The Cosmic Engine

8.5.1
- outline the historical developments of models of the Universe from the time of Aristotle to the
time of Newton
- identify data sources and gather process and analyse information to assess one of the models
of the Universe developed from the time of Aristotle to the time of Newton to identify limitations
placed on the development of the model !y technology availa!le at the time.
Aristotle "
He believes that the Earth was at the centre of the universe and that the Sun, the Moon and the visible planets, as
well as a celestial sphere containing all the stars revolved around the Earth. Aristotle had no technology with which
to examine the heaven, other than his eyes. To the unaided eye it loos as though everything is revolving around
the earth and it does not feel that the Earth is moving at all.
This type of model, with the Earth placed at the centre of the !niverse is nown as a geocentric model. Aristotle"s
model used a system of ## transparent concentric spheres rotating around the Earth to explain the observed motion
of the stars and planets.
Aristarchus "
He put forward an alternative view. He suggested that$
- the Sun is much bigger than the Earth
- the sun is at the centre of the !niverse and the Earth orbits it
- the Earth rotates on its axis once per day, producing the apparent motion of the Sun and stars.
A model such as this, with the Sun at the centre of the !niverse, is nown as a heliocentric model. This model was
however not favoured because it was not sufficiently detailed to allow predictions in the manner of Aristotles
#tolemy "
%tolemy was able to develop and refine the geocentric model of the universe by Aristotle into his own geocentric
model. The model he proposed was remarable in predicting the observed motions of the planets.
This model lasted for over &'(( years because$
&. )t wored, that is it could predict the position of a planet to within *+.
2. )t accounted for the observed planetary motions, retrograde motion and variations in brightness.
,. !nlie Aristarchus- model it did not predict the unobserved stellar parallax.
'. )t placed the Earth in its natural place at the centre of things, satisfying Aristotelian philosophy.
#. )t matched with common sense. .e do not feel the Earth move and %tolemy-s model had a static Earth.
Nicholas Copernicus "
He proposed that the sun was stationary and that everything else revolved around circles about it. /ue to fear of
the 0hurch, 0opernicus did not publish his findings until 1ust before he died2 also the belief laid out by the 0hurch
slowed the acceptance of his theories.
There were several advantages of 0opernicus- model over that of %tolemy$
&. )t could predict planetary positions to within *+, the same as that of %tolemy.
*. 3etrograde motion of planets was explained by the relative motion between them and the Earth.
,. /istances between planets and the Sun could be accurately determined in units of the Earth4Sun distance
5ie Astronomical !nits6.
'. 7rbital periods could be accurately determined.
#. )t explained the difference between the inferior planets 5Mercury and 8enus6 that were always observed
close to the Sun and the superior ones 5Mars, 9upiter and Saturn6.
:. )t preserved the concept of uniform circular motion
;. )t preserved Aristotle-s concept of real spheres nestled inside one another.
<. !nlie %tolemy-s model it did not re=uire the Moon to change in si>e.
0opernicus- model also had several problems which contributed to its failure to immediately supplant %tolemy-s
model$
&. ?o annual stellar parallax could be detected. 0opernicus explained this as due to the fact that the stars were
a vast distance hence any parallax would be very small and difficult to detect.
*. )t re=uired a moving Earth, This would contradict Aristotelian physics and 0opernicus presented no new laws
of motion to replace Aristotle.
,. @y removing the Earth from its natural place it was philosophically and theologically unacceptable to many
scholars.
'. )t was no more accurate than %tolemy-s in predicting planetary positions.
#. )t was actually more complicated then %tolemy-s model.
Tycho $rahe " %econd &ot #oint
Tycho @rahe studied and plotted the night sy with meticulous care and accuracy. This was an extraordinary
achievement because he had no telescope to help him. )nstead he designed and constructed his own astronomical
measuring instruments. He was able to mae measurements as accurate as (.# arc minutes 5,( arc seconds6. He
was also able to record two supernovae during his lifetime.
0opernicus- model was hotly disputed, notably by the best living astronomer, Tycho @rahe. @rahe"s own model of
the universe was a combination of the geocentric and heliocentric models. .hile Tycho acnowledged that
0opernicus had succeeded in removing e=uants, he proposed a system which ept 0opernicus- best results while
avoiding the serious difficulty of finding an explanation for a moving Earth.
His model had all of the planets 5except Earth6 revolving around the Sun, while the Sun revolved around a
stationary Earth. @rahe devised this model because he found it impossible to accept that the Earth moved. Again the
technology of the time failed to show any evidence of a moving Earth.
The evidence sought would have been a slight shift in the positions of some stars as the Earth orbited the Sun. this
affect is called paralla', and the largest parallax of any star is less than one second of an arc, or less than a
thirtieth of @rahe"s best measurements. @rahe had constructed the most sophisticated observatory of his day, and
yet he could detect no parallax effect. Therefore it is not surprising that he found it difficult to totally re1ect the
geocentric model.
)t cannot be overemphasi>ed that an explanation of a moving Earth was not scientifically possible, given the
dominant four4elements theory and the associated, loosely observation4based idea that anything made of the four
elements always fell toward the centre of the universe. There was simply no way, without invoing supernatural
help, to explain how it was that the Earth would not fall to the centre of a heliocentric universe. Thus the idea of a
stationary Earth was deemed to be reasonable.
(ohannes )epler "
Aepler was @rahe"s assistant. After much research and mathematical calculations using @rahe"s observations, Aepler
was able to produce an improved heliocentric model of the universe. His model said that the planets moved around
Sun, in ellipses rather than circles, and the mathematics of this was encapsulated in three laws$
)epler*s 1st +aw, The +aw of Ellipses,
All planets orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits with the Sun as one common focus.
)epler*s -nd +aw, The +aw of E.ual Areas,
The line between a planet and the Sun sweeps out e=ual
areas in e=ual periods of time.

This effect is very noticeable in comets such as 0omet
Halley that have highly elliptical orbits. .hen in the inner
Solar System, close to the Sun at perihelion, they move
much faster than when far from the Sun at aphelion.
)epler*s Third +aw, The +aw of #eriods or the
/armonic +aw,
The s=uare of a planet-s period, T, is directly proportional to the cube of its average distance from the Sun, r.
Mathematically this can be expressed as$
0
1
/ T
-
= 2
The implication of Aepler-s Third Baw is that planets more distant from the Sun tae longer to orbit the Sun.
Aepler-s laws of planetary motion were empirical, they could predict what would occur but could not account for
why planets behaved in such a manner.
3alileo 3alilei "
Calileo was the first person to build a telescope that was used to observe the night sy. .hen he did this he was
able to see hundreds of stars that were not visible to the naed eye because they were too faint. Even through a
telescope the stars still appeared as points of light. Calileo suggested that this was due to their immense distance
from Earth.
Calileo made many discoveries with his telescope, one of which was that he reali>ed that 9upiter had four observable
moons. He traced and plotted their rotations around the planet. The significant point, was that the moons were
orbiting 9upiter, not the Earth. This was proof that %tolemy"s complicated geocentric model was incorrect.
He published a letter in &:&, announcing his discovery of sunspots in which he also proclaimed his belief in the
0opernican model. Monitoring sunspots showed that the Sun rotated once every *; days and that the spots
themselves changed. The concept of a perfect, unchanging Sun thus also became untenable. His wor however
caused problems with the Holy )n=uisition and Calileo was placed under house arrest with minimal visitors allowed.
%ir 4saac Newton "
)n &:<', Edmond Halley proposed that the force that acted between the Sun and the planets, whatever its nature
5he didn"t now what the force was6, was inversely proportional to the s=uare of the distance of the planet.
This means that a planet that is twice the distance as another would experience 1ust D of the attractive
force.
5 1/d
-
?ewton used this idea, along with Aepler"s laws to deduce$
Newton*s +aw of Universal 3ravitation
?ewton could apply his law of universal gravitation to accurately predict the motions of planets, the orbits of comets
and even account for tides on Earth. His law can be mathematically expressed as follows$
5 m1 m- / r
-

where F is the force between any two ob1ects of masses m1 and m2 respectively and separated by a distance r.
As there are no other variables involved the e=uation becomes$
5 = G m1 m- / r
-
where C is a constant nown as the !niversal Cravitational 0onstant.
5C E :.:;, F &(
4&&
?m
*
g
4*
6
The law of !niversal Cravitation allowed for the derivation of Halley"s inverse s=uare relationship and also Aepler"s
laws, this provided an explanation as to why the planetary orbits are ellipses and not circles. )n addition, the
strength of the gravitational field at the surface of a planet can be deduced.
8.5.1
- 3ather secondary information to relate the !rightness of an o!6ect to its luminosity and distance
- %olve pro!lems to apply the inverse s.uare law of intensity of light to relate to the !rightness of
a star to its luminosity and distance from the o!server
- &escri!e a /ert7sprung80ussell diagram of a stars luminosity against its colour or surface
temperature
- #rocess and analyse information using the /ert7sprung80ussell diagram to e'amine the variety
of star groups including 9ain %e.uence red giants and white dwarfs.
+uminosity $rightness and &istance of a %tar "
+uminosity is the total energy radiated by an ob1ect per second. This can also be called power output and its S)
units are 1oules per second, or watts 5.6. The %un:s estimated luminosity is 1.81 ' 10
26
;. This value is
designated as +0 and is often used as a unit to express the luminosity of other stars.
The $rightness of a radiant ob1ect is the intensity of the light as seen some distance away from it. 4t is the
energy received per s.uare metre per second.
Stars vary in their effective temperature and colour. A hot star radiates more energy per second per metre surface
area than a cooler star.
The si7e of a star. )f two stars have the same effective temperature but differ in si>e then the larger star has a
greater surface area and as it radiates the same amount of energy per unit surface area per second as the smaller
star its total power output or luminosity must be greater.
The distance to the star. All the stars we see in the night sy are at vast distances from us but some are much
closer relatively than others. Gor two stars of identical si>e and temperature, the closer one to us will appear
brighter.
4ntervening matter. 0ontrary to common belief interstellar space is not a perfect vacuum. /ust and gas between
stars can absorb and scatter starlight leading to a reduction in brightness and a reddening in colour.
Stars vary enormously in luminosity, ranging from less than &(
4'
F that of our Sun to &(
:
F more luminous.
@rightness depends on $
&6 +uminosity
*6 &istance < ie. 1= distance s.uared>.
The inverse s.uare law "
The star gives off radiation in all directions, and the sum of all the radiation given off in one second is called the
luminosity. The radiation spreads out uniformly and penetrates the whole surface of the sphere. Therefore the
amount of radiant energy per s=uare metre per second received at the surface of the sphere 5the brightness6 is
given by$
The %un:s estimated luminosity is 1.81 ' 10
26
;
@rightness E Buminosity H Surface area of the sphere
Since the surface area of a sphere is 'Ir
2
Then !rightness ? luminosity = @Ar
2
This relationship describes how the brightness of a star, a distance r from the observer, depends upon the luminosity
and the distance. )n particular, notice that the brightness is inversely proportional to the s=uare of the distance. This
can be written as follows$
$rightness 1=r
2
This relationship means that if the distance, r, were to double, then the brightness would reduce to one4=uarter of
its previous value.
?ew @rightness &H 5*r)
2
&H 'r
2
&H ' x &Hr
2
E D of previous brightness
Note: 1 light year = 9.46 10
15
meters
The %un:s estimated luminosity is 1.81 ' 10
26
;
@rightness of a star relative to distance
How would the brightness of %rocyon change if its distance were three times its distance would be three times its
current valueJ
The simplest path to a solution would be the inverse s=uare law. So if the distance is multiplied by ,, the brightness
is divided by , s=uared.
The /ert7sprung80ussell &iagram "
A H43 /iagram is a graph of a star"s luminosity 5as the vertical axis6 plotted against its temperature or colour.
Astronomers use the historical concept of magnitude as a measure of a star-s luminosity. Absolute magnitude is
simply a measure of how bright a star would appear if &( parsecs 5one parsec is ,.' light years6 distant and thus
allows stars to be simply compared. Note, the lower or more negative the magnitude the !righter the star.
#ossi!le a'es for a /ert7sprung80ussell &iagram,
?ote how the temperature scale is
reversed on the hori7ontal a'is.
Also tae care if using magnitude to
wor upwards to negative values.
The effective temperature of a star
is plotted on the hori>ontal axis of an H4
3 diagram. NBTE, the temperature is
plotted in reverse order, with high
temperature 5around ,(,((( 4 '(,(((
A6 on the left and the cooler
temperature 5around *,#(( A6 on the
right.
The third possible scale for the
hori>ontal axis is a star-s spectral
class. @y splitting the light from a star
through a spectrograph its spectrum can
be recorded and analy>ed. Stars of
similar si>e, temperature, composition
and other properties have similar
spectra and are classified into the same
spectral class. The main spectral classes
for stars range from O 5the hottest6
through B, A, F, G, K and M 5coolest6.
7ur Sun is a G4class star. @y comparing
the spectra of an unnown star with
spectra of selected standard reference
stars a wealth of information, including
its colour or effective temperature can
be determined.
Most stars seem to fall into group A. )t shows a general trend from cool, dim stars in the lower right corner up to
hot, extremely bright stars in the top left corner which fits in with our expected relationship between temperature
and luminosity. This group is called the 9ain %e.uence so stars found on it are main se=uence stars.
Stars in group @ <0ed 3iants> are mostly :,((( A or cooler yet more luminous than main se=uence stars of the
same temperature. The reason is that these stars are much larger than main se=uence stars. Although they emit
the same amount of energy per s=uare metre as main se=uence stars they have much greater surface area 5area
radius
*
6 the total energy emitted is thus much greater. These stars are referred to as giants.
The stars in group 0 are even more luminous than the giants. These are the supergiants, the largest of stars with
extremely high luminosities.
The final group of interest are those stars in group /. Grom their position on the H43 diagram we see that they are
very hot yet very dim. Although they emit large amounts of energy per s=uare metre they have low luminosity
which implies that they must therefore be very small. Croup / stars are in fact nown as white dwarfs. .hite
dwarfs are much smaller than main se=uence stars and are roughly the si>e of Earth.
8.5.@
- /escribe sunspots as representing regions of strong magnetic activity and lower temperature
- )dentify data sources, gather and process information and use available evidence to assess the effects of
sunspot activity on the Earth"s power grid and satellite communications
%unspots "
A
B
C
D
Sunspots are dar sports seen on the surface of the Sun, varying in si>e between several hundred to several
thousand ilometers in diameter. Sunspots have been identified since Calileo first observed the Sun using a
telescope. They appear dar because they are about &#(( A cooler than their surroundings. The spots also
represent regions of intense magnetic activity.
)t is thought that sunspots are locations of disturbances in the magnetic field lines within the surface of the Sun,
where they have become sufficiently bucles to loop out and then bac into the surface. The intense field activity
within a sunspot prevents the convection of heat to the surface, thereby reducing its temperature. Sunspots usually
occur in pairs or groups, lasting for several days or wees.
All but the smallest spots have two regions2 a darer inner part called the umbra which is surrounded by a lighter
region, the penumbra. The reason that sunspots appear dar is due to the fact that they are cooler then the
surrounding photosphere of the Sun. The umbra is about ',((( A, the penumbra #,:(( A and the granulated
surface on the photosphere is at about :,((( A. )ntense magnetic fields of up to (.' tesla in the umbras are thought
to suppress the convection currents that bring up hot gases from deeper down within the Sun.
A sunspot is a dar part of the sun-s surface that is cooler than the surrounding area. )t turns out it is cooler
because of a strong magnetic field there that inhibits the transport of heat via convective motion in the sun. The
magnetic field is formed below the sun-s surface, and extends out into the sun-s corona.
7utside a sunspot, you have only gas pressure, which depends on the temperature. )n the sunspot you have both
gas pressure and magnetic field pressure combined. Since the pressure must be in balance, magnetic pressure
inside the sunspot allows the gas pressure 5and thus the temperature6 to remain lower than the areas outside of the
sunspot.
%unspot cycle "
The sunspot cycle is a cyclical pattern of increasing and decreasing number of sunspots. The solar cycle is an &&
year cyclical pattern of increasing and decreasing fre=uency of sunspots, flares, prominences and coronal mass
e1ections.
The period of pea activity is called the solar maximum, while the period of least activity is referred to as the solar
minimum. )t has been found that$
- At a solar maximum there is usually over &(( sunspots appearing simultaneously on the surface of the
Sun, while at solar minimum there may be none at all2
- 0ycle varies between ; and &, years
- An average cycle in not symmetrical, usually taes ' years from minimum to maximum, and ; years to
=uieten down to the next minimum.
K0MEL 0oronal mass e1ections 5which are part of Solar wind6 are release by solar flares 5sudden explosive burst of
radiation and matter near sunspots6. Thus sunspots are the point at which the solar winds are created and released,
this is due to the intense magnetic fields around a sunspot becoming wound up and twisted that they snap. This is
why they are common around sunspots.
%olar winds and the effects of sunspots on the Earth:s power grid and communications "
Solar winds are an outflow of low4density plasma from the corona of the sun. Solar winds tae approximately three
to four days to reach the Earth, although high speed gusts can reach us in two days. ?ear the Earth the solar wind
has a density of approximately five protons and five electrons per cubic centimetre and some helium and heavier
ions. Solar winds are a flow of highly ionised charges carrying the interplanetary magnetic fields with it. The
interplanetary magnetic field couples with the Earth"s magnetic field, allowing the solar wind to interact with the
Earth"s magnetic field. Most of the solar wind flows around and past the Earth, distorting the Earth"s magnetic field
to create a long tail. The region containing a planet"s magnetic field, distorted in this way, is nown as a
magnetosphere.
The ions of the solar wind can enter the magnetosphere in three ways$
- Through the cusps, holes in the magnetosphere, over the north and south poles
- Through the magnetotail and then bac up towards the Earth
- Through some leaage in the magnetosphere
.hen the ions are inside, they captured by the Earth"s magnetic field lines. They spiral from one pole to the other
and are then bounced bac. Electrical currents are then caused within the ionosphere and 8an Allen belts 5The 8an
Allen belts are two doughnuts4shaped >ones of radiation KionsL that wrap around the Earth6. These currents produce
their own magnetic field, and the magnetic field of the Earth is disrupted by this.
The magnetosphere offers some protection for our planet from direct exposure to the solar wind, however it is still
vulnerable to ma1or disruptions in the speed, density and temperature of solar wind 5nown as space weather6.
Turbulent solar winds buffet and irregularly distort the magnetosphere, and at the same time a greater than usual
number of charged particles find their way into the magnetosphere to irregularly charge the ionosphere and 8an
Allen belts.
The action of stormy space weather on the Earth and it"s magnetosphere produces a range of side effects, including$
- Abnormal heating of the atmosphere causing it to expand slightly and increase drag on low satellites
5which can result in premature decay of their orbits, causing them to re4enter the Earth"s atmosphere
and most probably burn up6. As well, extra solar energy can heat the Earth-s atmosphere more than
usual, expanding it, and causing extra drag on satellites, pulling them into a lower orbit. To maintain
orbit the satellite must expend valuable fuel to push it to a higher orbit though this is normally at the
expense of shortened mission life
- Electrical failure of communication satellites. Higher levels of radiation can charge up a satellite-s
electronics, causing them to fail, through discharge arcs or by building up on insulation. 0harged
particles can disrupt computer memories
- 0an send huge spies through power grids, resulting in their failure. 0hanges in the magnetic fields
around a conducting networ such as a power grid, phone lines or even train tracs will induce surges of
current in the conductors, up to hundreds of amperes in magnitude. This can cause vulnerable
components, such as transformers, to fail.
- Gluctuations in the 8an Allen belts and the ionosphere resulting in disruptions to normal communication.
The solar wind disrupts radio communications through the way it changes the ionosphere, an
electrically4charged layer of the upper atmosphere, &((4#(( m in altitude. Gor some applications 5e.g.
over4the4hori>on radar6, the ionosphere is used as a mirror. )f it is disrupted by -space weather-, it
distorts the reflected signal. The disrupted ionosphere can also affects signals to and from satellites$
C%S navigation signals can lose accuracy or even drop out altogether.