukaryotic organisms, including plants, animals, and fungi, rely on cell
division to grow larger by adding new cells. !hey also use cell division to repair inured or worn-
out tissues by replacing damaged cells with new cells.
!he function of mitosis is to divide a cell3s nucleus with its chromosomes into two daughter cell
nuclei, each of which inherits the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. $onsider
mitosis in human cells, each of which contains forty-si1 chromosomes (4iology, *++*, 4lum,
&ichele 5.).
Onion
Is a plant of the family 6iliaceae, of the same genus (Allium) as the chive (A.
schoenoprasum), garlic (A. sativum), leek (A. porrum), and shallot (A. ascalonium). !hese plants
are characteri"ed by an edible bulb composed of food-storage leaves that are rich in sugar and
pungent oil, the source of its strong taste. !he above-ground green leaves, typically long and
tubular, are also eaten. All these species are believed to be native to %/ Asia and are known to
have been cultivated since ancient times. !he onion (A. cepa), no longer found wild, is a biennial
now grown in many varieties throughout the world as a table vegetable. $ommon varieties
include the strong-flavored red onion, the milder yellow onion, and the bland white onion. Pearl
onions are small white onions used for pickling. !he large %panish and 4ermuda onions have a
delicate flavor. !he onion was grown e1tensively by the ancient (gyptians, in whose writings it
is mentioned, and was later spread by the %panish colonists. !he more pungent garlic, a
perennial, has a bulb consisting of small bulbils called cloves. !his part is most often used in
cooking, chiefly as flavoring# garlic is especially popular in the &editerranean region and (ast
Asia. 7sed as a folk remedy for thousands of years, scientific investigation is confirming garlic3s
usefulness as a blood thinner, antio1idant, and cancer preventive. !he shallot (supposedly
introduced to (urope from Ascalon, or Ash2elon, by the $rusaders, hence the botanical name) is
a perennial with clusters of small onionlike bulbs. It and the more familiar leek, a biennial with a
small single bulb, are both commonly used fresh in salads, as asparaguslike cooked vegetables,
and in soups and stews. !he leek, cultivated in ancient (gypt and probably introduced to (ngland
by the 8omans, is the floral emblem of the /elsh, who adorn their hats with its leaves on %t.
5avid3s 5ay. Scallion is a popular term for any edible Allium with a reduced bulb, especially the
leek and shallot. !he /elsh onion (A. fistulosum) is a leeklike plant popular in Asia. !he chive,
today found wild in Italy and 9reece, is a hardy perennial sometimes used as an ornamental
border plant. :or flavoring, its leaves are the most desirable portion. %everal species
of Allium are native to ;orth America, where the edible types were collected by ;ative
Americans. !he ramp or wild leek (A. tricoccum) has a garlicky onion flavor. :ound in ( ;orth
America, it has a narrow bulb, thin reddish stem, and two to three elliptical, lancelike leaves. It is
pri"ed as a spring vegetable and is overharvested in some areas. 4ecause of the disagreeable odor
and taste imparted to the milk of cows that feed upon them, some species are considered weeds,
especially the common wild garlic, A. vineale, naturali"ed from (urope. <nion is classified in the
division &agnoliophyta, class 6iliopsida, order 6iliales, family 6iliaceae (!he $olumbia
(ncyclopedia, )th ed., *+,,).
A bulbous plant (Allium cepa) cultivated worldwide as a vegetable. !he rounded edible
bulb of this plant, composed of fleshy, tight, concentric leaf bases having a pungent odor and
taste (!he American -eritage 5ictionary of the (nglish 6anguage, =
th
(d., *+++).
Related Studies
According to Akee Akin!oro,

"aaru#aan $in Mo%aed, Mo%d &aini Asa'i,
S%aida Fari#a Sulaian, and Ot%an A%ad So(ian in their study last *+,,, entitled
>Antio1idants in a2ueous e1tract of Myristica fragrans (-outt.) %uppress mitosis and
cyclophosphamide-induced chromosomal aberrations in Allium cepa 6. cells?, free"e-dried
water e1tract from the leaves of Myristica fragrans (-outt.) was tested for mutagenic and
antimutagenic potentials using the Allium cepa assay. :ree"e-dried water e1tract alone and
its combination with cyclophosphamide ($P) (0+ mg@kg) were separately dissolved in tap
water at 0++, ,+++, *+++, and =+++ mg@kg. <nions (A. cepa) were suspended in the
solutions and controls for =A h in the dark. 8oot tips were prepared for microscopic
evaluation. *,*-5iphenyl-,-picrylhydra"yl (5PP-) free radicalsB scavenging power of the
e1tract was tested using butylated hydro1yanisole (4-A) and butylated hydro1ytoluene
(4-!) as standards. /ater e1tract of Myristica fragrans scavenged free radicals better than
4-A, but worse than 4-!. !he e1tract alone, as well as in combination with $P suppressed
cell division, and induced chromosomal aberrations that were insignificantly different from
the negative control (PC+.+0). -owever, cytoto1ic and mutagenic actions of $P were
considerably suppressed. !he observed effects on cell division and chromosomes
of A. cepa may be principally connected to the antio1idant properties of the e1tract. !he
obtained results suggest mitodepressive and antimutagenic potentials of water e1tract of the
leaves of M. fragrans as desirable properties of a promising anticancer agent.
In the study conducted last *+,, by A.!henmo"hi, A.;agalakshmi and 5r.7.% &ahadeva
8ao, they utili"ed the Allium cepa root tip meristem model to evaluate the cytoto1ic and
antimitotic activities of %olanum nigrum. !he studies were e1tended to human cells using
&$:-D- -uman mammary gland breast adenocarcinoma cell lines. !he method was
Preliminary antimitotic screening done using Allium cepa root tip assay. !he herbal powder
obtained from plant part-dry leaves were e1tracted with various solvents. !he antimitotic
activity was analy"ed using Allium cepa root meristematic cells. (1periments were carried
out with incorporation of folic acid in the e1tract. :olic acid inhibited the antimitotic activity
of %.nigrum e1tract. :indings. !he results obtained were compared with methotre1ate-a
known anticancer drug. (1tracts of %.nigrum was found to be e1tremely effective in the
prevention of cell proliferation of the mammary gland breast adenocarcinoma cell lines.
5iscussion. !he pronounced antimitotic and anticancer activities of %.nigrum was due to its
potential antio1idant property especially by the key role of phytochemicals such as
polyphenols, steroidal saponin glycoside, alkaloids and flavonoids. Active principle sterol
has been separated by !6$. $onclusion. !hese findings suggest that the promising
antio1idantproperties of the plant could be e1ploited in herbal preparations against o1idative
stress, ageing, and Ischemic heart disease in dissolving thrombus, microbial infections,
hormone replacement therapy (-8!) and cancer ustifying their use in traditional medicine.
In the study of P. 4harathi, 5. Philomina and %. $hakkaravarthi last *++) entitled,
)Antiitoti* E((e*t o( +ol*%i*ine (ro Si, Di((erent Spe*ies o( Gloriosa in Onion Roots
-Allium cepa./0 it states t%at $olchicine, a chief alkaloid was determined in si1 different species
of Gloriosa. %olvent e1traction of colchicine with petroleum ether and dichlomethane and
2uantification through -igh Performance 6i2uid $hromatography showed high level of
colchicine (+.E=* mg g
-,
) in Gloriosa planti amongst the species selected for the study. !he
mitotic inhibition of colchicine in onion root was standardi"ed using standard colchicine. !he
effect of colchicine e1tracted from Gloriosa species was studied in onion root tips treated with
E+ mg 6
-,
colchicine for * h. &itotic abnormalities have been observed and reported for the
e1tracts from different species of Gloriosa under study.
According to the study last *++, by the !homas Fefferson 7niversity entitled
>Antio1idant %upplementation in $ancer. Potential Interactions with $onventional
$hemotherapy and 8adiation !herapy?, the use of supra-dietary doses of chemical antio1idants
has attracted increasing interest as a possible primary and secondary cancer prevention strategy.
It is possible that some cancer patients have an inherently impaired capacity to contend with
o1idative stress because of genetic or environmental factors. %pecifically, higher levels of
intracellular antio1idants may protect against chromosomal inury induced by 7' radiation and
1enobiotic induced o1idative stress. 'itamin A and carotenoids, vitamin $, vitamin (, selenium,
and glutathione may alone or in combination afford protection. $hemotherapy and radiation
therapy result in depletion of tissue antio1idant stores. Antio1idant supplementation may be an
important part of recovery from conventional therapy and perhaps have impact on secondary
prevention.
4ased on the study >Antio1idants in $ancer !herapy# !heir Actions and Interactions with
<ncologic !herapies? by 5avis /. 6amson, &%, ;5 and &atthew %. 4rignall, ;5 last ,GGG,
there is a concern that antio1idants might reduce o1idi"ing free radicals created by radiotherapy
and some forms of chemotherapy, and thereby decrease the effectiveness of the therapy. !he
2uestion has arisen whether concurrent administration of oral antio1idants is contraindicated
during cancer therapeutics. (vidence reviewed here demonstrates e1ogenous antio1idants alone
produce beneficial effects in various cancers, and e1cept for a few specific cases, animal and
human studies demonstrate no reduction of efficacy of chemotherapy or radiation when given
with antio1idants. In fact, considerable data e1ists showing increased effectiveness of many
cancer therapeutic agents, as well as a decrease in adverse effects, when given concurrently with
antio1idants.
According to 5etlef /olfle and -ans &ar2uardt in their study >Antio1idants inhibit the
enhancement of malignant cell transformation induced by *,E,D,A-tetrachlorodiben"o-p-dio1in?
last ,GG), the mechanisms of the tumor promoting activity of *,E,D,A- tetrachlorodiben"o-p-
dio1in (!$55) were studied using as in vitro model the enhancement (3promotion3) of malignant
transformation of $E-@&* mouse fibroblasts induced by A f-methyl-.@'3-nitro-.@'-
nitrosoguanidine or E-methylcholanthrene. In this assay, the promoting effect of !$55 was
ma1imal at a very low concentration of ,.0 p& and was comparable to the effect of the reference
tumor promoter, ,*-+-tetradecanoylphorbol-,E-acetate (!PA, +.*0 Hig@ml). !he role of reactive
o1ygen species in the promoting action was investigated. mannitol, a scavenger of hydro1yl
radicals, or antio1idants, i.e. ascorbic acid plus a-tocopherol, abolished the in vitro promoting
effects of !PA and !$55. :urthermore, the involvement of protein kinase $ (PI$) activation
was studied. the protein kinase inhibitor --D markedly reduced the in vitro promoting activity of
!PA but did not affect the promotion by !$55. In accord with these results, !PA, but not
!$55, enhanced the PI$ activity in $E-@&* fibroblasts. %ince the !PA-mediated activation of
PI$ was not affected by ascorbate plus J1tocopherol, it is concluded that the antio1idants
interfere with tumor promotion at a step beyond PI$ activation. !hus, the results suggest that
the enhancement of malignant cell transformation by !PA and !$55 is dependent on a common
mechanism, possibly induced by o1ygen radicals, and, in addition, on further mechanisms that
may involve agent-specific signalling pathways (e.g. PI$ activation by !PA).