Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hydrology I
October 2003
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
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Hydrology I - I
Table of contents
1
Hydrology.................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Preface......................................................................................................................................1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Precipitation .............................................................................................................. 14
2.1
Meteorology............................................................................................................................ 14
2.1.1 Formation of precipitation ......................................................................................................... 14
2.1.2 Types of precipitation ................................................................................................................ 16
2.1.3 Forms of precipitation ............................................................................................................... 16
2.2
2.3
Parameters of precipitation...................................................................................................... 20
2.4
Measuring precipitation........................................................................................................... 21
2.4.1 Measuring point precipitation.................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2 Errors in measurement of point precipitation ............................................................................. 23
2.4.3 Remote sensing of precipitation ................................................................................................. 23
2.5
Preface ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Arithmetic mean method ........................................................................................................... 29
Thiessen polygon method .......................................................................................................... 30
Inverse-distance method ............................................................................................................ 31
Isohyetal method ....................................................................................................................... 33
Geostatistical methods............................................................................................................... 34
2.6
Evaporation............................................................................................................... 38
3.1
Preface.................................................................................................................................... 38
3.2
Types of evaporation............................................................................................................... 38
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
Evaporation............................................................................................................................... 38
Interception ............................................................................................................................... 39
Transpiration............................................................................................................................. 39
Potential and actual evaporation ................................................................................................ 39
Measurement of evaporation.................................................................................................... 40
3.3.1 Water balance methods.............................................................................................................. 40
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3.4
3.5
4.1
Definition................................................................................................................................ 55
4.2
Factors of influence................................................................................................................. 55
4.3
Properties / Characteristics...................................................................................................... 56
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Analysis of percolation............................................................................................................ 63
Groundwater............................................................................................................. 65
5.1
5.2
5.3
Measuring groundwater........................................................................................................... 67
5.4
Groundwater dynamics............................................................................................................ 67
5.5
Runoff........................................................................................................................ 75
6.1
6.2
Discharge................................................................................................................................ 77
6.2.1 Interrelation between water level and discharge......................................................................... 77
6.2.2 Methods of measurement........................................................................................................... 78
6.3
Measurement of stage.............................................................................................................. 82
6.4
6.5
Preface ...................................................................................................................................... 84
Hydrographs.............................................................................................................................. 84
Frequency, cumulative frequency and duration curve................................................................. 85
Principal figures ........................................................................................................................ 88
Hydrograph analysis................................................................................................................ 89
6.5.1 Separation of base flow.............................................................................................................. 90
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Hydrology
1.1 Preface
Hydrology is the science of water, its properties and different manifestations on and below the
surface of the Earth. It engages in the connections and interrelations between the
manifestations of water and its surroundings, the hydrologic cycle, the distribution of water on
and below the surface of the Earth and its changes caused by human impact (DIN 4049).
According to the respective characteristics of this cycle, hydrology can be subdivided into
three sections:
Hydrology of oceans (Oceanology),
Hydrometeorology,
Hydrology of the mainland.
Hydrology of the mainland can again be subdivided into:
Potamology =
Hydrology of flowing waters,
Limnology
=
Hydrology of lakes,
Geohydrology =
Science of the occurrence of water in the lithosphere and its
reactions with the rock and soil,
Glaciology
=
The science of the development, the form, the action, and the
propagation of ice on the earths surface.
In the field of hydrology, the science of measurement and observation is termed hydrometry.
The descriptive aspect is referred to as hydrography.
Engineering hydrology is the branch of hydrology that serves the application of scientific
knowledge in engineering practice and thus forms the basis for water resources engineering
projects (Figure 1.1).
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Figure 1.1:
Hydrology I - 2
Branches of Hydrology
Figure 1.2:
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Figure 1.3:
Hydrology I - 3
Figure 1.4:
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Table 1.1:
Reference area
Volume
2
[1000 km ]
[1000 km3]
Percent of total
water
Percent of
freshwater
mean
retention
period
1. Oceans
361 300
1 338 000
96,5
2. Groundwater
134 800
23 400
1,7
10 530
0,76
30,1
4 000
0,289
11,42
286 a
Freshwater
Moving groundwater
2650 a
3. Soil moisture
82 000
65
0,0047
0,18
280 a
4. Frozen water
16 228
24 3651)
1,766
69,56
8 400 a
Antarctica
13 980
21 600
1,56
61,7
Greenland
1 802
2 340
0,17
6,68
Arctic islands
226
84
0,006
0,24
Mountainous areas
224
41
0,003
0,117
21 000
300
0,022
0,86
2 059
176
0,013
1 237
91
0,007
0,26
Saltwater
822
85
0,006
6. Swamps
2 683
11
0,0008
0,03
7. Rivers
148 800
2,1
0,0002
0,006
18,5 d
8. Water in organisms
510 000
1,1
0,0001
0,003
7d
9. Atmosphere
510 000
13
0,001
0,04
8,2 d
Total
510 000
1 386 032
100
2 400 a
Freshwater
148 800
35 077
2,53
100
Permafrost
5. Lakes
Freshwater
1)
1600 a
10 a
Not included is the subsurface waterstorage in the Antarctic, which amounts to approximately 2 Mio. km .
3
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The atmospheric part of the hydrologic cycle provides all the water for mainland runoff.
However, if all the atmospheric water vapor condensed and precipitated instantly, a layer of
only 25 mm thickness would cover the earth. Comparing this with 1130 mm, the mean annual
precipitation on the earths surface, provides a mean detention period of 8 days for each water
particle in the atmosphere (365 days x 25 mm/1130 mm = 8.1 days). The following comparison
helps illustrate the quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere. Lake Constance contains 50 km3
of water. Consequently, the quantity of water in the atmosphere equals 260 times the volume
in Lake Constance (13,000 km / 50 km).
hP
[mm]
hQ
[mm]
hE
[mm]
hS
[mm]
(see also Figure 1.5)
(1.1)
height of precipitation
discharge height
evaporation height
change in storage
Usually magnitudes related to the hydrologic cycle are expressed in mm per unit time. Thereby
one millimeter is equivalent to one liter of water per square meter. The numerical values refer
to the horizontal projection of the respective area.
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Figure 1.5:
Hydrology I - 7
In water regime study it is more important to determine the respective components of the
water regime for an area rather than a point. The decisive area for water regime related issues
ranges from a few square kilometers up to the size of the Federal Republic of Germany. It may
be of interest to determine the water regime of a river catchment, a political unity (states,
counties), a geographical unity (type of countryside) or an economical unity.
Precipitation
The height of precipitation hP provides water in a drainage basin. It can be subdivided into
rain- and snowfall, dew and rime. Generally, only the first two items add significantly to the
water regime. In the water balance equation they are used as one combined term.
Outflow
The discharge height hQ of a natural river basin can be determined by:
h Q = h Q, s + h Q, u + h Q, t
hQ
hQ,s
hQ,u
hQ,t
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(1.2)
discharge height
discharge height (surface)
discharge height (underground)
water transfer from, or into, adjacent catchments
In the expression discussed above, it is necessary to subtract inflow from neighboring basins
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from observations at the outflow gage of the basin and to determine groundwater outflow
hQ,t beside the gage.
Evaporation
The evaporation height hE derives from
h E = h E, i + h E, t + h E , s + h E, w
hE
hE,i
hE,t
hE,s
hE,w
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(1.3)
evaporation height
evaporation from plant surfaces (interception)
evaporation from plants (transpiration)
evaporation from bare soil
evaporation from an open-water surface
hS
hS,s
hS,m
hS,g
hS,i
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(1.4)
storage depth
surface water storage
soil moisture storage above groundwater level
groundwater storage
snow or ice storage
For specific purposes, e. g. if a dam is located in the watershed, it may be worthwhile to make
use of the equation discussed above. Otherwise, the components may be used in combination.
In contrast to the other terms of the water regime (apart from in- or outflow hQ,t from
neighboring areas) hS may have positive or negative values. Over a long period, however,
positive and negative values tend to balance and the change in storage volume may be
disregarded. Considering hS = 0, the water balance equation simplifies to
hP = hQ + hE
hP
hQ
hE
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(1.5)
height of precipitation
discharge height
evaporation height
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Figure 1.6:
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Water regime
Spatial
component
variation
Temporal variation
Annual
cycle
Daily
cycle
Hour
Day
Month
Year
Precipitation
high
low
none
high
high
high
intermediate
Evaporation
less
distinct
high
high
low
intermediate
high
low
Runoff
high
intermediate
none
significan
t variation
likely
high
high
intermediate
Change of
storage volume
high
low
low
high
high
intermediate
low
Change of
storage volume
in snow
blankets
high
high
low
low
intermediate
high
high
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arid climate
nival climate
subnival climate
seminival climate
Figure 1.7:
Hydrology I - 11
The climatic zones of the earth (source: Klassifikation von Kppen und
Geiger, 1930/39)
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Figure 1.8:
Hydrology I - 12
Figure 1.9 shows the river network of Middle Europe with the principal drainage basins Elbe,
Danube, Rhine, Weser, Rhone and direct tributaries to the North- and Baltic sea.
Figure 1.9:
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Precipitation
2.1 Meteorology
2.1.1 Formation of precipitation
In the atmosphere, water is present as vapor. The volume of water that can be dissolved in the
atmosphere is limited, however this volume increases with temperature (Table 2.1). The vapor
pressure pV,s at the point of saturation (saturation vapor pressure) provides the maximum
possible water content, whereas the actual vapor pressure pV provides the present content of
water.
The saturation vapor pressure pV,s can be appoximated by:
p V, s
17,27 t L
237,3+ t L
= 611 e
pV,s
tL
[Pa]
[C]
(2.1)
The relative air humidity is defined as the ratio of actual and saturation vapor pressure for the
given air temperature.
u=
pV
p V,s
u
pV
pV,s
(2.2)
[-]
[Pa]
[Pa]
relative humidity
vapor pressure
saturation vapor pressure
For any given water content the air temperature corresponding to the saturation vapor pressure
is termed the dew point. If air cools below the dew point, the excess water vapor eventually
condenses to clouds and may, after complex transformations, occur as precipitation.
Table 2.1:
-20
-10
+10
+20
+30
1.1
124
2.4
285
4.8
611
9.4
1228
17.2
2339
30.3
4244
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Water vapor condenses to cloud droplets with a radius of approximately 10-3 mm. The
transition from cloud droplets to rain drops with a magnitude of about 1 mm in radius arises
from two different physical principles:
Coalescence: Cloud particles flow together predominantly on account of collision. This
metamorphosis takes place only above freezing temperature and mainly over the sea.
Layered clouds provide drizzling rain, cumuliform clouds provide large-drop showers
of rain.
Bergeron-Findeisen-Process: Typical feature of this process is the simultaneous
coagulation and accretion of water vapor on ice particles. This process occurs below
freezing temperature and predominantly over the mainland. Layered clouds provide
snow flakes that eventually turn into drizzling rain, presuming that the air temperature
rises. Snow pellets arise from cumuliform clouds and ultimately turn into large-drop
showers of rain.
Figure 2.1 displays schematically the formation of precipitation according to the processes
discussed above.
Figure 2.1:
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Table 2.2:
Hydrology I - 17
Name
Explanation
Falling precipitation
Deposited precipitation
Retained precipitation
Dew
Rime
Fog precipitation
Rime frost
Rainfall
Snow
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Figure 2.2:
In addition, the global rainfall distribution is strongly influenced by the proximity to oceans,
orographic effects and other factors. The long-time mean annual height of precipitation ranges
from 6000 mm (selected tropical areas) down to 20 mm (subtropical arid regions). For
Germany, maps illustrating the long-time mean annual rainfall distribution can be taken from
the "Hydrologischer Atlas".
It may also be of interest to compare the highest values of precipitation ever observed on earth.
Figure 2.3 displays the of precipitation for selected rainfall gaging stations related to its
respective duration. The limiting lines obtained from the diagram may be used to assess the
plausibility of observed extreme precipitation values.
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Figure 2.3:
Hydrology I - 19
Most regions can be characterized by examining one factor, the seasonal distribution of
precipitation. Several main types of rainfall regimes can be distinguished:
the tropical type containing two wet seasons (peaks in April and November) along the
equator except trade wind and monsoon areas featuring only one wet season,
the subtropical type featuring winter rain,
the temperate zone type characterized by rainfall throughout the year according to
continentality and elevation.
Even in temperate zones a precipitation regime throughout the year can be determined.
Although it is by far not as distinct as the outflow regime (see lecture "Statistics"), months high
or low in precipitation can easily be distinguished.
Differences during a single rainfall event can be noted. Temporal and spatial distributions may
vary according to the type of precipitation which occurs. For example, convective rainfall
(heavy rainfall) produces the highest temporal and spatial variability in a single rainfall event.
Figure 2.4 displays a rainfall event in the course of a thunderstorm over Herrenberg (Stuttgart
vicinity). It lasted 1.75 hours and was recorded by five rain gages. Although the gages were
located only a few kilometers apart a difference of precipitation totals up to 50 mm can be
observed. Figure 2.5 shows the rainfall distribution of a two-day rainfall event. Here, too, the
areal variability of rainfall totals with values between 20 and 70mm is high, despite the small
catchment size (AC = 75 km2).
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Figure 2.4:
Figure 2.5:
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up to
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Figure 2.6:
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The measurements produce a precipitation mass curve (Figure 2.7). The height of precipitation
hP for any period of time TP can be determined using this curve. The rise of the mass curve
indicates the precipitation intensity iP. The sudden drops (vertical lines) on the mass curve
represent an emptying of the measuring cylinder. For computer use, the mass curves recorded
in an analog manner need to be digitized.
Figure 2.7:
Several other methods to continuously measure point precipitation have been developed
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photoelectric drop-counting,
weighing-type rain gages,
seesaw type rain gages.
These three methods lend themselves well to electronic data processing and remote recording.
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Radar measurement
Radar (Radar = Radio detecting and ranging) precipitation measurement uses the fact that
microwave range radiation is reflected by water droplets (and also by snow and ice) in the
atmosphere. A signal, with a frequency of 250 300Hz and an opening angle of 1-2, is pulsed
from a sender. The sender rotates around the vertical axis (Azimuth angle) and changes its
angle with the horizontal (Elevation angle) with each revolution. The emitted electromagnetic
waves have a length of between 1-10 cm, and a frequency ranging from 3 to 30 GHz. A
fraction of these electromagnetic waves is reflected back by the precipitation to the sender,
which also acts as a receiver. From the strength of the reception signals, conclusions can be
drawn about the quantity of precipitation in the investigated volume., from the time lag about
the distance from the target to the radar station. From the actual azimuth and elevation angles
at signal emission, and the reflection time, the position of the examined precipitation volume
can be exactly determined.
With this we can obtain an all round picture as a stock of height layers, approximately every
ten minutes, with a resolution of 500mx500m and a maximum range of around 200km.
Using the so-called Radar equation, the reflectivity can be calculated through the amount of
energy scattered back from the target area.
Z=
Z
PB
r
C
k
PB r 2
Ck
(2.3)
[mm6/m3]
radar reflectivity
[W]
backscattered radiation
[m]
target distance
5
[Wm /mm6] radar coefficient
[-]
hydrometeor reflection factor
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i P = a Zb
iP
a
b
Z
[mm/h]
[-]
[-]
[mm6/m3]
(2.4)
precipitation intensity
formula parameter
formula parameter
radar reflectivity
The calibration factors a and b vary from event to event, according to the type and size
spectrum of the hydrometeors, which complicates the evaluation of the radar data. Usually the
data is averaged through comparison with ground-measured precipitation data, or long
established annual average values are employed. For different weather types the following
average values for the calibration factors are recommended:
Table 2.3:
0.030
0.746
0.020
0.704
0.019
0.730
Thunderstorm
0.016
0.725
Average relation
0.022
0.699
With radar precipitation measurement, attention should be paid to further possible sources of
error. It is assumed for example, that within a pulse volume
Only one type of hydrometeors are found (k uniform),
The hydrometeors are uniformly distributed within the pulse volume,
The entire pulse volume is filled with hydrometeors.
It is usually supposed, that repeated scatterings are negligible and that the radar signal is not
attenuated in any way whilst travelling to the distant target volume.
A further error source comes as a result of the radar signal being reflected by the ground
("Ground Clutter"), from topographical conditions creating a shadowing effect, and from the
curvature of the earth: A radar signal emitted at ground level, with an elevation angle 0 will
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reach an altitude of 780m, 100km from the emission source. Precipitation measurement near
the ground surface is therefore no longer possible after a certain distance, however especially
in the lower layers of the atmosphere, the size of a falling hydrometeor can still change
dramatically. Errors of the gross order of 20% must therefore be taken into account in the
determination of the precipitation intensity.
The German Weather Service (DWD) is currently building a radar network of some 16
stations, making a country-wide uninterrupted observation possible (Figure 2.8).
Due to their spatial, and temporal, high-resolution coverage of precipitation in real time, radar
images are especially suitable for flood forecasting. Figure 2.9, Figure 2.10 and Figure 2.11
show, in 10 minute intervals, the movement of a precipitation field over Baden-Wrttemberg,
measured by the weather radar at the Karlsruhe research centre, with a resolution of
500x500m.
Figure 2.8:
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Figure 2.9:
Hydrology I - 27
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Name
NOAA-series
LANDSAT
SPOT
METEOSAT/
GOES/GMS
Type
Managed by
Altitude
Spatial resolution
polar-orbiting
NOAA/NESS
833 - 1400 km
900 m
polar-orbiting
SPOT Image
815 - 830 km
10 m (!)
geostationary
ESA/NOAA/Japan
35.800 km
5 km
Temporal resolution
Channels
12 h
2
polar-orbiting
NASA/NOAA
705 - 918 km
80 m (MSS)
30 m (TM)
16 days
7 (!)
2.5 days
3
30 min (!)
3
Precipitation characteristics may be estimated through the examination of cloud cover using
information from the visible and infrared spectral range. Precipitation total and duration may be
obtained from empirical estimations considering cloud type, -thickness, -surface temperature
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and -size. Several empirical methods such as "indexing", "life history" and "bispectral
techniques" may be used. Satellites of the new generation are also equipped with micro wave
sensors (ERS-1) to allow a more "direct estimation of precipitation similar to radar use.
Data obtained from satellites are extremely valuable for precipitation estimation in areas
without gage-sites (e. g. above oceans). However, as with radar data, satellite data is subject to
calibration.
hP =
hP
nS
hP,i
S
1
h P ,i
n S i =1
[mm]
[-]
[mm]
areal precipitation
number of stations
height of precipitation at station / element i.
(2.5)
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hP =
nS
W i h P ,i
Hydrology I - 31
(2.6)
i=1
hP
Wi
hP,i
[mm]
[-]
[mm]
areal precipitation
weight of station i
height of precipitation at station / element i
Ai
n
(2.7)
Ai
i =1
Wi
[-]
weight of station i
Ai
[km2]
area associated with station / element i
in equation (2.6) provides areal precipitation.
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observations. The quadrant method is most commonly used (Figure 2.15). A pair of coordinate
lines facing North-South and East-West is placed upon each gridpoint. The gridpoint
precipitation value is computed from the four closest gage stations, one in each quadrant.
Areal precipitation may then be determined by computing the arithmetic mean using all
gridpoint precipitation data.
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h P, j =
Wi , j h P ,i
(2.8)
i =1
hP,j
Wi,j
hP,i
[mm]
[-]
[mm]
where the weights Wi,j are the relative reciprocal square distances between the gridpoint and
the respective gage station.
1 / d i2, j
W i, j =
(2.9)
2
i =1 d i , j
Wi,j
di,j
[-]
[m]
hP =
G
1
h P, j
n G j =1
hP
nG
hP,j
[mm]
[-]
[mm]
(2.10)
areal precipitation
number of gridpoints
height of precipitation at gridpoint j
hP
hP,i
Wi
Wi h N ,i
(2.11)
i =1
[mm]
[mm]
[-]
areal precipitation
precipitation of isohyet-area i
weight of respective area i according to (2.7)
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
[-]
Hydrology I - 34
This method allows inclusion of orographic effects (effects due to the relief) during
construction of the contour lines. The contour line maps are therefore unique to each author.
In the past this method was primarily used to illustrate long-term mean precipitation
distributions. Nowadays techniques exist that provide a more objective consideration of the
previously mentioned causes of influence.
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 35
Figure 2.17: Variogram = Areal rainfall variance related to the distance of the measurement
locations
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 36
have been published, valid only for the respective station. In 1990, however, with KOSTRA "coordinated analysis and extrapolation of rainstorm events, 1987" (DWD, 1990) a statistical
extreme-value analysis was introduced. KOSTRA is valid for the whole area of the FRG and is
based on meteorological properties. Using several methods of interpolation extreme-value
statistics for ungaged locations were computed. Hence, besides tables, plots and analytic
illustrations of extreme-value distributions for the respective gage-sites, the KOSTRA-atlas
contains maps displaying the interpolated rainstorm heights of precipitation of various
recurrence intervals (3.700 grid squares per map, each grid area measuring
A = 71,5 km2)(Figure 2.18).
Figure 2.18: Extreme precipitation with 100-year recurrence interval (source: DWD, 1990)
Figure 2.19 displays the precipitation height-duration diagram of an extreme-value analysis for
a single location.
A problem that arises in the course of extreme-value analysis is the conversion of point-related
data to an area which is crucial for water management design. Compared to point-related
data, the extreme-values of precipitation averaged over an area decrease with growing
size. To take this effect into consideration, reduction curves have been developed to allow
conversion of point- into areal values (Figure 2.20).
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 37
Figure 2.19: Precipitation duration against height and frequency of precipitation related to a
gage station
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 38
Evaporation
3.1 Preface
Evaporation is defined as the slow transformation from the liquid to the gaseous phase below
the boiling point. Decisive for the amount of evaporation is the difference between the vapor
pressure of the liquid and the pressure of the atmosphere. Should they be equal, the air is
saturated which corresponds to 100 % relative humidity.
Evaporation forms a major segment of the hydrologic cycle. Combined with precipitation, it
links the earths major water bodies (ocean-atmosphere-mainland). The water balance equation
for a watershed contains evaporation as loss (hE). It is expressed as the height of an evenly
distributed layer of water evaporated from an area (areal evaporation).
3.2.1 Evaporation
Losses due to evaporation can be described by the physical interactions with open water
bodies (open water evaporation hE,w), bare soil (soil evaporation hE,s) and water intercepted
by plants (interception hE,i).
Meteorological conditions strongly influence evaporation. For example, evaporation is
dependent on:
saturation deficit of air,
air temperature,
wind speed,
soil radiation.
Each parameter influences evaporation to various degrees. However, the degree of influence
can only be determined by sophisticated tests as many atmospheric conditions influence
evaporation. This makes it difficult to isolate each component.
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 39
3.2.2 Interception
Interception is one of the many processes which occur during evaporation. But due to some
specific properties of interception, it is subdivided once more.
Interception is the portion of precipitation retained at the surface of plants and
evaporated back into the atmosphere without reaching the land surface.
Interception is dependent on:
meteorological parameters (duration, height, intensity and temporal distribution of
precipitation, wind, radiation, intensity of potential evaporation), and
characteristics of vegetation (type and age of vegetation, percentage of tree top
coverage, seasonal development).
All types of vegetation contribute to interception, crops as well as trees, shrubs and
groundcovering plants in multi-storey forest. In general, coniferous forests provide higher rates
of interception than deciduous forests. Pine trees intercept approximately one-third of the
annual mean precipitation whereas crops intercept between 6 and 12%.
Interception is determined by comparing measurements below the covering of vegetation and
measurements of uncovered areas. It can be computed as follows:
h E , i = h P (h P, t + h S, st )
hE,i
hP
[mm]
[mm]
hP,t
hS,st
[mm]
[mm]
(3.1)
3.2.3 Transpiration
Transpiration hE,t is the discharge of water vapor to the atmosphere by plants as a result
of metabolism. Transpiration is influenced by the same factors as evaporation. In addition, the
type of plant, location, season and soil type must be considered.
Estimating transpiration is difficult, thus evaporation and transpiration are grouped together
during measurements.
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 40
water availability to use up all available energy. In comparison, the actual evaporation hE,a
is the amount of water actually evaporated. This is dependent on the present quantities
of water and energy. The majority of the time , the soil humidity is lower than the optimum.
Thus the actual evaporation is normally less than the potential evaporation. Only under the
condition of optimum water availability does hE,p equal hE,a.
The approach described above is a simplification as hE,p is not actually independent from hE,a.
For further information see section 3.4.
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(3.2)
evaporation height
height of precipitation
change in storage
In Germany, the BINDMANN evaporation pan is widely used (Figure 3.1). It is comprised of
a pan filled with water (K) and an overflow cylinder (Z). The latter consumes surplus water via
a overflow standpipe (R) as soon as the water level rises beyond 15 mm below the pan rim.
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 41
Evaporation is computed as the difference in the observed levels measured by a point gage
during observation intervals.
Figure 3.1:
Lysimeters
The lysimeter provides the most accurate estimates of evapotranspiration (Figure 3.2). It is
comprised of a block of soil overgrown by natural vegetation which is enclosed by a container.
The block has a surface area of 1 m2 and a depth of 1 - 2 meters. Percolating water is drained
and measured together with the height of precipitation. Evapotranspiration is obtained by
applying a simple balance equation if sufficient soil moisture is ensured, e. g. by sprinkling.
Given that the change in soil moisture within the lysimeter can be determined (e. g. with the
help of scales) the actual height of evaporation may be estimated by:
h E = h P h Q, u h S
hE
hP
hQ,u
hS
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(3.3)
evaporation height
height of precipitation
discharge height (underground)
change in storage
The change in storage hS can be assessed by direct measurement of the soil moisture content.
For suitable methods see section 4.
The value of evaporation obtained only relates to the specific soil type, location and
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 42
vegetation. However, lysimeters can describe the natural process of evaporation much more
accurately than any evaporation pan. The results may then be interpolated.
Figure 3.2:
Built-in lysimeter
hE
AV
u
z
du
u
AV
dz
z
(3.4)
[mm]
evaporation height
[kg/ms] water vapor exchange coefficient
[-]
relative air humidity
[m]
geodetic height
The mass-transfer coefficient is a function of the vertical gradient of wind speed. Both wind
speed and relative humidity need to be present in highest temporal resolution and consequently
this method demands sophisticated measuring practice. Therefore, this method is hardly ever
used.
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 43
hE =
hE
hE
t
W
l
h E t
1000
W l
[mm]
[W/m2]
[s]
[kg/m3]
[J/kg]
(3.5)
evaporation height
evaporation in unit energy / Energy equivalent of evaporated water
time frame
density of water = 1000 kg/m3
Remark: 1W = 1 J/s
latent heat of vaporisation for water = 2 500 000 J/kg
Water is present due to precipitation hP, and energy is present due to net radiation RN (Figure
3.3). Net radiation can be computed from the difference in incoming and reflected
radiation. The soil serves as a storage volume retaining a portion of water (hS) and energy as
ground heat flow (B) which is later released back into the atmosphere. A portion of the water
disappears as surface or subsurface discharge QO,s and QO,g respectively, another portion
evaporates (hE). The evaporating water causes a change in energy as some energy is used up as
latent heat flow (hE). The latent heat flow amounts to approximately 2/3 of the energy gained
by the net radiation RN , the soil heat flow runs up to 5 - 10 %. The rest of the energy is
converted to sensible heat flow H. This happens only if the air temperature is lower than the
temperature of the surface where evaporation takes place.
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Figure 3.3:
Hydrology I - 44
If it is possible to determine the amount of available energy within an area, the possible
evaporation of this area can be determined. The first fundamental principle of thermodynamics
provides a means to determine this value. According to this law of energy conservation it can
be assumed that
R N - hE - H - B = 0
RN
hE
H
B
[W/m2]
[W/m2]
[W/m2]
[W/m2]
(3.6)
net radiation
evaporation in unit energy / Energy equivalent of evaporated water
sensible heat flow
ground heat flow
Under the premise that RN, H and B can be quantified, hE may be determined. It can be
assumed that net radiation and the soil heat flow may be measured. Computation of the
sensible heat flow can be obtained from an air temperature profile.
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 45
hE
hP
hQ
hS
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(3.7)
evaporation height
areal precipitation
discharge height
change in storage
Presuming the water storage volume acquires the same numerical value at the beginning and
end of a period of time (e. g. from May - April), hS = 0, and the balance equation is reduced
to:
hE = hP hQ
hE
hP
hQ
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(3.8)
evaporation height
areal precipitation
discharge height
p pV
h E ,p = ( w S R B ) t + (1 w S ) ( 0, 27 + 0.0312 10 3 v W ) V ,s
100
hE,p
ws
RB
t
[mm]
[-]
[mm/d]
[d]
potential evapotranspiration
radiation weighting factor (Table 3.1)
radiation balance as equivalent evapotranspiration, from (3.10)
time frame
(3.9)
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 46
vw
pV,s
pV
[m/s]
[Pa]
[Pa]
and
R B = R N, s R N, l
RB
RN,s
RN,l
[mm/d]
[mm/d]
[mm/d]
(3.10)
radiation balance as equivalent evapotranspiration
net short wave radiation as equivalent evapotranspiration, from (3.11)
net long wave radiation as equivalent evapotranspiration, from (3.12)
with
t
R N, s = (1 a r ) 0,25 + 0,5 S
t Max
RN,s
ar
[mm/d]
[-]
tS
tMax
[h/d]
[h/d]
RE
[mm/d]
R E
(3.11)
and
R N, l = 1,98 10
RN,l
tL
pV
tS
tMax
[mm/d]
[C]
[Pa]
[h/d]
[h/d]
(273 + t L )
t
pV 2
0,34 0,044
0,1 + 0,9 S
t Max
100
(3.12)
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 47
Table 3.1:
Values of the weighting factor wS, for the effect of radiation on the potential
evapotranspiration height hET,p for different temperatures and altitudes (source:
Maniak, 1988)
Height above Sea Level
Temperature in
[C]
[moSL]
0
500
1000
2000
0,43
0,44
0,46
0,49
0,46
0,48
0,49
0,52
0,49
0,51
0,52
0,55
0,52
0,54
0,55
0,58
10
0,55
0,57
0,58
0,61
12
0,58
0,60
0,61
0,64
14
0,61
0,62
0,64
0,66
16
0,64
0,65
0,66
0,69
18
0,66
0,67
0,69
0,71
20
0,68
0,70
0,71
0,73
22
0,71
0,72
0,73
0,75
24
0,73
0,74
0,75
0,77
26
0,75
0,76
0,77
0,79
28
0,77
0,78
0,79
0,81
30
0,78
0,79
0,80
0,82
32
0,80
0,81
0,82
0,84
34
0,82
0,82
0,83
0,85
36
0,83
0,84
0,85
0,86
38
0,84
0,85
0,86
0,87
40
0,85
0,86
0,87
0,88
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 48
Table 3.2:
N. Latitude []
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
Mai
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
S. Latitude []
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
54
8.0
9.9
11.8
14.1
16.1
17.1
16.6
14.9
12.7
10.6
8.6
7.4
52
8.3
10.0
11.8
13.9
15.7
16.7
16.3
14.6
12.7
10.7
8.8
7.8
50
8.5
10.1
11.8
13.8
15.4
16.3
15.9
14.5
12.7
10.8
9.1
8.1
48
8.8
10.2
11.8
13.6
15.2
16.0
15.6
14.3
12.6
10.9
9.3
8.3
46
9.1
10.4
11.9
13.5
14.9
15.7
15.4
14.2
12.6
10.9
9.5
8.7
44
9.3
10.5
11.9
13.4
14.7
15.4
15.2
14.0
12.6
11.0
9.7
8.9
42
9.4
10.6
11.9
13.4
14.6
15.2
14.9
13.9
12.5
11.1
9.8
9.1
40
9.6
10.7
11.9
13.3
14.4
15.0
14.7
13.7
12.5
11.2
10.0
9.3
35
10.1
11.0
11.9
13.1
14.0
14.5
14.3
13.5
12.4
11.3
10.3
9.8
30
10.4
11.1
12.0
12.9
13.6
14.0
13.9
13.2
12.4
11.5
10.6
10.2
25
10.7
11.3
12.0
12.7
13.3
13.7
13.5
13.0
12.3
11.6
10.9
10.6
20
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.6
13.1
13.3
13.2
12.8
12.3
11.7
11.2
10.9
15
11.3
11.6
12.0
12.5
12.8
13.0
12.9
12.6
12.2
11.8
11.4
11.2
10
11.6
11.8
12.0
12.3
12.6
12.7
12.6
12.4
12.1
11.8
11.6
11.5
11.8
11.9
12.0
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.3
12.3
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.8
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
12.1
UNIVERSITT STUTTGART
INSTITUTE OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
CHAIR OF HYDROLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
Hydrology I - 49
Table 3.3:
Latitude
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
54 North
52
50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50 Sd
2.7
3.3
3.8
4.3
4.9
5.3
5.9
6.4
6.9
7.4
7.9
8.3
8.8
9.3
9.8
10.2
10.7
11.2
11.6
12.0
12.4
12.8
13.2
13.6
13.9
14.3
14.7
15.0
15.3
15.5
15.8
16.1
16.4
16.6
16.7
16.9
17.1
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.8
17.8
17.9
17.9
17.9
17.8
17.8
17.7
17.6
17.5
5.1
5.6
6.1
6.6
7.1
7.6
8.1
8.6
9.0
9.4
9.8
10.2
10.7
11.1
11.5
11.9
12.3
12.7
13.0
13.3
13.6
13.9
14.2
14.5
14.8
15.0
15.3
15.5
15.7
15.8
16.0
16.1
16.3
16.3
16.4
16.4
16.5
16.5
16.5
16.5
16.4
16.4
16.4
16.2
16.1
16.0
15.8
15.7
15.5
15.3
15.1
14.9
14.7
8.6
9.0
9.4
9.8
10.2
10.6
11.0
11.4
11.8
12.1
12.4
12.8
13.1
13.4
13.7
13.9
14.2
14.4
14.6
14.7
14.9
15.1
15.3
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.7
15.6
15.6
15.5
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.2
15.1
15.0
14.8
14.6
14.4
14.3
14.0
13.8
13.5
13.2
12.8
12.5
12.2
11.9
11.5
11.2
10.9
12.0
12.3
12.7
13.0
13.3
13.7
14.0
14.3
14.5
14.7
14.8
15.0
15.2
15.3
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.6
15.6
15.7
15.7
15.7
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.3
15.1
14.9
14.7
14.4
14.2
14.0
13.7
13.5
13.2
13.0
12.6
12.3
12.0
11.6
11.3
10.9
10.5
10.1
9.6
9.2
8.8
8.4
7.9
7.5
7.0
15.5
15.7
15.8
15.9
16.0
16.1
16.2
16.4
16.4
16.4
16.5
16.5
16.5
16.5
16.4
16.4
16.3
16.3
16.1
16.0
15.8
15.7
15.5
15.3
15.1
14.9
14.6
14.4
14.1
13.8
13.4
13.1
12.8
12.5
12.1
11.7
11.4
11.0
10.6
10.2
9.7
9.3
8.9
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.1
6.6
6.1
5.7
5.2
4.7
4.2
17.0
17.0
17.1
17.2
17.2
17.2
17.3
17.3
17.2
17.2
17.1
17.0
17.0
16.8
16.7
16.6
16.4
16.4
16.1
15.9
15.7
15.5
15.3
15.0
14.7
14.4
14.2
13.9
13.5
13.2
12.8
12.4
12.0
11.6
11.2
10.8
10.4
10.0
9.6
9.1
8.7
8.2
7.8
7.3
6.8
6.3
5.8
5.3
4.9
4.4
4.0
3.5
3.1
16.3
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.6
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.8
16.8
16.8
16.7
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.3
16.1
15.9
15.7
15.5
15.3
15.1
14.9
14.6
14.3
14.1
13.7
13.4
13.1
12.7
12.4
12.0
11.6
11.2
10.8
10.4
10.0
9.5
9.1
8.6
8.1
7.7
7.2
6.8
6.3
5.9
5.4
4.9
4.4
4.0
3.5
13.7
13.9
14.1
14.3
14.5
14.7
15.0
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.7
15.7
15.8
15.8
15.9
15.8
15.7
15.7
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.2
15.1
14.9
14.8
14.5
14.3
14.0
13.7
13.5
13.2
12.9
12.6
12.3
12.0
11.6
11.2
10.9
10.4
10.1
9.6
9.2
8.8
8.3
7.9
7.4
6.9
6.5
6.0
5.5
10.2
10.6
10.9
11.2
11.5
11.9
12.2
12.5
12.8
13.1
13.4
13.6
13.9
14.1
14.3
14.5
14.6
14.8
14.9
15.0
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.3
15.2
15.1
15.0
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.5
14.3
14.1
13.9
13.7
13.4
13.2
13.0
12.7
12.4
12.0
11.7
11.4
11.0
10.6
10.2
9.7
9.3
8.9
6.5
7.0
7.4
7.8
8.3
8.7
9.1
9.6
10.0
10.6
10.8
11.2
11.6
12.0
12.3
12.6
13.0
13.3
13.6
13.9
14.1
14.4
14.7
14.8
15.0
15.1
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
15.8
15.8
15.8
15.8
15.8
15.7
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.1
14.9
14.6
14.4
14.2
14.0
13.7
13.4
13.2
12.9
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
9.9
10.3
10.7
11.1
11.6
12.0
12.4
12.8
13.3
13.6
13.9
14.2
14.5
14.8
15.1
15.3
15.5
15.8
16.0
16.2
16.4
16.5
16.7
16.8
17.0
17.0
17.1
17.2
17.2
17.3
17.2
17.1
17.0
17.0
16.9
16.8
16.7
16.7
16.6
16.5
2.2
2.7
3.2
3.7
4.3
4.7
5.2
5.7
6.1
6.6
7.2
7.8
8.3
8.8
9.3
9.7
10.2
10.7
11.1
11.6
12.0
12.5
12.9
13.3
13.7
14.1
14.4
14.8
15.1
15.4
15.7
16.0
16.2
16.5
16.6
16.8
17.1
17.4
17.5
17.7
17.8
17.9
18.1
18.1
18.2
18.2
18.3
18.3
18.3
18.3
18.3
18.2
18.2
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Potential evaporation is easily computed using the TURC approach, based on lysimeter
measurements on wet meadows:
h ET,p = ( C1 + C 2 t S ) t A
hET,p
C1,C2
n
tS
tA
[mm]
[-]
[d]
[h/d]
[C]
n
t A + 15
(3.13)
potential evaporation
constants dependent on season and geographical location (Table 3.4)
period of time, measured in days
averaged n-day number of sunshine hours
averaged n-day air temperature
Considering that the empirical relation discussed above is only valid for wet meadows,
adjustment factors need to be introduced for other surface types to take the difference in
absorption ability into account. TURCs equation may only be applied for temperatures above
freezing level.
Table 3.4:
C1, C2 for the TURC formula at a latitude of 53o north (e.g. central Europe)
Month
C1
C2
January
1.09
0.180
February
1.40
0.259
March
1.86
0.350
April
2.36
0.429
May
2.76
0.476
June
3.00
0.489
July
2.93
0.484
August
2.58
0.448
September
2.10
0.390
October
1.57
0.294
November
1.19
0.210
December
1.02
0.158
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Evaporation from open water bodies may be computed by either energy balance methods or
the aerodynamic approaches using float evaporation pan measurements.
hE,a
hE,p
[mm]
[]
[mm]
(3.14)
actual evaporation
reduction factor: actual evaporation / potential evaporation
potential evaporation
h E , a = f H p V, s p V t
hE,a
fH
pV,s
pV
t
Table 3.5:
(3.15)
[mm]
actual evaporation
[mm/(Pa d)] Haude factor to calculate actual evaporation (Table 3.5)
[Pa]
saturation vapor pressure according to (2.1)
[Pa]
vapor pressure according to (2.2)
[d]
time frame
Haude factors fH for actual evaporation height in unit mm/(Pad)
April/May
June
July
August
September
Oct-March
average values
0.0029
0.0028
0.0026
0.0029
0.0023
0.0022
winter crops
0.0041
0.0043
0.0037
summer crops
0.0033
0.0057
0.0039
As previously mentioned, the definition of (constant) potential evaporation has only theoretical
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meaning as potential evaporation is related to the actual evaporation. The latter affects the
saturation deficit as well as the amount of available energy over the respective surface.
Therefore, the potential evaporation decreases with increasing actual evaporation until hE
equals hE,p. BOUCHET showed that:
h E , p + h E = 2h E , w = const
hE,p
hE
hE,w
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(3.16)
potential evaporation
evaporation height
evaporation from an open water surface.
Based on this, MORTON derived a new approach to determine actual evaporation. Under the
premise that radiation remains constant, this new concept termed complementary relation is
illustrated below (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4:
Given that no water for evaporation is available (arid conditions), hE,a = 0 and as a result
hE,p = 2hE,w. The increase in hE,a is proportional to the increase in water supply of the soil-plant
system and proportional to the decrease of hE,p. Ultimately, under the assumption of infinite
water availability, hE,a equals hE,p equals hE,w. The potential evaporation now amounts to exactly
50 % of the value under arid conditions.
HE,p and hE,w may be derived from climate observations (see above). The actual evaporation hE,a
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can be computed by applying equation (3.16) without considering the actual amount of
humidity in the soil-vegetation system.
for central Europe can be divided into its components hE,s : hE,i : hE,t
10 : 30 : 60 %
25 : 25 : 50 %
45 : 15 : 40 %.
Evaporation from an open water surface hE,w amounts to 800 - l000 mm/a, distributed into
74 % (summer half-year) and 26 % (winter half-year), respectively.
The mean annual evaporation height hE in Germany is 400 - 500 mm/a. It is distributed over
the year as follows:
winter half-year
17 %
summer half-year
83 %
November
1%
May
15 %
December
1%
June
21 %
January
1%
July
21 %
February
2%
August
15 %
March
4%
September
7%
April
8%
October
4%
Evaporation from snow blankets measuring roughly 0.5 mm/d may be neglected for water
management purposes.
The relation between potential areal evapotranspiration and evaporation from free-water
bodies due to location, soil type and vegetation in Central Europe on a daily basis is provided
by
h ET,p
h E,w
= 0.7 1.0
(3.17)
hET,p
[mm]
potential evaporation
hE,w
[mm]
evaporation from an open water surface
It may be as high as 1.5 in extreme cases(small areas and large crops).
Table 3.6 displays the mean annual actual and potential heights of evaporation obtained from
lysimeter measurements. These measurements are valid for Germany. Table 3.7 provides
hET,a/hP ratios for different surface types.
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Table 3.6:
Table 3.7:
Winter half-year
Summer half-year
Year
50-100
110-160
60
mm
350-400
440-540
90-140
mm
400-500
550-700
150-200
mm
0.3-0.6
0.6-0.9
0.3
mm/d
1.9-2.2
2.5-3.0
0.6-0.8
mm/d
Surface type
Bare soil
Corn fields
Root crops
Meadows
Forests
Free-water bodies
Humid soil
hET,a/hP in [%]
30
40
45
65
70
75
95
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Percolation, Infiltration
4.1 Definition
The infiltration of water into the ground via its surface is referred to as percolation,
infiltration or seepage. This process is regulated by the availability of water and the transport
properties of the soil profile. The process takes part mainly in the so-called aeration zone.
Infiltration divides precipitation into surface and subsurface water regime components and is
therefore of major importance. Due to the fact that all other storage and drainage processes are
subsequent to infiltration, correct modeling of percolation is an important prerequisite for all
procedures that arise from it. Infiltration reduces and retains the outflow of a watershed,
provides soil humidity necessary for plant growth and recharges the groundwater. The
infiltration rate iI is expressed in depth of water [mm] per unit time.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the distribution of precipitation with special emphasis on infiltration.
Figure 4.1:
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influenced by the physical characteristics of the soil. The factors of influence are described in
Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2:
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percentages Vol. - % .
The field capacity or specific retention FC is the volume of water retained against the force
of gravity in a soil sample without influence of evaporation. Considering that the magnitudes
estimated in this manner cannot be compared because of different locations, another term, the
so-called moisture equivalent ME is introduced. It is defined as the volume of suspended
water bound between 6 and 30 kPa under laboratory conditions. This corresponds to the
distinction between suspended and percolating water.
The point of permanent wilting PWP is defined as the minimum water content to sustain
plant life. Should the water content fall below this limit irreversible damage because of wilting
occurs. As too many responsible factors need to be taken into consideration, the equivalent
point of wilting eWP is introduced. It indicates the water content corresponding to a suction
head of 1,5 MPa.
The usable field capacity uFC is defined as the content of suspended water between field
capacity FC and point of permanent wilting PWP. The usable moisture equivalent uME is
defined as the water content between ME and eWP.
Table 4.1 presents a compilation of representative values related to water storage of different
soils.
In addition to the characteristic values discussed above describing the specific storage capacity
of soil, a new term is introduced. The hydraulic conductivity or permeability kf, in unit mm
water per unit time describes the ability of a soil sample to conduct water. It can be viewed as
the upper limit of infiltration rate iI. For more information relating to permeability, refer to
Chapter 5.
Table 4.1:
Soil type
Porosity n
[Vol.-%]
ME
[Vol.-%]
eWP
[Vol.-%]
0.063-2.0
--*
28-35
35-50
8-15
20-35
1-7
12-19
Silt
0.002-0.063
40-52
28-35
18-22
Clay
< 0.002
50-65
40-55
25-35
Sand
Loam
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Figure 4.3:
Hydrology I - 58
Water retention curves for different soil types (source: Dyck and Peschke,
1995)
It can be stated that fine-grain soils (such as clay) possess a significantly higher water-holding
capacity than coarse-grain soils (such as sand), but on the other hand higher capillary pressures
are needed to activate the water. This comes from the significantly larger water-soil surface
area of fine-grain soils which results in higher adsorbtive forces and also smaller pore
diameters. Small pores, however require much higher pressures to release the stored water.
Insofar, the water retention curve can also be regarded as pore size distribution. It provides the
numeric value of the suction head necessary to drain pores of different diameter.
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Figure 4.4:
Hydrology I - 59
The process of infiltration for soil with pure microstructure (source: Scheffer
1998)
The zone of saturation is a thin layer of saturated soil due to precipitation or submersion. As
this "wetting front" advances, the adjacent soil storage volume is transformed into the
transport zone. The progress of the water front in the vertical direction can mainly be
attributed to the suction head at the water front and the potential of gravity in the soil body.
The process discussed above is only valid for "ideal" soil bodies with uniform microstructure.
In fact, the process of infiltration is strongly influenced by the macro pore system. Macro
pores can be described as long, predominantly vertically oriented voids that may reach the
groundwater table. Macro pores are formed by roots of living or dead vegetation, subsurface
animal life (worms, mice etc.) as well as mechanical and thermal effects that may result in
shrinkage cracks.
Hydrology Part III introduces hydrological models that provide numerical approaches to
describe the infiltration process and the soil moisture regime.
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Figure 4.5:
Hydrology I - 60
Double-ring infiltrometer
Infiltration rate iI is determined by the velocity of the water level decline within the internal
ring. Water in the outer ring wets the area of observation and reduces errors in measurements
caused by lateral percolation.
Measuring soil humidity by means of "Time-Domain-Reflectometry" (TDR) makes use of
the fact that the combined soil-water-air dielectricity is governed by the dielectricity of water.
Measuring the transmission velocity of a sudden change of electric tension between two
parallel conductor rods recessed in the ground provides the dielectric constant. Based on this,
the volumetric moisture content in the soil body between the conductors may be estimated
(Figure 4.6).
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Figure 4.6:
Hydrology I - 61
Another typical device is the neutron probe (Figure 4.7). It provides a direct measurement of
the soil moisture content. The neutron probe operates as follows: A transmitter in the probe
emits neutrons. When the energy-laden neutrons encounter the hydrogen atom nuclei of soil
water they are slowed down and scattered. A fraction of the slower neutrons is detected by a
receiver and converted into electric pulses. The quantity of pulses is proportional to the
concentration of hydrogen atoms and consequently for the soil moisture content.
The soil moisture content may also be estimated using Tensiometers (Figure 4.8). In this
regard, soil moisture is calculated from the capillary potential measured at various depths.
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Figure 4.7:
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Another possibility to measure soil water content is the tensiometer (Figure 4.8). It consists of
a porous ceramic cell connected to a manometer. The cell and the free space to the manometer
are water-filled. The manometer is adjusted such that it shows 0 when the cell is located
exactly at the groundwater table. The drier the surrounding soil, the more water is withdrawn
from the tensiometer, the higher the negative pressure at the manometer.
Figure 4.8:
Tensiometer
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MACRO
large
small
MICRO
MICRO
107
107
Continents
106
106
104
104
River Basins,
Catchments
103
100
1
Topic
Choric
etc.
Regional
105
MESO
MESO
Area
[km2]
Global
Distance
[m]
Hydrological Geographical
MACRO
Atmospheric
102
10-1
Hydrotop,
Agricultural
Plot
10
1
1 m2
etc.
10-1
1 cm2
10-2
Considering natural drainage basins, the total percolation changes with changing seasons and
soil types. The mean values for percolation displayed in Table 4.3 are compared to
precipitation.
Table 4.3:
Sand
Humos soil
Loess
Summer
[%]
Annual mean
96
71
56
55
24
11
72
46
30
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Table 4.4 contains some infiltration ratios obtained from double-ring infiltrometer
measurements.
Table 4.4:
Infiltration class
1 very low
2 low
3 low / medium
4 medium
5 medium / high
6 high
7 very high
Infiltration intensity is
in unit mm/h
<1
1-5
5 - 20
20 - 63
63 - 127
127 - 254
> 254
Soil type
loam, clay
silt loam
sandy loam
loamy sand
fine-grained sand
coarse-grained sand
coarse-grained sand, gravel
Artificial surface water bodies may feature infiltration ratios between 20 mm/d
(Mittellandkanal) and 35 mm/d (Rhine-Herne-Canal), however 50 - 70 mm/d (Niddabarrage in
the Vogelsberg area, clefted basalt) are also possible.
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Groundwater
Figure 5.1:
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recharge, evaporation and artificial recharge or extraction. The capillary rise can be
approximated by:
hC =
hC
dP
30
dP
[mm]
[mm]
(5.1)
capillary rise
capillary diameter
In the vicinity of water bodies, interrelations between groundwater and surface water bodies
may occur. Aquifers close to the surface experience short-term variations caused by changes in
the weather. Furthermore, the characteristics of variation are dependent on the properties of
the aquifer itself. Especially porosity, pore distribution, depth, thickness, slope of the layer of
the aquifer and the overlaying aeration zone are of recognizable influence. The groundwater
level features an annual cycle dependent on climate, season, vegetation and the
responsible factors mentioned above. Replenishment takes place mainly in winter while
vegetation and evaporation in summer lead to extraction.
The groundwater hydrograph is obtained from the temporal succession of groundwater levels.
From (Figure 5.2), we see that the annual cycle of groundwater levels in deep aquifers is less
pronounced than in shallow aquifers, also, due to the prolonged percolation time, the cycle in
deep aquifers is shifted in time.
Figure 5.2:
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Figure 5.3:
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vd = k f I P
vd
kf
IP
(5.2)
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/m]
Darcy velocity
saturated hydraulic conductivity
groundwater level gradient between two piezometers
The minus sign in the equation indicates that for a negative gradient, the flow velocity is in the
direction of the gradient. The actual velocity of a water molecule is somewhat higher, as the
total volume of the flow occurs only through interconnected pore spaces, which represent only
a fraction of the cross sectional area. The so-called Seepage Velocity vS is principally used in
calculating the spreading of contamination, is always larger than vd and calculated by:
v
vS = d 100
ne
vS
vd
ne
(5.3)
[m/s]
seepage velocity
[m/s]
Darcy velocity
[Vol-%] effective porosity
In addition there exists yet another idea for the velocity, the so-called True path velocity vt. It
is calculated as a quotient of the length of a segment of a streamline and the time needed for
the groundwater to flow along this segment. It is again larger than the seepage velocity, as the
streamline a water molecule follows is not a straight line, but a winding path. It is very difficult
to directly measure the true path velocity.
Equation (5.2) only applies to the special case of a 1-dimensional flow under completely
saturated conditions. The general case of 3-dimensional flow in the saturated and unsaturated
state is described by the basic dynamic equation:
Vd = k f () grad( )
Vd
kf()
grad()
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/m]
[m]
(5.4)
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k f () = k f
n 0
kf()
kf
0
n
(5.5)
[m/s]
[m/s]
[Vol-%]
[Vol-%]
z
p
W
g
[m]
[m]
[Pa]
[kg/m3]
[m/s2]
(5.6)
total potential
geodetic height
pressure
density of water
gravitational acceleration = 9,81 m/s2
grad( ) =
,
,
(5.7)
The basic dynamic equation alone however produces no useful results, due to the strong time
and position dependent nature of potential and the saturation of subterranean water flows. One
must also additionally use the principle of mass conservation, through the Continuity
Equation. It states that in an examined soil element the difference between the flow into and
out of the element must equal the change in water storage within the element. This is of course
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div(Vd ) =
t 100
div(Vd)[m/s]
Vd
[m/s]
[Vol-%]
t
[s]
(5.8)
The negative sign indicates that the storage volume only increases if the gradient of the Darcy
velocity along the positive coordinate axis of the Cartesian coordinate system is negative. The
continuity conditions can be clearly seen by looking at an elemental volume (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4:
First we consider only the flow in the x-direction only. It is deemed to be:
Q x = vd,x A x = vd,x dy dz
Qx
vd,x
Ax
dy, dz
[m3/s]
[m/s]
[m2]
[m]
(5.9)
flow in x-direction
Darcy velocity in x-direction
area perpendicular to the x-direction
length of the elemental volume in y- and z-directions respectively
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If the Darcy velocity changes continuously within the element, the change in the entering and
exiting velocities is given by:
dvd,x =
dvd,x
vd,x
dx
vd,x
x
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m]
(5.10)
dx
change in the Darcy velocity in x-direction
Darcy velocity in x-direction
length of the elemental volume in x-direction
dQ x = dvd,x dy dz =
dQx
[m3/s]
vd,x
[m/s]
dx, dy, dz [m]
vd,x
x
dx dy dz
(5.11)
The difference between in and out flow over a known time period finally yields the change of
water storage in the element.
dVS,x = dQ x dt =
dVS,x
dQx
vd,x
dx, dy, dz
dt
[m3]
[m3/s]
[m/s]
[m]
[s]
vd,x
x
dx dy dz dt
(5.12)
This is of course not only the case for the x-direction. The storage changes in the y- and zdirections can be calculated in the same way, so giving the total change in storage in the
element by:
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[m3]
[m3]
vd,x,y,z
dx, dy, dz
dt
div(Vd)
VE
[m/s]
[m]
[s]
[m/s]
[m3]
(5.13)
The storage volume within the element is connected to the total volume of the element with the
water content:
VS =
VS
VE
VE
100
(5.14)
[m3]
storage volume within an element
[Vol-%] water content
[m3]
element volume.
This relationship can now be considered and inserted into equation (5.13), maintaining the
elemental volume to be constant:
VE
d
=div(Vd ) VE dt VE d = div(Vd ) VE dt d =div(Vd ) dt
100
100
100
(5.15)
Through further rearranging and the transition to incremental time steps, one finally obtains the
continuity equation.
Using the dynamic basic equation in the continuity equation one obtains the general differential
equations for groundwater flow.
The average permeability of the ground can be established using pump tests. The water level
is either raised or lowered artificially. The time needed for the water level to arrive at steady
state conditions can be used as a measure of the hydraulic permeability of the earth.
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Table 5.1:
Material
kf in m/s
Material
kf in m/s
Scree
Gravel (coarse)
Gravel (fine)
Sand (coarse)
Sand (fine)
Sand (loamy or silty)
1 to 5
10-2 to 1
10-3 to 10-2
10-4 to 10-3
10-5 to 10-4
10-6 to 10-5
Loess
Silt
Loam
Loam (silty)
Clay (lean)
Clay (rich)
10-7 to 10-6
10-9 to 10-7
10-9 to 10-8
10-10 to 10-9
10-12 to 10-10
The average Darcy velocity can also be found using tracers. The time the groundwater marked
by a tracer takes to move from the input gage to a receiver gage downstream is measured.
Measurements provide a curve of tracer-concentration versus time at the receiver gage.
GR
hP
hE
hQ
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
(5.16)
groundwater replenishment
height of precipitation
evaporation height
discharge height
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Table 5.2:
Surface type
Dense development
Bare soil
Sparsely overgrown
Arable land
Loose development
Meadows
Shrubs
Forest
Open-water surface
1)
2)
3)
Evaporation rate
mm/a
% of hP
133
265
345
431
464
497
564
597
713
01)
398
318
232
199
166
99
66
-3)
20
40
52
65
70
75
85
902)
108
01)
60
48
35
30
25
15
11
-3)
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Runoff
Figure 6.1:
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The surface runoff QO,s at a given cross-section of an open channel divided by its respective
catchment area AC represents the specific discharge.
q=
QO,s
(6.1)
AC
[m3/(skm2)] specific discharge
[m3/s]
surface runoff
2
[km ]
catchment area
q
QO,s
AC
The specific discharge of several river basins in Germany is stated in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1:
Type of catchment
Specific discharge
Ratio of
NNq to
HHq
NNq
HHq
0,002
0,004
0,002
0,35 0,6
1 : 150
1 : 90
Hilly region
0,0018
Plains
0,0015
0,0012
0,0015
0,18
0,23
0,12
0,18
0,06
0,12
0,035
0,06
Remarks
NNq: Lowest value ever recorded
[m3/s km2].
HHq: Highest value ever recorded
[m3/s km2].
1 : 75
1 : 50
1 : 35
The ratio of effective rainfall or direct runoff to the total height of precipitation is known as the
total runoff coefficient .
=
hP,e
hP
h P, e
(6.2)
hP
[mm]
[mm]
[-]
In contrast, the peak discharge coefficient P describes the ratio of peak discharge to
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maximum precipitation. From the consideration of flood hydrograph computation, it means the
ratio of precipitation of constant intensity and defined duration (block precipitation) hP,i to
the peak discharge HQ under inclusion of retention effects.
Hq =
Hq
HQ
AC
P =
P
Hq
iP
HQ
AC
(6.3)
(6.4)
3, 6
[-]
peak discharge coefficient
3
2
[m /(skm )] maximum specific discharge
[mm/h] precipitation intensity
6.2 Discharge
6.2.1 Interrelation between water level and discharge
It is necessary to determine the specific yield of surface water bodies at given cross-sections.
Therefore, the task is to determine the time-discharge relation Q(t) or discharge hydrograph.
Due to the impossibility of continuous discharge measurements, the time-discharge relation
Q(t) can be obtained from the water level hydrograph under the assumption that the water
level/ discharge relation is known. This relation of water level over discharge is termed
discharge curve W = f(Q). It is estimated by discharge gages at the respective discharge
cross-section. The measurements provide either coherent pairs of assigned values or a
functional connection. The fundamental assumption is a connection of water level and
discharge in the form of a potential function
Q = a Wb
Q
a,b
[m3/s]
[-]
(6.5)
stream flow
formula parameters
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[m]
Hydrology I - 78
waterlevel
Expressing equation (6.5) in logarithmic terms provides a linear relation of the type
[m3/s]
[-]
[m]
(6.6)
stream flow
formula parameters
waterlevel
Q = v AD
Q
v
AD
[m3/s]
[m/s]
[m2]
(6.7)
stream flow
flow velocity
discharge cross-section
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Figure 6.2:
Hydrology I - 79
Current meter
The measurement of discharge by tracer dilution is used when conditions are not favorable
for current meter measurement. In rock-strewn, shallow streams or rough channels carrying
highly turbulent flow, the dilution technique provides an effective method of flow
measurement. In this method, a tracer solution of known concentration, in known quantity, is
injected into the stream to be diluted by discharge of the stream. At a cross-section
downstream from the injection site, water is sampled to determine the concentration of the
tracer solution. Applying the principle of conservation of mass, the discharge is determined
directly.
Furthermore, discharge may be determined by container measurement or with the help of
weirs and notches. It is crucial to use weirs that allow the water to form a nappe and thus
enable free flow (Figure 6.3) where discharge is not dependent on the tailwater. The weirs may
be rectangular or triangle-shaped and constitute a cross-section of clearly defined discharge/
water level conditions. The relation of discharge to water stage and ultimately the dischargewater stage curve may be determined and calibrated in the form of a coefficient of discharge.
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Figure 6.3:
Hydrology I - 80
Weirs
Measurements through weirs are suitable for low discharges, wells and small streams
containing steep gradients. For the triangular or V-notch weir
5
Q = 2.363 T tan h W 2
Q
hW
[m3/s]
[m]
stream flow
water depth
[-]
(6.8)
[]
half opening angle
Container measurements are commonly taken only at wells or in small streams and provide a
direct measurement of discharge:
Q=
Q
VO
t
VO
t
[m3/s]
[m3]
[sec]
(6.9)
stream flow
discharge volume
time step
Electromagnetic or ultrasonic methods may be applied to determine the discharge of largediameter rivers or canals. The electromagnetic method is based on the theory of
electromagnetic induction. According to this, the flowing water on the river cuts the vertical
component of the earths magnetic field and an electromotive force (emf) is inducted in the
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water. This emf is sensed by an artificial magnetic field installed normal to the direction of flow
and is directly proportional to the velocity vm of flow. If the cross-section of the site AD is
known, discharge is:
Q = vm A D
Q
vm
AD
[m3/s]
[m/s]
[m2]
(6.10)
stream flow discharge
mean velocity
discharge cross-section
The ultrasonic method uses two transducers mounted on each river bank in an oblique
direction, as shown in Figure 6.4. Soundwaves travelling downstream (from A to B) have a
higher velocity than those travelling upstream (B to A) due to the stream velocity component
parallel to the acoustic path. Two receivers and a processor compute the average velocity
using the difference in up- and downstream travel time, the distance of the transducers and the
appropriate angle . Ultimately the discharge Q may be computed.
Figure 6.4:
Another possibility to measure discharge is the Venturi flume. Its artificial flow cross-section
constriction induces a flow transition from streaming to shooting (see Figure 6.5). In this case,
downstream conditions do not influence upstream conditions and discharge can be calculated
from the headwater depth and flume width.
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Q = C3 V g b (h W, h
Q
C3
V
g
b
hW,h
[m3/s]
[-]
[-]
[m/s2]
[m]
[m]
3
)2
Hydrology I - 82
(6.11)
stream flow
formula parameter 0.95 - 1
velocity factor for Venturi flumes 1 1.3
gravitational acceleration = 9,81 m/s2
width of the Venturi flume
headwater depth
Since the flume cross-section is not constricted by measuring devices, this methods lends itself
well for dirty waters.
Figure 6.5:
Venturi flume
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Recording gages (Figure 6.7) provide a continuous record of stage W(t) via sensors that
transmit the respective stage to a recorder and finally to a data storage device. There is a
variety of sensor types such as: floats, pressure transducers, bubble gages, capacitive probes,
ultrasonic gages and point gages. To record the measured water levels, drum charts (for
example with one-week-revolution), strip charts or digital tapes are used. Long-distance
remote transmission of stage data to the central control office constitutes an important
prerequisite for flood models. For control purposes, each recording gage site should be backed
up with a staff gage.
Figure 6.6:
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Figure 6.7:
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6.4.2 Hydrographs
The discharge hydrograph Q(t) presents all discharge data in the order of their temporal
appearance. Usually certain discrete values such as mean and extremes that derive from the
hydrograph are assessed. The long-term discharge hydrograph Q(t) describes the variation of
discharge and may be subdivided into low and mean discharge and floods (Figure 6.8).
Determination of appropriate limits may be based on various aspects such as statistics or
ecology. According to the respective assignment, the temporal variability of discharge has to
be taken into consideration. Discharge may feature long-term (several years), annual (annual
cycle) and short-term (daily or hourly) variations.
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Figure 6.8:
Hydrology I - 85
Continual integration of a hydrograph over a period of time provides the cumulative curve.
Usually the integration is started from an initial value S(t0) = 0.
t
S( t ) = Q (t) dt + S( t 0 )
(6.12)
t0
S(t)
Q(t)
t0
[m3]
summation hydrograph
3
[m /s]
flow hydrograph
[s,h,d,a] starting time
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cumulative decrease curve, while starting from the highest variate provides the cumulative
exceedence curve. The diagrams that relate to it are termed duration curves (Figure 6.9). They
provide information about the total duration of decrease or exceedence of a waterlevel- or
discharge -variate within a given observation time-span. The duration curve presents observed
or computed data according to their magnitude and therefore constitutes a hydrograph or time
series in magnitudal order. The duration and cumulative value remain constant. The discrete
duration values (exceedence or decrease variates) state how often a certain magnitude is
unexceeded, equaled or exceeded. To evaluate the exceedence or decrease variates, it is
important to know in which manner the class limits were started. Usually the following is
applied:
unexceedence variate Nu(x)
x is equaled or unexceeded
exceedence variate Ne(x)
x is only exceeded
class limits:
xk-1 < x <= xk
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The relation between variate of exceedence and unexceedence may be expressed as:
N e ( x ) = n N u (x )
Ne(x)
Nu(x)
n
[-]
[-]
[-]
(6.13)
Fe ( x ) = 1 Fu ( x )
Fe(x)
Fu(x)
Fe ( x ) =
[-]
[-]
N e (x)
n
(6.14)
relative number of exceedence
relative number of unexceedence
and
Fu ( x ) =
N u (x )
n
(6.15)
The duration curves applied in water resources management are usually based on daily
measurements within the hydrologic year, the summer or winter half-year. Figure 6.9 displays
the typical process of computation of a duration curve for the example of frequency curve and
duration curve from daily stage observations. The classes are formed as discussed above. As a
result, the lowest limit can only decrease the lowest variate of the time series and the
uppermost limit equals the highest variate of the time series. The class intervals xk are
extended for higher water levels to obtain at least one variate per class.
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Figure 6.9:
Hydrology I - 88
Mean duration curves (averaged over the ordinates) can be determined by computing the
mean of several annual duration curves. Thereby, the observed values of duration variate are
averaged. Note: Averaged duration curves are not genuine duration curves of the observation
interval.
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